Chemistry Revision

Hazard Symbols States of Matter

As heat is added to a solid the particles vigorously. Eventually when it reaches its enough energy to break their bonds and melt is taken away so the particles vibrate less

start to vibrate more and more melting point the particles have into a liquid. As it is cooled energy and if a liquid or gas the bonds

become stronger and so it freezes or condenses. In the case of a solid it becomes less flexible. Particles in a solid vibrate around their equilibrium but dont move and keep a rigid shape with their bonds intact. Liquid particles are similar but have more energy so vibrate faster and have more fluidity. Gas particles have no bonds and move around very quickly Structure of an atom Particle Proton Neutron Electron Where? Nucleus Nucleus Energy Levels Mass 1 1 1/1840 Charge 1+ 0 1-

Atomic/Proton Number Number of protons (small number) Mass Number Sum of protons and neutrons Mass Num Atomic Num = Number of neutrons Number of protons = number of electrons

ELECTRONS Held on energy levels First level can only hold 2 electrons After the first the rest of the energy levels can hold 8 Electrons heavily influence the chemical properties of an element Electrolytes are substances that conduct electricity when molten or in solution (ionic) ISOTOPES An atom with the same number of protons but a different of neutrons Relative Isotopic Masses E.g 75% of Cl is 35 type. 25% is Cl 37 (0.75x35) + (0.25x37) = 35.5

IONS An element that has gained or loss electrons to complete its outer shell N.B Elements are arranged in order of Atomic Mass (Number of protons)

Reactivity Series

Mnemonic: KNCMACZFSPHCAAP Kangaroos Never Call Me A Cowardly Zebra For Several Plausible Honest Causes As Accurately Portrayed

TESTS Gas Tests: Hydrogen Lit splint gives a squeaky pop Carbon Dioxide Turns Limewater cloudy Oxygen Re-lights a glowing splint Ammonia Turns red litmus blue (Smells distinctively) Chlorine Green gas bleaches blue damp litmus Water: Anhydrous copper sulphate goes from white to blue Cobalt Chloride goes from pink to blue Flame (Cations) Tests: Sodium Golden Yellow Lithium Crimson Red Calcium Brick Red

Potassium Lilac

Sodium Hydroxide (Cations) Test: Aluminium White CLEAR IN EXCESS Copper Blue Iron (II) Green Iron (III) Rusty Reddish Brown Magnesium White Calcium - White Silver Nitrate: Chloride White Bromide Cream Iodide Yellow

PRECIPITATES

Barium Chloride: Sulphate White Hydrochloric Acid: Carbonate Effervescing that releases a gas that turns limewater cloudy

Acids and Bases

Indicators Methyl Orange Litmus Phenolphthalein Universal Indicator Reactions of Acids Acids can be described as substances that donate protons (H) when dissolved in water Hydrochloric Acid Chloride Sulphuric Acid Sulphate Nitric Acid Nitrate Phosphoric Acid Phosphate Acid + Metal = Salt + Hydrogen Acid + Base = Salt + Water Acid + Carbonate = Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide Strength of Acids A strong acid totally dissociates to form H+ ions e.g HCL H+ ClpH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Alkalis Alkalis are substances that contain OH ions Common bases are Hydroxides, Oxides and Ammonium

Neutralisation Equation:
Making Salts

H+ + OH- = HO

Soluble Bases: If the base dissolves in water, you need to add just enough acid to make a neutral solution (check with indicator) then evaporate the water. You get larger crystals if you evaporate more slowly. Insoluble Bases: Copper Oxides and other transition metals, oxides or hydroxides are insoluble. In this case you need to filter the mixture to remove the excess base then evaporate the water in the filtrate to leave the salt. Making an Insoluble Salt: Silver Chloride is insoluble. We need a soluble silver salt and a soluble chloride salt to make it. Silver Nitrate and Sodium Chloride are both soluble. When we mix their solutions together, we make a precipitate, which can be filtered, then washed, and then dried in an oven. N.B Sodium, Potassium and Ammonium Salts are all soluble All chlorides are soluble EXCEPT Silver Chloride Most Carbonates and Hydroxides and Oxides are insoluble except from Na, K and NH

Titrations Titrations 1. Equipment set up as so. 2. 25cm of one solution is added to the conical flask using a pipette and safety pipette filler. 3. Indicator (phenolphthalein) is added 4. The starting volume in the burette is noted and read from the bottom of the meniscus. Turn the tap and release the acid/base into the conical flask, quickly at first but then drop by drop to get an exact volume 5. Read off the end value then calculate the difference. 6. Repeat until you get two values

Bonding There are 3 types of bonding: ionic, covalent and metallic. Ionic An ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction that occurs between two ions. Its strength depends on the charges on ions High melting and boiling points Soluble in water Conduct electricity when in solution or molten Between a metal and non-metal

Covalent A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons between the nuclei of two atoms. Strength depends on how many shared pairs of electrons Have strong bonds between atoms but have weak intermolecular forces. Often found as diatomic molecules Insoluble in water Do not conduct electricity Between two non-metals

Metallic The electrostatic force of attraction between the lattice of ions and delocalised sea of electrons. Regular arrangement (lattice) of ions Surrounded by a delocalised sea of electrons. Conduct electricity and heat because of mobile electrons Malleable because layers of ions can slide over each other Between 2 or more metals Strength depends on the metal ion and the amount of electrons in the delocalised sea.

Rates of Reaction Rate of reaction is affected by 4 main factors: Temperature Concentration Catalyst Surface Area

Temperature: by increasing this you give the particles more KINETIC ENERGY and a higher percentage have the ACTIVATION ENERGY thus collisions are occurring more frequently and so rate is faster. Concentration: increases the number of particles PER UNIT VOLUME and so increases the number of collisions per second. Catalyst: provides and ALTERNATIVE PATHWAY WITH LOWER ACTIVATION ENERGY and is not used up during the reaction creating more successful collisions per second.
Surface Area: provides more particles available for collisions.

Electronic Configuration The number of outer electrons on the outer energy level is determined by what group the element is in and therefore what its ion is. E.g Na = Na Mg = Mg The number of energy levels is determined by what period E.g Mg is in period 3 and its electronic configuration is 2.8.2

Group I and II Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals) Group I: Reactivity increases down the table All highly reactive High melting points Soft and malleable Silvery coloured All have flame tests Strong reducing agents Aqueous solutions are strongly alkaline Produce white hydroxide Group II Reactivity increases down the table Reactive but not as reactive as Group I Silvery Coloured Harder and Denser Higher Melting Points Flame Tests Weak alkaline solutions Halogens Group 7 elements STATE COLOUR TEST CHLORINE Gas Pale Green Bleaches litmus blue BROMINE Liquid Brown damp Decolourised an alkene IODINE Solid Grey/Black by Turns starch solution blue/black

Ions All react with Silver Nitrate to form insoluble precipitates Chloride - White Bromide - Cream Iodide Yellow All form 1 ions Reactivity Reactivity of Group 7 elements increases as you go up the group:

The further up the group the less energy levels and so it is easier to draw the extra electron that is required in. Despite extra protons on elements lower down the group the further you go from the nucleus with more energy levels it becomes harder to attract and extra electron.

Reactions of Halogens Displacement Due to it forming a reactivity series different Halogens will displace each other just as metals do:
For Example MOST REACTIVE

Chlorine will displace Bromine Bromine will displace

LEAST REACTIVE

Iodine explosively Hydrogen Chloride (GAS) when

Chlorine Hydrogen and Chlorine react exposed to UV light: Hydrogen + Chlorine

Oxidisation and Reduction Reactions

Oxidisation Is the Loss of Electrons Reduction Is the Gain of Electrons

Moles Calculations RMM Add up the mass numbers: e.g. CO = (1x12) + (2x16) = 44 1 MOLE = 6.02 x 10 (Avogadros Constant)

Moles = Mass / RMM Moles = Concentration x Volume / 1000 Moles = Volume / 24 - dm

With calculations follow the three steps: 1. Figure out the moles 2. Determine the ratio between compounds and alter accordingly 3. Use this to figure out desired value Empirical Formula Calculations There are 4 steps to figuring out the empirical formula of any compound when you are given the masses or percentage of the different elements within it: 1. Lay out calculation correctly. Arrange the elements into columns and put the information you have been given underneath each element. 2. Divide by Relative Atomic Mass 3. Look at these numbers and divide by the smallest 4. Multiply until you get whole numbers Converting Empirical into Molecular Formulas Take the RMM of a compound e.g 60 Then figure out the RMM of the empirical formula you have e.g 30 60/30 = 2 So you then multiply the empirical formula you have by this number (in this case 2) and you have the molecular formula.

Giant Covalent Compounds

Melting and Boiling Points Giant molecular substances have many strong covalent bonds holding them together; these require a large amount of energy to break so they have very high melting and boiling points. Conduction of Electricity Graphite and allotrope of Carbon is the exception as it can conduct electricity to its structure having a free electron. Hardness In a giant covalent compound the forces holding particles together are covalent bonds in a 3D structure. It requires much more energy to break these so the compounds are very hard. CARBON It has many different structures that form allotropes: Graphite Diamond Bonds Connecti ng Structure Strength of Forces Conducts Electricity? Uses

Graphite Diamond

Giant Covalent Giant Covalent

Carbons 3 4

Hexagon al Tetrahedr al

Weak Between Layers Very Strong

(Why) Yes One free Lubrica electron nt No Tips of Drills

Energy Level Changes

EXOTHERMIC Reactions where the products have less heat than the reactants (Energy is given out)

ENDOTHERMIC Reactions where the products have more energy than the reactions (Energy is taken in)

H=

Change in

Heat Energy

Exothermic = + Endothermic = Unit = kJ/mol-1

E.g

C2H4

3O2

2CO2 + 2H2O
(3*497)

612 + (4*435) + (2*803) + (4*464)

1. 3843 2. 5068 3. 3843 5068 =

-1225 kJ/mol EXOTHERMIC

ORGANIC Crude Oil is crust Formed from that have years in a Heat and fossil fuels.

CHEMISTRY obtained from the earths

the remains of organisms decomposed over millions of deoxygenated environment. pressure on the remains form of HYDROCARBONS, which and Carbon. These can be FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION: heated and passed into a column or tower rise to the top and the large bottom fractions are collected at GROUP POINTS OF COMPOUNDS

Crude Oil is a mixture consist of Hydrogen separated by Crude Oil is fractionating Small molecules ones stay at the Different different heights A FRACTION IS A WITH SIMILAR BOILING As you go down the The molecules

column: get bigger (More Carbons)

Fractions become more viscous (Stronger intermolecular forces holding the compounds together) Fractions have higher melting and boiling points

Combustion Combustion is the burning of a fuel in Oxygen to produce Water Vapour and Carbon Dioxide:

The only exception is Hydrogen gas, which burns to give just water vapour:

2H2 + O2 => 2H2O

If the supply of Oxygen is limited than INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION occurs. This is when Carbon Monoxide is produced rather than Carbon Dioxide. CO is dangerous because when it is inhaled it combines with the haemoglobin in the blood to form carboxyhemoglobin, which reduces the bloods ability to carry Oxygen and is therefore poisonous.

Incomplete combustion can be seen when you close the air hole on a Bunsen burner. The yellow colour is caused by soot being formed by excess Carbon from the incomplete combustion. Complete combustion is much cleaner and blue. Naming Organic Molecules First part tells you how many carbons the molecule has: Meth 1 Eth 2 Pro 3 But 4 Pent - 5 Hex 6 Hept 7 Oct 8 Non 9 Dec - 10

The second part tells you what type of molecule you have: Alkane ANE Alkene ENE Alcohol ANOL Carboxylic Acid ANOIC ACID

Alkanes A homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons contain only hydrogen and carbon bonded together by single covalent bonds. General Formula: CnH(2n+2) E.g. CH4 , C2H6 Each carbon has 4 bonds arranged tetrahedrally. Obtained industrially from Fractional Distillation.

A HOMOLOGOUS SERIES IS A GROUP OF CHEMICALS WITH SIMILAR CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, A GENERAL FORMULA AND A GRADUATION IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.

ISOMERS Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula. E.g.

C4H10
Methyl Propane

Butane

C5H12

Isomers have different properties because they have different structures. E.g, Boiling Point Pentane has the highest boiling point because of its regular shape (regular arrangement = strong forces of attraction) and this allows a bigger surface area for intermolecular forces to work over and so requires more energy to overcome. Methyl Butane and Dimethyl Propane have less regular shapes , weaker intermolecular forces and therefore a lower boiling point. Alkanes + Halogens Alkanes react with chlorine or bromine. The reaction depends on sunlight to break the halogen bonds. Methane and Chlorine react explosively and reaction speed decreases as you go down.

Cracking

Long chain alkanes can be broken down into smaller more useful alkanes and alkenes. Alkenes are extremely useful because they are more reactive than alkanes and can be used to make plastics. This is Thermal Decompostion. Cracking Conditions: 500C Catalyst: Aluminium Oxide Dodecane Decane + Ethene

Alkenes Alkenes are a homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one Carbon-Carbon double bond in the structure. General Formula: CnH2n The first member of the series is Ethene

Reaction with Halogens Reaction Conditions: Room Temperature and pressure Test for a C=C (Alkene) Turns Bromine water from Orange to Colourless

Reaction with Hydrogen Conditions 180C Catalyst: finely divided Nickel Used in the production of margarine. The long chain fatty acid residues in cooking oils are unsaturated, saturation converts oil into a solid, which can be used as margarine.

Polymerisation Polymers can be made using several different methods. The first is ADDITION POLYMERISATION. Alkenes are added together to form one big molecule. In this process the single units are called MONOMERS, they link together to form a POLYMER.

Poly(ethene) A typical chain may be between 50 500 units long Used for plastic bags and packing crates High temperature and Pressure Ziegler Natta Catalyst

Poly(chloroethene) PVC is used for pipes, plumbing, floor tiles, insulator for electrical wiring

Poly(tetrafluoroethene) PTFE withstands temperatures up to 250C Forms slippery surface Used for non-stick frying pans

Poly(propene) Tough and durable so used for ropes and packaging

Alcohols Alcohols are alkanes with the additional functional OH group: Methanol Ethanol

Propan-1-ol

Propan-2-ol

Formation of Ethanol There are 2 processes in which Ethanol is formed: Continuous Process Ethene + Steam Ethanol

Ethene and steam are passed into a convertor whilst the Ethanol is removed. Catalyst: PHOSPHORIC ACID Temperature: 300C Pressure: 60-70atm Advantages: A pure product is obtained, fast rate of reaction Disadvantages: Relies on Ethene which has to obtained from Crude Oil making it expensive Batch Process Glucose Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide

Made in batches from the ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION of yeast fermenting the glucose to form ethanol and carbon dioxide. Advantages: relies on a renewable resource, can be carried out at low temperature (37C) Disadvantages: Product is impure, process is very slow, one problem could ruin a whole batch

Dehydration of Ethanol Can be dehydrated back to Ethene and Water by using Aluminium Oxide as a catalyst. (Sulphuric Acid could also be used, as it is a dehydrating agent)

Combustion of Ethanol Alcohols combust similar to alkanes but Ethanol is seen as a greener alternative as the volume of CO2 to energy is better.

Oxidisation of Ethanol Ethanol oxidises to Ethanoic Acid in the presence of an oxidising agent and an acid: Acidified Potassium Dichromate. Ethanoic Acid is commonly known as vinegar, this helps to explain why wine will go sour and taste of vinegar if left out overnight.

CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION Linking molecules through condensation reactions can form polymers. This is where small molecules such as water or HCl are eliminated. Examples of this are Nylon and Terrylene. Nylon is made of two monomers: 1,6 diamineohexane (Amine) Hexandoic Acid (Carboxylic Acid) Water is condensed out and AMIDE linkage is created.

DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM Occurs in a closed system when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the backward reaction, the concentration of the reactants are constant. E.g.

Changes in Temperature As the forward reaction is exothermic increasing the temperature will cause the system to favour the backwards, endothermic reaction and so the concentration of the reactants will increase. If the temperature is decreased the forward exothermic reaction will be favoured and the amount of products will increase. Changes in Pressure If you increase the pressure on a system it will respond by reducing the pressure by favouring the side with the least number of gaseous moles. So in this case an increase in pressure would increase the amount of product. Changes in Concentration If you increase the concentrations of the reactants more product will be made to counteract the change. The reverse is also true. If you decrease the concentration of reactants, products are returned to reactants and the concentration of the product decreases. Catalyst Catalysts have NO EFFECT on equilibrium because they provide an alternative pathway with lower activation energy for BOTH the forward and backward reaction. This means the rate of reaction will be increased but in the same proportion so equilibrium is not affected.

NITROGEN Inert Diatomic Molecule (N2) Makes up 78% of air Used inside food packaging Obtained from air by fractional distillation Found in Nitrates (Salts) and Amines (Proteins)

The triple bond makes the molecule extremely stable and unreactive.

Ammonia

Formula NH3 Colourless Gas Less Dense than air Distinctive (fishy) smell Dissolves in water to form a BASIC SOLUTION (NH 4OH) Test for ammonia is that it turns red litmus blue

Making Ammonia: Heating Ammonium Chloride with an alkali such as Calcium Hydroxide can create small quantities of Ammonia gas. The gas can be dried by passing through a drying tower containing Calcium Oxide. Chemical Properties of Ammonia: It is highly soluble in water and will form AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE Ammonia Tests Aluminium White NOT CLEAR IN EXCESS Copper Blue Iron (II) Green Iron (III) Rusty Reddish Brown Magnesium White Calcium None THE HABER PROCESS

Temperature = 450C Pressure = 200 atm Catalyst = Iron (fine mesh or gauze) Raw Materials: o Air (Nitrogen) o Natural Gas + Water (Hydrogen)

H2O(g) + CH4 -> 3H2(g)

CO(g) +

Explaining Industrial Conditions Temperature: By increasing the temp you increase the rate of reaction but due to the forward reaction being Exothermic, 450C produces a reasonable yield at a reasonable rate. Pressure: Higher pressure of 200 atm causes molecules to be closer together and collide more frequently. Also the increase causes the equilibrium to shift to the side of least gaseous moles, which is the right side and thus more Ammonia is produced. However to higher pressure is dangerous and very expensive so and economic compromise is made. Catalyst: Speeds up the rate of reaction but does not affect the yield. The surface area of the solid catalyst is maximised.

Uses

of Ammonia Dyes Explosives Fertilisers

Diagram

Approximately 15% Ammonia is produced. The mixture of Hydrogen and Nitrogen and Ammonia is cooled. Ammonia condenses and is removed whilst the unreacted Nitrogen and Hydrogen are recycled.

SULPHUR There are two allotropes of Sulphur: Both easily interconvertable. Sulphur is mined near Volcanoes or extracted from Crude Oil. Sulphur Dioxide is a poisonous gas, which dissolves in water to from acidic solutions.

MAKING SULPHURIC ACID

Raw Materials: WATER, AIR, SULPHUR STAGE 1: Sulphur and Air are burnt to form Sulphur Dioxide

STAGE 2: THE CONTACT PROCESS Sulphur Dioxide and more Oxygen are added together to form Sulphur Trioxide Conditions Temperature = 450C Pressure = 2 atm Catalyst = Vanadium (V) Oxide

STAGE 3: Sulphur Trioxide is dissolved in more Sulphuric Acid to form OLEUM. Water is then added to dilute it back to Sulphuric Acid. SO 3 is not added directly to water as because the reaction is violent, exothermic and uncontrollable. Uses of Sulphuric Acid Paints, Dyes and Fertilisers

Explaining Industrial Conditions Temperature is a compromise between a good rate and yield. A higher pressure would favour both the equilibrium and rate but with conversion already at 99.5% at 2 atm it would be an unnecessary expense. Catalyst increases the rate of reaction

Sulphur and Air are combined to form Sulphur Dioxide

Extraction of Metals Metals are often found in metal ores (rock where metal content is

economical to extract). Extraction is dependent on their position in the reactivity series. If they are low they are found as pure metals e.g. Gold, in the middle like Iron they have to be reduced using CO of CO 2. Metals that are high like Aluminium can only be reduced using electrolysis. Metal Aluminium Copper Iron Sodium Zinc Ore Formula Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O Oxidation Is the Loss of electrons Copper Pyrites CuFeS2 Reduction Is the Gain of electrons Haematite Fe2O3 Rock Salt NaCl Zinc Blende ZnS

Extraction of Iron: Iron is extracted using a blast furnace. Raw Materials: Limestone, Coke, Air and Haematite (Iron Ore) The mixture is poured into the top of the blast furnace and hot air is blown in from the bottom. As the air rises it reacts with the coke to form CO 2, which then reacts with more coke to form CO. CO 2 is also made by the thermal decomposition of limestone (CaCO3) Formation of CO: C + O2 => CO2 (ALL THE HEAT FOR THE PROCESS COMES FROM THIS REACTION) CaCO3 => CaO + CO2 CO2 + C => 2CO Reducing the Iron Oxide: The CO can then react with the Fe 2O3 to produce molten Iron and CO2. The CO2 can be used to make fizzy drinks. The Calcium Oxide reacts with impurities in the ore such as Silicon Dioxide and forms Calcium Silicate (SLAG). This sits on top of the molten Iron because it is made of less dense elements and is used for road building. Fe2O3 + 3CO => 2Fe + 3CO2 Reduction of Iron Oxide CaO + SiO2 => CaSiO3 Formation of Slag

Steel: The Iron made is brittle due to the remaining Carbon and had limited use. It is called pig or cast Iron. The majority of Iron is turned into Steel by alloying with other metals such as Manganese and Tungsten. The carbon is removed by blowing oxygen through the hot liquid. By mixing with other metals the layers of lattice ions cannot slide over each other.

Rust: Rusting occurs when BOTH OXYGEN and WATER are present. The Iron decays to form a mixture of Iron Oxides and Hydroxides. Because Iron is an important metal it is important that it is protected. Protection of Metals Barrier Method: This occurs in many forms e.g. painting which stops Oxygen and moisture getting to the Iron. Car engines are coated in oil as this also protects the moving parts whilst acting as a lubricant. Sacrificial: A more reactive is used to protect the Iron as it will react first and thus protect the Iron. E.g. Magnesium blocks in a ships hull. Galvanising: A specific protection where ZINC is used as a sacrificial metal. Extraction of Zinc: Zinc is extracted in a similar way to Iron. First the ore is purified then crushed and fed into tanks of water. The rock particles sink to the bottom however the Zinc Sulphide sits on top. This is then heated with Oxygen producing Zinc Oxide and Sulphur Dioxide. The remaining Zinc Oxide can then be reduced by Carbon Monoxide producing Zinc Vapour and Carbon Dioxide. It is then cooled and condensed. Zinc is used in galvanising Iron, alloys such as Brass and as electrodes in Car batteries. 2ZnS + 3O2 => 2ZnO + 2SO2 ZnO + CO => Zn + CO2 N.B The extraction of Zinc does not need limestone because the zinc boils at a low enough temperature to leave the silicon dioxide behind. ELECTROLYSIS Electrolysis is the splitting up of compounds using electricity. Ions (in solution or liquid state) move between charged rods / electrodes.
The positive electrode is called the anode. Anions are attracted. Electrons are lost = Oxidation The negative electrode is called the cathode. Cations are attracted Electrons are gained = Reduction

Electrolytes For electrolysis you need: 1. Charged particles (ions) 2. That are free to move An electrolyte is a substance that can conduct electricity in a liquid or molten state and so it is either a solution or ionic substance heated into a liquid. Covalent substances dont have charges so cannot conduct electricity. Galvanising This can be done as electroplating as you are covering a metal object with another metal for protection. 1. The metal object that needs to be plated is made the cathode.

2. The anode is made of the metal that is plating the cathode 3. The electrolyte must be a soluble salt of the metal that is being plated on the cathode. Soluble Salts include Nitrates, Potassium etc. Purification of Copper Copper is purified by electrolysis. The impure Copper is made the anode and placed in a solution of Copper Sulphate. As electrolysis occurs, the impure Copper is oxidised and Copper ions go into the solution. The Sulphur and Carbon impurities do not form ions and so are left behind, forming sludge at the bottom of the tank. The Copper ions are attracted to the cathode and as only copper ions are present, pure Copper is formed. Electrolysis of Water The electrolysis of water is a process, which splits water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen gas. The electric current disassociates the water to H+ and OH- ions.
Cathode Hydrogen Anode - Oxygen Cathode: Reduction 2H+ + 2e- => 2H2 Anode: Oxidation of Hydroxide Ions 2OH- => O2 + 2H+ + 4eOverall Reaction: 2H2O => 2H2 + O2

The number of Hydrogen molecules is twice the amount of Oxygen molecules. So the Hydrogen gas had twice the quantity of moles and twice the volume as oxygen. ALUMINIUM PRODUCTION The purified Bauxite Ore of Aluminium Oxide is DISSOLVED in CRYOLITE. This mixture has a LOWER BOILING POINT than Aluminium Oxide At the Cathode (-), positive Al 3+ ions became Al and sinks to the bottom of the tank. At the Anode (+), negative O 2- ions become O2 gas. At the high temperature of the electrolysis cell oxygen burns and oxidises away the carbon electrodes to form toxic carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide. So the electrode is regularly replaced and the waste gases dealt with. It is a costly process (x6 more than Fe) due to large quantities of expensive electrical energy needed for the process. Using Aluminium: Overhead cables, alloys, structural material. Unusual properties: low density, high electrical conductivity, conducts heat effectively, resistant coating of Aluminium Oxide, highly reactive as a pure metal

Equations Cathode: Al 3+ + 3e- => Al

Anode: 2O 2- => O2 + 4eReaction with electrode: C + O2 => CO2 Overall Equation: 2Al2O3 => 4Al + 3O2 Half Equations At each electrode equations must be written to demonstrate what is happening. Copper Chloride Lead Bromide: Calcium Oxide 2+ R: Cu + 2e=> R: Pb2+ + 2e- => Pb R: Ca2+ + 2e- => Ca Cu O: 2Br- => Br2 + 2eO: 2O2- => O2 + 4e- O: 2Cl- => Cl + PbBr2 => Pb + Br2 2 2eCuCl2 => Cu + Sodium Chloride: Cl2 Sodium Chloride + Water => Sodium Hydroxide + Hydrogen + Chlorine 2NaCl + 2H2O => 2NaOH + H2 + Cl2 H2 formed at the cathode is used to make saturated fats Cl2 formed at the anode is used to make bleach NaOH is left in solution and used to make bleach Cathode: 2H+ + 2e- => H2 Reduction Anode: 2Cl- => Cl2 + 2e- Oxidation Electrolysis Calculations To calculate how much solid could be made in electrolysis or how much electricity we need to use including time. 1. Quantity of Electricity = Current x Time a. Q = It Q = Coulombs I = Amps t = Seconds 2. To be able to write electrolysis equations to show how many moles of electrons to react with each ion 3. 1 MOLE OF ELECTRONS = 96500 COULOMBS = 1 FARADAY Calculate the number of Coulombs that would be needed to deposit 127g of Cu metal during the purification of Copper. Cu2+ + 2e- => Cu 2 moles of electrons are needed to deposit 1 mole of Cu Moles = Mass/RMM = 127/63.5 = 2moles So if 2 moles of electrons are needed for each mole of Cu and we need 2 moles of Cu then 4 moles of electrons are needed. 1 mole of electrons = 96500 Coulombs 4 x 96500 = 386000 Coulombs