RES - Task2 - Erasmus 2012 2013 PDF

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
Task 2: Technical approach

AUTHORS:
COURSE LEADERS:
PROF. SAO MEDVED ASSIST. PROF. CIRIL ARKAR
JORGE CUBELOS ORDS JAVIER ESTEFANELL ALS JORGE SANZ MUSTIELES JAVIER GAVILN MORENO MACARENA RAMREZ PRADOS FRANCISCO CORREIA DA FONSECA JORGE RODRGUEZ LARRAD ADRIN FERNNDEZ GARCA
Univerza v Ljubljani Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Erasmus Students 2012-2013
Renewable Energy Sources

Index
Task 2: Technical approach

1 1 1 1 1 2 2 4 6 8 9 11 12 14 14 15 15 17 17 19 22 22 23 23 23 24 24 25 25 26 26 27 28 28 30 31 31 32 33
Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach
SOLAR ENERGY SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER (CSP) INTRODUCTION STORAGE MAKES ALL DIFFERENCE STAND-ALONE CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER HYBRIDS PARABOLIC TROUGH PLANT FRESNEL COLLECTORS CENTRAL RECEIVER PLANT PARABOLIC DISH ENGINES FUTURE TRENDS AND COSTS OF CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER (CSP) CONCLUSION OF THE THREE CSP TECHNOLOGIES SOLAR CONCENTRATION RATIO: PRINCIPLES AND LIMITATIOS OF CSP SYSTEMS PHOTOVOLTAIC INTRODUCTION PHOTOVOLTAICS SYSTEMS ELEMENTS SOLAR CELL POWER PRODUCED BY A COLLECTOR COSTS OF THE ENERGY SOLAR COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY INDEX OF FIGURES SOLAR ENERGY REFERENCES GEOTHERMAL ENERGY HOW GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IS CAPTURED GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS HOW A GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT WORKS? GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS HOW A GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP WORKS? GEOTHERMAL ENERGY COSTS ELECTRICITY AT STABLE PRICES HISTORICAL GROWTH THE FUTURE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS (EGS) CO-PRODUCTION OF GEOTHERMAL ELECTRICITY IN OIL AND GAS WELLS INDEX OF FIGURES GEOTHERMAL ENERGY WIND ENERGY THE WIND RESOURCE ADDRESSING THE VARIABILITY OF WIND POWER THE MECHANICS OF WIND TURBINES
THE VISIBLE BITS THE INSIDE PARTS GLOBAL MARKET FOR WIND ENERGY AND WIND TURBINE MAIN GEOGRAPHIC MARKETS AVERAGE PRICE PER KW/H CURRENTLY HOW MUCH DO WIND TURBINE COST? WIND TURBINE POWER CALCULATIONS SCENARIO PROBLEM STATEMENT MATHEMATICAL MODEL CALCULATION WITH GIVEN DATA CONCLUSION INDEX OF FIGURES W IND ENERGY REFERENCES OCEAN ENERGY INTRODUCTION PHYSICAL PRINCIPLE OF EXPLOITATION WAVE POWER TIDAL ENERGY THERMAL GRADIENT ENERGY SALINITY GRADIENT ENERGY EFFICIENCIES ECONOMICS DATA INDEX OF FIGURES OCEAN ENERGY REFERENCES BIOMASS ENERGY INTRODUCTION EXPANSION OF THE MARKET BIOMASS CONVERSION ENERGIES COMBUSTION CO-FIRING PROCESS GASIFICATION
PYROLYSIS
OTHER PROCESSES BIOMASS POWER PLANTS BIOMASS IN SPAIN INDEX OF FIGURES BIOMASS ENERGY REFERENCES BIOFUEL ENERGY COMBUSTION ENGINE COMBUSTION OF THE FUEL EMISSIONS COMBUSTION ETHANOL VS GASOLINE BIODIESEL VS DIESEL INDEX OF FIGURES BIOFUEL ENERGY REFERENCES
34 35 35 38 38 39 39 39 39 39 41 42 43 43 44 44 44 44 49 51 52 54 55 58 59 60 60 60 60 61 64 65 66 67 68 71 74 74 75 75 76 76 77 79 81 81
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HYDROPOWER ENERGY FUNDAMENTALS OF HYDROPOWER AND PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES PARTS OF HYDROPOWER PLANTS TYPE (EXPLANATION IN A PUMPING CENTRAL) HYDRO PUMP DAM THE SPILLWAY HYDRANTS BYPASS CHANNEL SURGE SHAFT PENSTOCKS ROUNDHOUSE TURBINES OPERATIONS AND CALCULATES AND COSTS CALCULATING AVAILABLE POWER COSTS INDEX OF FIGURES HYDROPOWER ENERGY REFERENCES CONCLUSION TO TASK 2 INDEX OF FIGURES CONCLUSION TO TASK 2
82 82 85 86 87 88 88 88 88 88 88 92 95 96 96 97 97 98 100
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Solar energy
Solar thermal energy Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)
Introduction Unlike photovoltaic generation, which produces electricity directly from any ambient light, the more stable and fully dispatch able CSP approach requires direct solar radiation. Solar Thermal plants require at least 1900 kWh/m2/y as found on the sun-belt. CSP is the ideal approach to harvesting the suns free energy for large scale grid connected power generation but it is also suitable for remote industrial applications.
Storage makes all the difference Because Solar Thermal plants warm a thermal uid, unlike photovoltaic solar, they inherently have the ability to smooth out the effect of passing clouds. But how do you get power long after sundown when people need it? By integrating thermal storage into the solar plant, the power production can be extended for many hours after dark. During the day, a fraction of the heat captured from the sun will be stored in a thermal storage medium (molten salt). In the absence of the sun, the process is reverted and the stored heat is used to produce steam for continued power generation a major advantage over photovoltaic solar. Stand-alone Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) Stand-alone CSP plants are the ideal choice for sun-belt locations where clean fuel-free power is required. At present, supporting incentives are necessary but technological advances mean solar thermal elds will soon rival fossil fuel plant energy prices.
Figure 1: Sun distribution
If needed by the customer, based on its consumption structure, the addition of a storage system to a CSP plant signi cantly adds to the project value with only a marginal increase in the overall investment. Hybrids Hybrids are an important cornerstone in the transition to widespread solar energy production. They allow reduced fossil fuel consumption and more efcient solar energy to electicity conversion in base load or despachable plants. Hybrids make optimal use of currently available assets and are thus the least cost solar solutions. Repowering: A Solar Thermal plant can complement or fully replace an existing fossil boiler, while still leveraging the existing powerblock: Solar efficiency >20% to 100%. Parallel GT: a small gas turbine/Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) arranged parallel to the solar system allows alternating or parallel operations to handle peak duties. Solar efficiency 35 to 80%. Integrated Solar CC: Combined cycle power plants with fully integrated solar steam generation. Solar efficiency 10-30%. Solar Boost: CSP can be used for partial or full pre-heating of condensate, feed water. Solar efficiency: 5-10%.
Existing steam or gas plants can also bene t from the addition of a solar add -on to generate additional carbon-neutral steam with no extra fuel costs. Because all the infrastructure and grid connections already exist, the overall investment is relatively low. Parabolic Trough Plant A Parabolic Trough is a type of solar thermal energy collector, constructed as a long parabolic mirror with a receiver tube running its length at the focal point. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach Sunlight is reflected by the mirror and concentrated on the receiver tube. The trough is usually aligned on a north-south axis and rotates to track the sun as it moves across the sky. Heat transfer fluid runs through the tube to absorb the concentrated sunlight, which increases the fluid temperature to some 400 C (752 F). The heat transfer fluid is then used to heat steam in a standard turbine generator. In the Parabolic Trough plants currently under construction and which use this technology, thermal storage systems with an output of 6 to 8 hours are being implemented. Central Receiver storage systems are being developed to reach even 15 hours. Technology developments Parabolic trough systems represent the most mature solar thermal power technology, with 354 MWe connected to the Southern California grid since the 1980s and over 2 million square metres of parabolic trough collectors operating with a long term availability of over 99%. Supplying an annual 924 million kWh at a generation cost of about 12 to 15 US cents/kWh, these plants have demonstrated a maximum summer peak efficiency of 21% in terms of conversion of direct solar radiation into grid electricity (see box The California SEGS Power Plants).
Figures 2 and 3
Advanced structural design will improve optical accuracy and, at the same time, reduce weight and costs, thus resulting in higher thermal output. By increasing the length of the collector units, investment savings can be achieved in drive systems and connection piping. Next-generation receiver tubes will also further reduce thermal losses while, at the same time, improving reliability. Improvements to the heat transfer medium will increase operating temperature and performance. New structural collector designs have recently been developed in Europe and the USA and are currently in their test phase, whilst work on improved receiver tubes is under way in both Israel and Germany. What promises to be the next generation of parabolic collector technology has been under development at the European solar thermal research centre, the Plataforma Solar in Spain, since 1998 by a European R&D consortium Known as EuroTrough, it aims to achieve better performance and lower costs by using the same well-tried key components ( parabolic mirrors and absorber tubes) as in the commercially mature Californian plants, but significantly enhancing the optical accuracy by a completely new design for the trough structure. With funding from the European Union, both a 100m and a 150m prototype of the EuroTrough were successfully commissioned in 2000 and 2002 respectively at the Plataforma Solar. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach In the USA, an advanced-generation trough concentrator design that uses an all-aluminium space frame is currently being implemented in a 1 MW pilot plant in Arizona. The design is patterned on the size and operational characteristics of the LS-2 collector, but is superior in terms of structural properties, weight, manufacturing simplicity, corrosion resistance, manufactured cost, and installation ease. The commercial plants in California use synthetic oil as the heat transfer fluid, because of its low operating pressure and storability. However, R&D efforts are under way at the Plataforma Solar to achieve direct steam generation within absorber tubes and to eliminate the need for an intermediate heat transfer. This increases efficiency and will further reduce costs. For the Spanish 50 MW AndaSol 1, 2 and 3 projects, the German project developer Solar Millennium, in full collaboration with an American engineering company, designed a six to 12 full load hours thermal storage system operating with molten salt, which was successfully tested in the 10 MW USA Solar Two solar tower pilot plant. Although this will reduce efficiency, the developers expect a considerable potential for cost reduction since the closer arrangement of the mirrors requires less land and provides a partially shaded, useful space underneath.
To date all existing commercial parabolic trough plants use a steam cycle, with a back-up natural gasfired capability to supplement the solar output during periods of low radiation, up to an annual maximum of 25% of primary thermal heat input. Parabolic trough plants can be built in unit sizes up to 200 M
Figure 4: Schematic diagram of CSP parabolic trough plant
Fresnel collectors A Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR) array is a line focus system similar to parabolic troughs in which solar radiation is concentrated on an elevated inverted linear absorber using an array of nearly flat reflectors. With the advantages of low structural support and reflector costs, fixed fluid joints, a receiver separated from the reflector system, and long focal lengths allowing the use of conventional glass, LFR collectors have attracted increasing attention. The technology is seen as a lower-cost alternative to trough technology for the production of solar process heat and steam. An LFR can be designed to have similar thermal performance to that of a parabolic trough per aperture area, although recent designs tend to use less expensive reflector materials and absorber components which reduce optical performance and thus, thermal output. However, this lower performance seems to be outweighed by lower investment and operation and maintenance costs. In 1999, the Belgian Company Solarmundo erected the largest prototype of a Fresnel collector, with a collector width of 24 m and a reflector area of 2,500 m2.
Figure 4: Fresnel collector operation
The next step should be a pilot plant to demonstrate the technology in a larger-scale system under commercial operational conditions. Most convenient and cost-effective would be a plug-in solution for a Fresnel collector connected to an existing power plant. In 2003, the Australian company Solar Heat and Power constructed a test field for its new Fresnel collector concept, equivalent to 1 MW electric capacity, and tested it. In 2005 we saw the start of the enlargement of the Fresnel solar field, comprising 20,000 m which was going to be connected to the large coal-fired Liddell power station using solar steam as feed-water addition. The final stage was a roll out to 135,000 m.
Cost trends Between 1984 and 1991, the installed capital costs of the Californian SEGS Rankine-cycle trough systems with on-peak power operation fell from US$ 4,000/kWe to under US$ 3,000/kWe mainly due to the increase in size from 30 to 80 MWe units and series experience. The investment cost of parabolic trough fields has currently dropped to 210/m2 for enhanced collectors like the SKAL ET EuroTrough design with large solar fields, and will fall to about 110-130/ m2 for high-production runs in the long term. According to a World Bank assessment of the USA/European solar thermal power plant market, the installed capital costs of near-term trough plants are expected to be in the range of 3,5002,440/kWe for 30-200 MWe Rankine-cycle (SEGS type) plants and about 1,080/kWe for 130 MWe hybrid ISCC plants with 30 MWe equivalent solar capacity. The projected total plant power generation costs range from 10 to 7 cents/kWh for SEGS type plants and less than 7 cents/kWh for ISCC plants. The expected further drop in capital costs of grid-connected ISCC trough plants should result in electricity costs of 6 cents/kWh in the medium term and 5 cents/kWh in the long term. The promising long-term potential is that Rankine-cycle trough plants can compete with conventional peaking to mid-load Rankine-cycle plants (coal- or oil-fired) at good solar sites. The cost reduction potential of direct steam generation trough technology is even greater in the longer term. In Australia, the CLFR total plant electricity costs have been estimated to be about AU$ 0.045/kWh when used in conjunction with coalfired plants, and AU$ 0.07/kWh to AU$ 0.09/kWh as a standalone solar thermal plant. Table 2.3 shows how substantially these cost reductions could be achieved over the next five to ten years, especially for plants with very large solar fields. Similarly, the analysis shows that projects could be built cheaper outside the developed world. In a pre-feasibility study for a CSP plant in Brazil, for example, it was estimated that the construction cost of a 100 MW Rankinecycle plant would be just US$ 2,660/kW today, 19% lower than in the USA, with savings in labour, materials and, to some extent, equipment. A number of companies interested in building GEF projects have indicated that
using local labour and manufacturing capabilities in India, Egypt, Morocco and Mexico will be the key to their competitive bidding at a low cost.An American initiative called the Parabolic Trough Technology Roadmap, developed jointly by industry and the US Department of Energys SunLab, identified a number of potential improvements. The initiative suggests that further cost reductions and performance increases of up to 50% are feasible for parabolic trough technology. Central receiver plant This method of collecting energy is based on concentrating the sun's energy onto a common focal point to produce heat to run a steam turbine generator. It has hundreds of large mirror assemblies, called heliostats, which track the sun to reflect the solar energy onto a tower where a black receiver absorbs the heat. High-temperature heat transfer fluid is used to transport the heat to a boiler where the steam is used to spin a series of turbines, much like in a traditional power plant. This solar thermal storage system improves handling of the central tower plants and considerably increases its capacity factor to 70% or more.
Figure 5: Schematic diagram of a CSP central receiver plant
Technology developments The average sunlight concentration of tower systems varies with the process temperature from about 500 times for 540C steam cycles to several thousand times concentration for applications at 1,000C and beyond for gas turbine or combined cycles electricity, and thermo chemical cycles for production of industrial materials or synthetic fuels like hydrogen. For gas turbine operation, the air to be heated must first pass through a pressurized solar receiver with a sealing window. Integrated Solar Combined Cycle power plants using this method will require 30% less collector area than equivalent steam cycles. At present, a first prototype to demonstrate this concept is being built as part of the European SOLGATE project, with three receiver units coupled to a 250 kW gas turbine. Various central receiver heat transfer media have been investigated, including water/steam, liquid sodium, molten salt and ambient air. Those storage systems allows solar energy to be collected
during daylight hours and dispatched as high value electric power at night or when required by the utility. Today, the most promising storage systems are considered to be the European volumetric air technology and the USA molten salt technology. The latter is now ready to be commercially demonstrated, and a project led by Sener (Spain) is promoting the first commercial central receiver plant with support of EU and Spanish grants. This proposed 15 MWe Solar Tres plant in Spain will utilise a 16-hour molten-salt storage system to run on a 24-hour basis in summertime. Molten-salt storage coupled with central receiver/tower technology is unique among Figure 6: Central receiver plant operation all renewable energy technologies in that the addition of storage reduces energy cost and increases its value by enabling dispatch to peak demand periods. The European system involves irradiating fine wire mesh or ceramic foam structures, and transferring the energy by convection at a temperature range of 700-1,200C. Tests conducted in the joint German/Spanish Phoebus project; between 1993 and 1995, with a German 2.5 MWth pilot plant demonstrated the feasibility of the volumetric air receiver system concept with a ceramic energy storage system. As with parabolic troughs, efforts are under way to develop commercial central receiver plants using solar/fossil fuel hybrid systems. Since heliostats represent the largest single capital investment in a central receiver plant, efforts continue to improve their design with better optical properties, lighter structure and better control. Initiatives to develop low-cost manufacturing techniques for early commercial low-volume builds are also under way, whilst prices for manufacture in a developing country could be roughly 15% below USA/European levels Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach Central receiver plants have reached commercial status with PS10 plant, 11MW solar tower which is the first of the new wave of CSP projects in Spain. Potential for improvement is already high, as solar towers have good longer term prospects for high conversion efficiencies. Cost trends Central receiver plants will take credit, however, for their potential for the favorable application of high-temperature energy storage systems. This will increase the plant capacity factor, reduce electricity costs, and increase the value of power by enabling dispatch to peak demand periods. Promoters of new near-term tower projects in Spain, such as the 10 MW PS10 plant with three hours of storage, have indicated their installed plant capital costs to be roughly 2,700/kWe, with Rankinecycle turbines and a small energy storage system, and with predicted total plant electricity costs ranging from 20 to 14 cents/kWh. The total capital cost for the 15 MW Solar Tres plant, with 16 hours of storage, is estimated to be 84 million, with annual operating costs of about 2 million. The expected costs for installing the heliostat field range from 180 to 250/m2 for small production runs in the USA, and from 140 to 220/m2 in Europe. A 15% discount on the USA/ European price level
can be projected for developing countries because of lower labor costs. Heliostat field costs are expected to drop below 100/m2 at high production runs in the long term. In the future, central receiver plant projects will benefit from similar cost reductions to those expected from parabolic trough plants. According to the World Bank, the expected evolution of total electricity costs is that they will drop to 8 to 7 cents/kWh in the medium term (100 MWe Rankinecycle plant or 100 MWe ISCC, both with storage) and to 5 cents/kWh in the long term (200 MWe Rankine-cycle plant with storage) for high insolation sites with an annual DNI of more than 2,700kWh/m2. As the basic concept of these collectors is simpler in comparison to parabolic troughs, lower investment costs for the reflectors can be expected. However, the comparable annual efficiency will be somewhat lower. Parabolic dish engines For what are known as dish/Stirling systems, a parabolic reflector mirror (dish) concentrates the solar radiation onto the receiver of a connected Stirling engine. The engine then converts the thermal energy directly into mechanical work or electricity. These systems can achieve a degree of efficiency in excess of 30 per cent. Prototype systems are undergoing trials at the Plataforma Solar centre in Almera, Spain. Although these systems are suitable for stand-alone operation, they also offer the possibility of interconnecting several individual systems to create a solar farm, thus meeting an electricity demand from 10 kW to several MW.
Figure 7: Functional principle of a dish/Stirling system
Technology developments Parabolic dish concentrators are comparatively small units with a motor generator at the focal point of the reflector. Overall size typically ranges from 5 to 15 meters in diameter and 5 to 50 kW of power output. Like all concentrating systems, they can be additionally powered by natural gas or biogas, providing reliable capacity at any time. As a result of their ideal point focusing parabolic optics and their dual axis tracking control, dish collectors achieve the highest solar flux concentration, and therefore the highest performance of all concentrator types. For economic reasons, systems are currently restricted to unit capacities of about 25 kWe, but multiple dish arrays can be used in order to accumulate the power output upwards to the MWe range. Because of its size, the future for dish technology lies primarily in decentralized power supply and remote, stand-alone power systems. Dish/Stirling engine systems in particular have an excellent potential for high conversion efficiencies because of the high process temperatures in the engine. The record energy yield so far has been
from a 25 kWe USA dish/Stirling system with a solar-to-electric efficiency of 30%. Dish/engine prototypes which have successfully operated over the last 15 years include 7 to 25 kW units developed in the United States by Advanco, the McDonnell Douglas Corporation, the Cummins Engine Company and others. In Spain, six units with a 9 to 10 kW rating are currently operating successfully. These were developed by the German company Schlaich, Bergermann und Partner (sbp), working with Mero (suppliers of the collector system) and SOLO Kleinmotoren (Stirling engine). Three of these dishes have been operated continually with great success since 1992, accumulating more than 30,000 hours of operating experience. The new EuroDish development, supported by the European Union, will advance this technology further. At the same time, two industrial teams working in the United States Stirling Energy Systems/Boeing Company and Science Applications International Corporation/STM Corp have installed several second-generation 25 kW dish/Stirling prototypes for extended testing and evaluation. Finally, WG Associates have demonstrated the first unattended, remote operation of an advanced technology 10 kW dish/Stirling prototype. Cost trends The cost trend for dish collectors has already shown a sharp reduction from 1,250/m2 in 1982 (40 m2 array, Shenandoah, USA) to 150/m2 in 1992 (44 m2 array, German SBP stretched membrane dish). Overall installed plant capital costs for a first stand-alone 9 to 10 kWe dish/Stirling unit currently range from 10,000 to 14,000/kWe. In terms of electricity costs, an attainable near-term goal is a figure of less than 15 cents/kWh. In the medium to long term, with series production, dish/Stirling systems are expected to see a drastic decrease in installed system costs. Advanced dish/Stirling systems are expected to compete in the medium to long term with similarsized diesel generator units at sunny remote sites such as islands. Parabolic dish system commercialisation may well be helped by hybrid operation, although this presents a greater challenge with Stirling engines. Gas-turbine based systems may present a more efficient alternative. In 2005, the USA dish developer SES announced, that the company might be able to offer electricity from dish/Stirling engines in California for about the cost of a conventional generated peaking kWh, if power purchase agreements of 500-1,000 MW were available. Future trends and costs of Concentrated solar power (CSP) Two broad pathways have opened up for the large-scale delivery of electricity using solar thermal power. One is to combine the solar collection and heat transfer process with a conventional power plant. The most favored current combination is the Integrated Solar/Combined Cycle system (ISCC). Essentially, the ISCC system uses the CSP element as a solar boiler to supplement the waste heat from a gas turbine in order to augment power generation in the steam Rankine bottoming cycle. In this way, efficiency is improved and operating costs reduced, cutting the overall cost of solar thermal power by as much as 22% compared with a conventional SEGS plant (25% fossil) of similar size.
These systems could still have an equivalent solar capacity of 30 to 40 MWe, and promise to be quite attractive as a way of introducing the technology to the market. Environment Facility, an important source of funding, is supporting hybrid ISCC systems with a low solar share. Current drastically increasing fuel prices and power shortages for summer daytime peaking power in South-west USA and Southern Spain suggest that CSP systems will today find their prime market segment in this summer on peaks. Here, power generation cost differences, compared to typically used gas turbine operation, are the smallest.
Figure 8 Flow diagram of solar field, storage system and steam cycle at the AndaSol-1 project, southern Spain.
The market for 100% solar only operation will broaden still further with the use of thermal storage as a way of storing the suns heat until required for power generation. A recent study, part of the USA Trough Initiative, evaluated several thermal storage concepts, with the preferred design using molten salts as the storage medium, as already chosen for the Solar Two pilot plant in California. Such a storage system has also been implemented in most of the 50 MW parabolic trough plants in Spain. Solar energy collected by the solar field during the day will be stored in the storage system and then dispatched after sunset. To charge the storage system, the salt is heated up to approximately 384C; to discharge the system, it is cooled down again to about 291C. At both temperatures the salt is in a liquid state. Cold and hot salt are stored in separate tanks, giving the system its two-tank label. A thermal storage system with separate cold and hot tanks has the advantage that charging and discharging occur at constant temperatures with a two-tank molten-salt storage system. In this configuration, hot thermal fluid from the solar field is diverted to a heat exchanger where its thermal energy passes to the salt flow arriving from the cold tank. This heats up and accumulates in the hot tank. During the night or at times of reduced radiation, the charging process is reversed, and salt from the hot tank is pumped to the heat exchanger, where the salt returns its thermal energy to the
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cold thermal fluid. The thermal fluid heats up to keep producing steam for the turbine, while the cooled salt accumulates again in the cold tank. In terms of costs, experience so far has come more from parabolic trough systems, such as the Californian SEGS plants. For current trough systems with 100% solar operation, costs are in the range of 15-17 US cents/kWh in high solar radiation areas of the US South-west and about 20 euro cents/kWh in the medium solar radiation areas of the Mediterranean. These costs can be cut down by 30-50% through the implementation of the first 5,000 MW within the market introduction concept of the Global Market Initiative for CSP. Conclusion of the three CSP technologies The steam produced in a CSP plant is in the optimal range for highly efficient steam to electricity conversion. Furthermore, hotter steam means greater returns on storage system investments.
Figure 9: trends of the CSP tecnhnologies
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Finally, here we have the comparison of the main characteristics of the three CSP technologies seen before:
Figure 10: Comparison of solar thermal power technologies
Solar Concentration Ratio: Principles and Limitations of CSP Systems The most practical and simplest primary geometrical concentrator typically used in CSP systems is the parabola. Although there are other concentrating devices like lenses or compound parabolic concentrators, the reflective parabolic concentrators and their similars are the systems with the greatest potential for scaling up at a reasonable cost.
Parabolas are imaging concentrators able to focus all incident paraxial rays onto a focal point located on the optical axis. The paraboloid is a surface generated by rotating a parabola around its axis. The parabolic dish is a truncated portion of a paraboloid. For optimum sizing of the parabolic dish and absorber geometries, the geometrical ratio between the focal distance (f), the aperture diameter of the concentrator (d), and the rim angle (), must be taken into account. The ratio can be deducted from the equation describing the geometry of a truncated paraboloid: x2+y2=4fz, where x and y are the coordinates on the aperture plane and z is the distance from the plane to the vertex.
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For small rim angles, the paraboloid tends to be a sphere, and in many cases spherical facets are used. Therefore, in most solar concentrators the following correlation is valid:
f /d =
1 4 tan( / 2)
For example, a paraboloid with a rim angle of 45 has an f/d of 0.6 (see figure 2). The ratio f/d increases as the rim angle decreases. A parabolic concentrator with a very small rim angle has very little curvature and the focal point far from the reflecting surface. Because of this positioning, CSP systems making use of cavity receivers with small apertures should use small rim angles. Conversely, those CSP systems using external or tubular receivers will make use of large rim angles and short focal lengths. The equation describing the minimum concentration ratio as a function of the rim angle for a given beam quality (), is:
C min conc = sin 2 cos 2 ( + ) sin 2
From this equation, it can be concluded that 45 is the optimum rim angle for any beam quality, in terms of solar concentration (Figure 3). Therefore, f/d=0.6 is the optimum focal length-to-diameter ratio in a parabolic concentrator.
The thermodynamic limit or maximum concentration ratio for an ideal solar concentrator would be set by the size of the sun and not by the beam quality. By applying the geometrical conservation of energy in a solar concentrator, the following expressions are obtained for 3D and 2D systems (for a refraction index n=1)
C max,3 = D
1 46, 2 sin 2 s 1 2D C max, = 2,15 sin s

Figure 12: Visualization of dependence of f/d -rim angle for a parabolic concentrator
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Figure 13: Dependence of minimum concentration achieved for a parabola versus rim angle and beam quality.
Then, the semi-angle subtended by the sun is s =4,653x10-3 rad (16), and the maximum concentration values are 46,200 for 3D and 215 for 2D. For real concentrators, the maximum ratios of concentration are much lower, because of microscopic and macroscopic, tracking and mechanical, sun shape and other errors. Engineers designing a specific CSP plant should give special attention to the expected real beam quality and rim angle of the reflecting system to obtain an appropriate sizing of the solar receiver.
Photovoltaic system
Introduction A photovoltaic system (or PV system) is a system which uses one or more solar panels to convert sunlight onto electricity. It consists of multiple components, including the photovoltaic modules, mechanical and electrical connections and mountings and means of regulating or modifying the electrical output. Photovoltaic systems use solar electric panels to directly convert the sun's energy into electricity. This conversion of sunlight to electricity occurs without moving parts, is silent and pollution free in its operation. The solar electricity fed through electronic equipment is converted to utility grade electricity for use directly in the home. The solar electricity can be used to offset the need for purchased utility electricity or, if the PV electricity exceeds the home's requirements, the excess electricity can be sent back to the utility, typically for credit. Different types of photovoltaic products are available today from numerous manufacturers. The supply of PV collectors worldwide has increased from 20 to 30 percent annually to keep up with the demand for this renewable energy technology. Photovoltaic modules are usually rigid, rectangular devices ranging in size from 2 by 4 to as large as 4 by 8. Some PV module technologies are flexible and as large as 2 by about 20 or even larger. Rigid PV modules typically have a glass cover while the flexible modules have a very durable film cover. Both types of PV module can survive storm and hail damage and are resistant to degradation from ultra-violet rays.
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Most residential PV systems are used in conjunction with utility-supplied power. Excess power produced during daylight hours can be fed back into the utility's lines, while utility electricity is used in the home when the house demand is greater than can be supplied by the PV roofing. Typical residential PV systems commonly have a peak power production of between 1,200 and 5,000 watts, AC - requiring from between 150 to over 1,000 square feet of installed area depending on the efficiency of the PV technology used. Most often, PV panels are installed on roofs, but they can also be installed as free-standing units, on a pole on the ground, or even on complex tracking structures that change with the sun's angle during the day. Photovoltaic systems elements A photovoltaic system is a device that, from solar radiation, produces electricity in a position to be exploited by man. The system consists of the following: Solar generator: consists of a set of photovoltaic panels that catch the light radiation from the sun and transform it onto electrical energy. This energy depends mainly on the number and type of modules installed, the inclination and spatial orientation, and incident solar radiation. Battery: That stores energy produced by the generator and allows power available outside the light hours or cloudy days. Charge controller: which controls the inlet and outlet on the battery and its mission is to prevent overloading or excessive discharge the battery, which will result in irreversible damage and ensure that the system always operates at the point of maximum efficiency. Inverter: optional device which converts direct current 12 or 24V stored in the battery, alternating current of 230V. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach
Solar cell It is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. When exposed to light, can generate and support an electric current without being attached to any external voltage source. Assemblies of photovoltaic cells are used to make solar modules which generate electrical power from sunlight. Multiple cells in an integrated group, all oriented in one plane, constitute a solar photovoltaic module. The solar cell works in three steps: Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon. Electrons are knocked loose from their atoms, causing an electric potential difference. Current starts flowing through the material to cancel the potential and this electricity is
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captured. Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity.
Solar cell efficiency It is the ratio of the electrical output of a solar cell to the incident energy in the form of sunlight. The energy conversion efficiency () of a solar cell is the percentage of the solar energy to which the cell is exposed that is converted into electrical energy. This is calculated by dividing a cell's power output (in watts) at its maximum power point (P m ) by the input light (E, in W/m2) and the surface area of the solar cell (A c in m2).
By convention, solar cell efficiencies are measured under standard test conditions (STC) unless stated otherwise. STC specifies a temperature of 25 C and an irradiance of 1000 W/m2 with an air mass 1.5 (AM1.5) spectrums. These conditions correspond to a clear day with sunlight incident upon a sunfacing 37-tilted surface with the sun at an angle of 41.81 above the horizon.This represents solar noon near the spring and autumn equinoxes in the continental United States with surface of the cell aimed directly at the sun. Under these test conditions a solar cell of 20% efficiency with a 100 cm2(0.01 m2) surface area would produce 2.0 watts of power. The efficiency of the solar cells used in a photovoltaic system, in combination with latitude and climate, determines the annual energy output of the system. For example, a solar panel with 20% efficiency and an area of 1 m will produce 200 watts of power at STC, but it can produce more when the sun is high in the sky and will produce less in cloudy conditions and when the sun is low in the sky.
Figure 11: Solar cells conversion efficiencies
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Crystalline silicon By far, the most prevalent material for solar cells is crystalline silicon (c-Si), also known as "solar grade silicon". Analysts have predicted that prices of polycrystalline silicon will drop as companies build additional polysilicon capacity quicker than the industry's projected demand.
Figure 12: Structure of a silicon solar cell and its working mechanism
Power produced by a collector In order to calculate the power produced by a collector or a photovoltaic cell, we will use the same formula used before: P m (power) = x K x S c [W] Where: = efficiency of the technology, K = direct solar flux (W/m2) , S c = surface of the collector or cell (m2). Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach Costs of the energy Costs of production have been reduced in recent years for more widespread use through production and technological advances. As of 2011, the cost of PV has fallen well below that of nuclear power and is set to fall further. The average retail price of solar cells fell to 2.43/W. For large-scale installations, prices below 1.00/W are now common.Crystal silicon solar cells have largely been replaced by less expensive multicrystalline silicon solar cells. Levelize cost Levelized cost" is the average cost of this renewable energy. Levelized Cost = Net Cost to install a renewable energy system divided by its expected life-time energy output.
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Cost per kilowatt hour (US cents/kWh) 20 years 200 $/kW p 600 $/kW p 1000$/kW p 1400$/kW p 1800$/kW p 2200$/kW p 2600$/kW p 3000$/kW p 2400
kWh/kW p y
2200
kWh/kW p y
2000
kWh/kW p y
1800
kWh/kW p y
1600
kWh/kW p y
1400
kWh/kW p y
1200
kWh/kW p y
1000
kWh/kW p y
800
kWh/kW p y
0.8 2.5 4.2 5.8 7.5 9.2 10.8 12.5
0.9 2.7 4.5 6.4 8.2 10.0 11.8 13.6
1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0
1.1 3.3 5.6 7.8 10.0 12.2 14.4 16.7
1.3 3.8 6.3 8.8 11.3 13.8 16.3 18.8
1.4 4.3 7.1 10.0 12.9 15.7 18.6 21.4
1.7 5.0 8.3 11.7 15.0 18.3 21.7 25.0
2.0 6.0 10.0 14.0 18.0 22.0 26.0 30.0
2.5 7.5 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 37.5
The table shows the total cost in US cents per kWh of electricity generated by a photovoltaic system. The row headings on the left show the total cost, per peak kilowatt (kW p ), of a photovoltaic installation. These photovoltaic system costs have been declining and in Germany, for example, were reported to have fallen to USD 2200/kW p by the second quarter of 2012. The column headings across the top refer to the annual energy output in kWh expected from each installed kW p . This varies by geographic region because the average insolation depends on the average cloudiness and the thickness of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon. Panels are usually mounted at an angle based on latitude, and often they are adjusted seasonally to meet the changing solar declination. Solar tracking can also be utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output. The calculated values in the table reflect the total cost in cents per kWh produced. They assume a 10% total capital cost (for instance 4% interest rate, 1% operating and maintenance cost, and depreciation of the capital outlay over 20 years). Normally, photovoltaic modules have a 25 year warranty. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach
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Solar collector efficiency
Figure 16
The graph is an expression of data obtained from official third party solar testing facilities, the Solartechnik Prufung Forschung (SPF Rapperswil, www.solarenergy.ch), in Germany and Bodycote Materials Testing Canada Inc. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach Graph details Ta = Ambient Temperature, or air temperature of surrounding space. For our purposes, allowing a more intuitive interpretation of the graph, we have set Ta as a constant (unchanging), in this case Ta=0C. Efficiency = A fraction of 1... i.e. 0.3 on the graph represents 30%, 0.5 on the graph is 50%, and so forth. Tm = Mean temperature, expressed as (Tin + Tout)* Equations Two types of collectors are represented in the graph; Flat Plate designated FP, and the high efficiency Evacuated Tube Collector designated ETC. The efficiency equation used by the European (SPF Rapperswil) testing facilities for Mazdon (ETC), Apricus (ETC), Sunmaxx (ETC) and Veisman (FP) collectors is:
a T +T = 0 1 in out 2 G
a2 Tin + Tout 2 G
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The efficiency eqn. for Enerworks(FP) is:
(T + T ) (T + T ) = 0.717 4.033 i a 0.0184 i a

G G
The efficiency eqn. for ThermoDynamix (FP) is:
= 0.738 5.247
(Ti + Ta )
G
How to Read the Efficiency Graph The graph represents collector performance when the ambient temperature (the outside air temperature) is 0C. To determine efficiency (the percentage of solar radiation hitting the collector that is directly transferred to heat water) chose the desired water temperature. The slopes of the lines in the graph represent their heat loss factors. The steeper the slope, the higher the collector loses heat. A line with a small slope represents a collector that loses very little heat to its surroundings, and is very efficient at heating. For example, if you wanted to use the collector to heat water for your home you would look at the 60 Temp value along the horizontal axis and follow the line up to see the efficiency of the collectors. This means that if it is a moderately clear day, and the outside temperature is zero degrees, the Thermomax collector would be able to convert about 70% of the available solar thermal radiation to heat your water tank to 60 degrees. Gross Area Mistake Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach The most widely quoted efficiency performance results found in North America are the results from the SRCC (Solar Rating and Certification Corporation). The SRCC evaluates Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETC) as if they were flat plate collectors, which they are not. The resulting efficiency graphs released by SRCC undervalue actual performance of evacuated tubes by over 30%.
Figure 17
Gross Area = the gross area refers to the external mass of the collector; the area actually necessary for installation, that is simply the length times the width of the collector. Instead of including the spaces between tubes, the manifold, the lateral glass wall thicknesses, in the gross area calculation, it would be much more accurate to base performance of collectors on Aperture Area = the area through which solar energy enters the collector.
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Corrected SRCC Graph Fortunately there is a simple solution for converting efficiency parameters from expression in terms of collector gross area (total footprint of collector) to expression in terms of aperture area (area of collector that gathers sunlight):
a = g .
Ag = Gross Area Aa= Aperture Area
Ag Aa
This formula was obtained from the NRC and ASHRAE standards, and is commonly used by the European Solar Testing group SPF. The SRCC uses it to convert from aperture or absorber area to gross area. We simply un-did the conversion. The result is a much more accurate graph:
Figure 18
How to Read the Graph The slopes of the lines in the graph represent their heat loss factors. The steeper the slope, the more the collector loses heat as temperature increases. A line with a small slope represents a collector that loses very little heat to its surroundings, and is very efficient at heating. The highest efficiency of each collector is when Ti-Ta=0, when the fluid entering the collector is the same temperature as the ambient environment (outside). This is also known as the optical efficiency.
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Index of Figures Solar Energy

FIGURE 1 HTTP://WWW.ALSTOM.COM FIGURE 2 HTTP://WWW.SOLARPACES.ORG FIGURE 3,5 HTTP://WWW.SQM.COM/ES-ES/ FIGURE 4,7 HTTP://WWW.RENEWABLES-MADE-IN-GERMANY.COM FIGURE 6 HTTP://WWW.ALSTOM.COM FIGURE 8 HTTP://WWW.SOLARPACES.ORGHTTP FIGURE 9,10 HTTP://WWW.SOLARPACES.ORGHTTP FIGURE 11, 12, 13 HANDBOOK OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND RENEWABLE ENERGY FIGURE 14 WWW .POWERFROMTHESUN.NET FIGURE 15 WWW .NREL.GOV FIGURE 16, 17, 18 HTTP://WWW.SOLARTHERMAL.COM
References
WWW .NREL.GOV/ HTTP://WWW.SOLARPACES.ORG WWW .POWERFROMTHESUN.NET HTTP://WWW.SQM.COM HTTP://WWW.ALSTOM.COM/GLOBAL/POWER/RESOURCES/DOCUMENTS/BROCHURES/CONCENTR ATED-SOLAR-POWER-SOLUTIONS.PDF HTTP://WWW.RENEWABLESG.ORG/DOCS/W EB/APPENDIXE.PDF HTTP://WWW.MACSLAB.COM/OPTSOLAR.HTML HTTP://ENERGYWORKSUS.COM/SOLAR_POWER_INCIDENT_ANGLE.HTML HTTP://WWW.SOLAR-ESTIMATE.ORG/SHOWFAQ.PHP?ID=261 HTTP://WWW.SOLARTHERMAL.COM
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Geothermal energy
Heat from the earth can be used as an energy source in many ways, from large and complex power stations to small and relatively simple pumping systems. This heat energy, known as geothermal energy, can be found almost anywhere, as far away as remote deep wells in Indonesia and as close as the dirt in our backyards. Many regions of the world are already tapping geothermal energy as an affordable and sustainable solution to reducing dependence on fossil fuels, and the global warming and public health risks that result from their use. For example, in thousands of homes and buildings across the United States, geothermal heat pumps also use the steady temperatures just underground to heat and cool buildings, cleanly and inexpensively.
How Geothermal Energy Is Captured

Geothermal energy can be captured through: Geothermal power plants, which use heat from deep inside the Earth to generate steam to make electricity. Geothermal heat pumps, which tap into heat close to the Earth's surface to heat water or provide heat for buildings.
Geothermal Power Plants

The most common current way of capturing the energy from geothermal sources is to tap into naturally occurring "hydrothermal convection" systems where cooler water seeps into Earth's crust, is heated up, and then rises to the surface. When heated water is forced to the surface, it is a relatively simple matter to capture that steam and use it to drive electric generators. Geothermal power plants drill their own holes into the rock to more effectively capture the steam. At a geothermal power plant, wells are drilled 1 or 2 miles deep into the Earth to pump steam or hot water to the surface. You're most likely to find one of these power plants in an area that has a lot of hot springs, geysers, or volcanic activity, because these are places where the Earth is particularly hot just below the surface.
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FIGURE 1
How a geothermal power plant works? 1. Hot water is pumped from deep underground through a well under high pressure. 2. When the water reaches the surface, the pressure is dropped, which causes the water to turn into steam. 3. The steam spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator that produces electricity. 4. The steam cools off in a cooling tower and condenses back to water. 5. The cooled water is pumped back into the Earth to begin the process again.
Geothermal Heat Pumps

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach A much more conventional way to tap geothermal energy is by using geothermal heat pumps to provide heat and cooling to buildings. Also called ground-source heat pumps, they take advantage of the constant year-round temperature of about 50F that is just a few feet below the grounds surface. Either air or antifreeze liquid is pumped through pipes that are buried underground, and recirculated into the building. In the summer, the liquid moves heat from the building into the ground. In the winter, it does the opposite, providing pre-warmed air and water to the heating system of the building. In regions with temperature extremes, ground-source heat pumps are the most energy-efficient and environmentally clean heating and cooling system available. Far more efficient than electric heating and cooling, these systems can move as much as 3 to 5 times the energy they use in the process.
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FIGURE 2
How a geothermal heat pump works? 1. Water or a refrigerant moves through a loop of pipes. 2. When the weather is cold, the water or refrigerant heats up as it travels through the part of the loop that's buried underground. 3. Once it gets back above ground, the warmed water or refrigerant transfers heat into the building. 4. The water or refrigerant cools down after its heat is transferred. It is pumped back underground where it heats up once more, starting the process again. 5. On a hot day, the system can run in reverse. The water or refrigerant cools the building and then is pumped underground where extra heat is transferred to the ground around the pipes.
Geothermal energy costs

One of the most important uses of geothermal fluids is the production of electricity. The sizing and design of a geothermal power plant is a very important aspect, because it depends on the cost of kWh produced. The cost per kW installed decreases with increasing size of facility, but it should be noted that a larger central requires a higher number of wells therefore greater expenses, primarily for the construction of steam lines, and maintenance of plant more difficult. The appropriate size of the plant depends on well productivity and total estimated power resource. In plant construction is usually used modules 40-50 MW when production per well is 4-5 MW.
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The production cost of geothermal energy is determined by: Exploration costs Drilling costs Vapor transmission costs Cost of the power plant Cost per kwh
Real levelized costs for geothermal electricity generation are 4.5 to 7.5 cents of dollars per kilowatthour, therefore geothermal energy is competitive with many fossil fuel facilities, but without the pollution. Delivered costs depend on ownership arrangements, financing, transmission, the quality of the resource, and the size of the project. Geothermal plants are built of modular parts, with most projects including one or more 1050 MW turbines. Geothermal plants are relatively capital-intensive, with low variable costs and no fuel costs. Usually financing is structured so that the project pays back its capital costs in the first 15-20 years, delivering power at 5 to 7 cents of dollar per kWh. Then costs fall by around 50 percent, to cover just operations and maintenance for the remaining 1020 years that the facility operates. Geothermal power, like all renewable resources, keeps economic benefits local. The most promising geothermal project sites are in rural areas. Geothermal power provides local jobs, retains dollars locally, pays local property taxes, and contributes royalties to the local county to support services.
Electricity at Stable Prices Using geothermal resources for power can help protect against volatile electricity prices. For any power plant, the price of the fuel used to generate power influences the price of the electricity produced; if the price of fuel is unpredictable, the price of electricity is unpredictable. Unlike traditional power plants that require fuel purchases, geothermal power plants secure their fuel supply before the plants begin operating. Since the price of geothermal resources will not change, it is possible to know what the price of electricity generated at a geothermal power plant will be over time. Fossil fuels have traditionally generated power for less, but the price of these fuels can suddenly increase to a level that is more expensive than geothermal electricity. For example, in early 2004 the price of natural gas was nearly three times what it was throughout the 1990s. Historical Growth Power generated from geothermal sources increased from increased by an average of about 3.5% per year between 1990 and 2000 (see figure below). In the decond half of the same decade, the energy produce from direct use of geothermal sources increased by over 13% per year.
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F IGURE 3: W ORLDWIDE GEOTHERMAL POWER GENERATION AND DIRECT USE
The Future of Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy has the potential to play a significant role toward a cleaner, more sustainable energy system. It is one of the few renewable energy technologies that can supply continuous, base load power (like fossil fuels). The costs for electricity from geothermal facilities are also declining. Some geothermal facilities have realized at least 50 percent reductions in the price of electricity since 1980. A considerable portion of potential geothermal resources will be able produce electricity for as little as 8 cents per kilowatt-hour (including a production tax credit), a cost level competitive with new conventional fossil fuel-fired power plants. There is also a bright future for the direct use of geothermal resources as a heating source for homes and businesses in any location. However, in order to tap into the full potential of geothermal energy, two emerging technologies require further development: Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) and co-production of geothermal electricity in oil and gas wells. One of the most important economic aspects of geothermal energy is that it is generated with indigenous resources, reducing a nation's dependence on imported energy, thereby reducing trade deficits. Reducing trade deficits keeps wealth at home and promotes healthier economies. Nearly half of all developing countries have rich geothermal resources, which could prove to be an important source of power and revenue. Geothermal projects can reduce the economic pressure of fuel imports and can offer local infrastructure development and employment. Please note that the figures shown ignore completely any contribution made by geothermal heat pumps.
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Figure 4
Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) Geothermal heat occurs everywhere under the surface of the earth, but the conditions that make water circulate to the surface are found only in less than 10 percent of Earth's land area. An approach to capturing the heat in dry areas is known as enhanced geothermal systems or "hot dry rock". The hot rock reservoirs, typically at greater depths below the earths surface than conventional sources, are first broken up by pumping high-pressure water through them. The plants then pump more water through the broken hot rocks, where it heats up, returns to the surface as steam, and powers turbines to generate electricity. Finally, the water is returned to the reservoir through injection wells to complete the circulation loop. Plants that use a closed-loop binary cycle release no fluids or heat-trapping emissions other than water vapor, which may be used for cooling.
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F IGURE 5
One cause for careful consideration with EGS is the possibility of induced seismic activity that might occur from hot dry rock drilling and development. This risk is similar to that associated with hydraulic fracturing, an increasingly used method of oil and gas drilling, and with carbon dioxide capture and storage in deep saline aquifers. Though a potentially serious concern, the risk of an induced EGS-related seismic event that can be felt by the surrounding population or that might cause significant damage currently appears very low when projects are located an appropriate distance away from major fault lines and properly monitored. Appropriate site selection, assessment and monitoring of rock fracturing and seismic activity during and after construction, and open and transparent communication with local communities are also critical. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach Co-production of Geothermal Electricity in Oil and Gas Wells Oil and gas fields already under production represent another large potential source of geothermal energy. In many existing oil and gas reservoirs, a significant amount of high-temperature water or suitable high-pressure conditions are present, which could allow for the production of electricity and oil or gas at the same time. In some cases, exploiting these resources could even enhance the extraction of the oil and gas itself.
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Index of Figures Geothermal Energy

FIGURE 1,2 HTTP://EPA.GOV/CLIMATESTUDENTS/SOLUTIONS/TECHNOLOGIES/GEOTHERMAL.HTML FIGURE 3,4 INTERNATIONAL GEOTHERMAL ASSOCIATION FIGURE 5 WWW .EERE.ENERGY.GOV
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Wind Energy
The wind resource
The wind resource, how fast it blows, how often, and when a significant role plays in its power generation cost. The power output from a wind turbine rises as a cube of wind speed. In other words, if wind speed doubles, the power output increases eight times. Therefore, higher-speed winds are more easily and inexpensively captured. Winds speeds are divided into seven classes with class one being the lowest, and class seven being the highest. A wind resource assessment evaluates the average wind speeds above a section of land (e.g. 50 meters high), and assigns that area a wind class. Wind turbines operate over a limited range of wind speeds. If the wind is too slow, they won't be able to turn, and if too fast, they shut down to avoid being damaged. Wind speeds in classes three (6.7 7.4 meters per second (m/s)) and above are typically needed to economically generate power. Ideally, a wind turbine should be matched to the speed and frequency of the resource to maximize power production. Classes of Wind Power Density at Heights of 10m and 50m 10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft) Speed m/s (mph) 0 5.6 (12.5) 6.4 (14.3) Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach 7.0 (15.7) 7.5 (16.8) 8.0 (17.9) 8.8 (19.7) 11.9 (26.6)
Wind Class
Wind Power Wind Power Speed m/s (mph) Density (W/m^2) Density (W/m^2) 0 0 4.4 (9.8) 5.1 (11.5) 5.6 (12.5) 6.0 (13.4) 6.4 (14.3) 7.0 (15.7) 9.4 (21.0) 0 200
1 100
150
300
200 250
400
500
300
600
400
800
1,000
2,000
Source: Energy Information Administration
Since the late 1990s, the DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) has been working with state governments to produce and validate high-resolution wind resource potential assessments on a
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state-by-state basis. This data is being used to gradually replace a less precise national wind resource assessment completed in 1991 by researchers at DOE's Pacific Northwest Laboratory. Wind speeds of classes three and four are more common and more evenly distributed across the country.
Several factors can affect wind speed, and the ability of a turbine to generate more power. For example, wind speed increases as the height from the ground increases. If wind speed at 10 meters off the ground is six m/s, it will be about 7.5 m/s at a height of 50 meters. In order to take advantage of this potential at higher elevations, the rotors of the newest wind turbines can now reach heights up to 130 meters. In addition to height, the power in the wind varies with temperature and altitude, both of which affect the air density. The more the wind blows, the more power will be produced by wind turbines. But, of course, the wind does not blow consistently all the time. The term used to describe this is "capacity factor," which is simply the amount of power a turbine actually produces over a period of time divided by the amount of power it could have produced if it had run at its full rated capacity over that time period. A more precise measurement of output is the "specific yield." This measures the annual energy output per square meter of area swept by the turbine blades as they rotate. Overall, wind turbines capture between 20 and 40 percent of the energy in the wind. So at a site with average wind speeds of seven m/s, a typical turbine will produce about 1,100 kilowatt-hours (kWh) per square meter of area per year. If the turbine has blades that are 40 meters long, for a total swept area of 5,029 square meters, the power output will be about 5.5 million kWh for the year. An increase in blade length, which in turn increases the swept area, can have a significant effect on the amount of power output from a wind turbine. Another factor in the cost of wind power is the distance of the turbines from transmission lines. Some large windy areas, particularly in rural parts of the High Plains and Rocky Mountains, have enormous potential for energy production, although they have been out of reach for development because of their distance from load centers. A final consideration for a wind resource is the seasonal and daily variation in wind speed. If the wind blows during periods of peak power demand, power from a wind farm will be valued more highly than if it blows in off-peak periods. Addressing the Variability of Wind Power Dealing with the variability of wind on a large scale is by no means insurmountable for electric utilities. Grid operators must already adjust to constant changes in electricity demand, turning power plants on and off, and varying their output second-by-second as power use rises and falls. Operators always need to keep power plants in reserve to meet unexpected surges or drops in demand, as well as power plant and transmission line outages. As a result, operators do not need to respond to changes in wind output at each wind facility. In addition, the wind is always blowing somewhere, so distributing wind turbines across a broad geographic area helps smooth out the variability of the resource.
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Increasing our use of wind power can actually contribute to a more reliable electric system. Todays modern wind turbines have sophisticated electronic controls that allow continual adjustment of their output, and can help grid operators stabilize the grid in response to unexpected operating conditions, like a power line or power plant outage. This gives grid operators greater flexibility to respond to such events. Promising developments in storage technology could also improve reliability in the future, though there is plenty of room to greatly expand wind use without storage for at least the next couple of decades.
The Mechanics of Wind Turbines

Modern electric wind turbines come in a few different styles and many different sizes, depending on their use. The most common style, large or small, is the "horizontal axis design" (with the axis of the blades horizontal to the ground). On this turbine, two or three blades spin upwind of the tower that it sits on.
Small wind turbines are generally used for providing power off the grid, ranging from very small, 250-watt turbines designed for charging up batteries on a sailboat, to 50-kilowatt turbines that power dairy farms and remote villages. Like old farm windmills, these small wind turbines often have tail fans that keep them oriented into the wind. Most small wind turbines manufactured today are horizontal-axis, upwind machines that have two or three blades. These blades are usually made of a composite material, such as fiberglass.
From the outside, horizontal axis wind turbines consist of three big parts: the tower, the blades, and a box behind the blades, called the nacelle. Inside the nacelle is where most of the action takes place, where motion is turned into electricity. Large turbines don't have tail fans; instead they have hydraulic controls that orient the blades into the wind. In the most typical design, the blades are attached to an axle that runs into a gearbox. The gearbox, or transmission, steps up the speed of the rotation, from about 50 rpm up to 1,800 rpm. The faster spinning shaft spins inside the generator, producing AC electricity. Electricity must be produced at just the right frequency and voltage to be compatible with a utility grid. Since the wind speed varies,
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Large wind turbines, most often used by utilities to provide power to a grid, range from 250 kilowatts up to the enormous 3.5 to 5 MW machines that are being used offshore. In 2008, the average land-based wind turbines had a capacity of 1.67 MW.x Utility-scale turbines are usually placed in groups or rows to take advantage of prime windy spots. Wind "farms" like these can consist of a few or hundreds of turbines, providing enough power for tens of thousands of homes.
the speed of the generator could vary, producing fluctuations in the electricity. One solution to this problem is to have constant speed turbines, where the blades adjust, by turning slightly to the side, to slow down when wind speeds gust. Another solution is to use variable-speed turbines, where the blades and generator change speeds with the wind, and sophisticated power controls fix the fluctuations of the electrical output. A third approach is to use low-speed generators. An advantage that variable-speed turbines have over constant-speed turbines is that they can operate in a wider range of wind speeds. All turbines have upper and lower limits to the wind speed they can handle: if the wind is too slow, there's not enough power to turn the blades; if it's too fast, there's the danger of damage to the equipment. The "cut in" and "cut out" speeds of turbines can affect the amount of time the turbines operate and thus their power output. The Visible Bits The pole supporting the moving parts of the wind turbine is called the tower (surprise, surprise). Directly on top of the tower is the nacelle, which is the housing for all the parts of the wind turbine that arent the giant blades. Outside the nacelle is the most recognizable part of a wind turbine, the three blades attached to the hub in the middle. In slightly more technical terms, this assembly is called a rotor. Pitch motors in the hub allow the angle of the blades to be changed so that they can meet the wind. Also outside the nacelle are the anemometers (wind vanes), which tell the turbine control system how fast the wind is and in what direction its blowing (no use in being able to adjust the blades if something isnt telling them how to be adjusted).
Figure 3: Different parts in a Wind Turbine
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The Inside Parts Inside the tower are ladders for (relatively) easy access, and cables to export the electricity. Since the height of a wind turbine can range anywhere from 315 to 540, thats not a ladder Id want to climb (although better the ladder than attempting to scale the outside of the tower). Inside the nacelle, the main shaft of the hub connects to a gearbox and a brake. Since rotor speeds are usually around 10-20rpm, which is utterly useless for generating any kind of power, the gearbox is responsible for converting that speed to something like 1,500rpmmuch, much better for generating electricity.
Figure 4: Mechanism in a wind turbine [Source: NREL]
The final component inside the nacelle is the generator, which is connected to the gearbox and the brake. It takes the 1,500rpm rotational energy and converts it into electrical power. The power is then sent out of the turbine through the cables running down the length of the tower. A wind turbine can start producing power at wind speeds of 7-11 mph, but it reaches its full output at wind speeds of around 29mph. If its been appropriately placed, the turbine will generate over 40% of its maximum capacity over the course of each year its operational.
Global Market for Wind Energy and Wind Turbine

The Global Market for Wind Energy & Wind Turbine is booming. Wind turbine expected to attain market size of USD 93.1 billion in 2016 while wind energy cumulative capacity will rise to 1,750,000 MW by 2030. According to a new report published by Transparency Market Research, "Global Wind Energy & Wind Turbine Market (2011 - 2016)" The global market for wind turbine registered growth rate of 25% CAGR over the last five years. The Global Wind Energy cumulative capacity accounted for 197,039 MW in 2010.Wind turbine expected to attain market size of USD 93.1 billion in 2016 while wind energy cumulative capacity will rise to 1,750,000 MW by 2030. The wind energy technology started paving its path approximately 20 years back and since then has continuously expanded its base all across the world. With the generation cost declining dramatically, this technology is becoming more affordable and hence is increasing its entry even in previously unexplored markets. With the increase in understanding about a sustainable alternate source of energy worldwide, wind
35
power is gaining stimulus importance across the globe. The global wind energy market is estimated to have a growth rate of 25% CAGR over the last 5 years. Till 2010, Europe was considered to be the largest market for wind energy followed by the Asia-Pacific and North American markets. However, owing to the increase in investments, its long coastline and large land mass, China is expected to attain the worldwide top rank in this market. Due to steady evolution in the segment, the development of modern wind technology can now be operated effectively at a wider range of sites suitable to high as well as low wind speeds. Further, the development of light weight material has helped in phasing out bulky turbines and in introduction of more sleek and effective turbine designs. As per estimates, the wind turbine market has experienced an approximate growth rate of 28% globally and is expected to grow at an increasing double-digit growth rate. Wind power, being the fastest growing alternate source of energy is witnessing an increase in investment globally.
The Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) and Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) together form the two major segments for wind turbine market globally. However, the HAWT generate the major chunk of revenue to the turbine market capturing approximately 90% share. The Wind turbine market is characterized as highly competitive market and includes GE Energy, Gamesa, Vestas, Suzlon, Siemens, Mitsubishi etc. as few major players. In the present scenario, the onshore technology is leading with approximately 95% share and offshore technology owing to its nascent stage is making its move with 5% market share. The cost propositions with offshore technology rise because of their high O&M costs. Hence, the offshore wind turbine market occupies only 5% share in the global wind turbine market. Particularly in onshore wind energy market, U.S. was the largest onshore wind energy market in 2010 followed by Germany and China. However, China is expected to rank ahead of U.S thereby becoming a market leader by 2016.
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Main Geographic Markets

North America Wind Energy and Wind Turbine Market: U.S. and Canada European Wind Energy and Wind Turbine Market: France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Turkey and United Kingdom Africa & Middle East: Egypt and Iran Asia: India, China, Japan and South Korea Pacific: Australia and New Zealand South America: Brazil, Chile and Mexico
Average Price per KW/h currently

Method Cents/kW-h Limitations and Externalities Wind is currently the only cost-effective alternative energy method, but has a number of problems. Wind farms are highly subject to lightning strikes, have high mechanical fatigue failure, are limited in size by hub stress, do not function well, if at all, under conditions of heavy rain, icing conditions or very cold climates, and are noisy and cannot be insulated for sound reduction due to their size and subsequent loss of wind velocity and power.
Wind Currently supplies approximately 4.0 - 6.0 1.4% of the global electricity Cents/kW-h demand. Wind is considered to be about 30% reliable.
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How much do wind turbines cost?

Wind turbines come in many shapes and sizes, but here is a general guideline on how much they cost: Total costs for installing a commercial-scale wind turbine will vary significantly depending on the number of turbines ordered, cost of financing, when the turbine purchase agreement was executed, construction contracts, the location of the project, and other factors. Cost components for wind projects include things other than the turbines, such as wind resource assessment and site analysis expenses; construction expenses; permitting and interconnection studies; utility system upgrades, transformers, protection and metering equipment; insurance; operations, warranty, maintenance, and repair; legal and consultation fees. Other factors that will impact your project economics include taxes and incentives. The costs for a utility scale wind turbine in 2012 range from about $1.3 million to $2.2 million per MW of nameplate capacity installed. This cost has come down dramatically from what it was just a few years ago. Most of the commercial-scale turbines installed today are 2 MW in size and cost roughly $3-$4 million installed. Wind turbines have significant economies of scale. Smaller farm or residential scale turbines cost less overall, but are more expensive per kilowatt of energy producing capacity. Wind turbines under 100 kilowatts cost roughly $3,000 to $8,000 per kilowatt of capacity. A 10 kilowatt machine (the size needed to power a large home) might have an installed cost of $50,000-$80,000 (or more) depending on the tower type, height, and the cost of installation. Oftentimes there are tax and other incentives that can dramatically reduce the cost of a wind project.
Wind Turbine Power Calculations

Scenario The energy available for conversion mainly depends on the wind speed and the swept area of the turbine. When planning a wind farm it is important to know the expected power and energy output of each wind turbine to be able to calculate its economic viability. Problem statement With the knowledge that it is of critical economic importance to know the power and therefore energy produced by different types of wind turbine in different conditions, in this exemplar we will calculate the rotational kinetic power produced in a wind turbine at its rated wind speed. This is the minimum wind speed at which a wind turbine produces its rated power. Mathematical Model The following table shows the definition of various variables used in this model: E = Kinetic Energy (J) ; = Density (kg/m3) ; A = Swept Area (m2) ; v = Wind Speed (m/s) ; P = Power (W)

m = Mass (kg) Cp = Power Coefficient
r = Radius (m) ; ; x = distance (m)
= Mass low Rate (kg/s)
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Under constant acceleration, the kinetic energy of an object having mass m and velocity v is equal to the work done W in displacing that object from rest to a distance s under a force F , i.e.: E = W = Fs According to Newtons Law, we have: F = ma Hence, E = mas (1) Using the third equation of motion: v 2 = v2 + 2as we get: a=
(2 2 ) 2 2
= Energy low Rate (J/s)
t = time (s)
Since the initial velocity of the object is zero, i.e. u = 0 , we get: a=
Substituting it in equation (1), we get that the kinetic energy of a mass in motions is: E=
1 2
The power in the wind is given by the rate of change of energy: P=

2..(2) =
1 2
As mass flow rate is given by:

....(3)
=A
and the rate of change of distance is given by:

=v
we get:

= Av
Hence, from equation (3), the power can be defined as:
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P=
1 2
A German physicist Albert Betz concluded in 1919 that no wind turbine can convert more than 16/27 (59.3%) of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy turning a rotor. To this day, this is known as the Betz Limit or Betz' Law. The theoretical maximum power efficiencyof any design of wind turbine is 0.59 (i.e. no more than 59% of the energy carried by the wind can be extracted by a wind turbine). This is called the power coefficient and is defined as: C pmax = 0.59 Also, wind turbines cannot operate at this maximum limit. The Cpvalue is unique to each turbine type and is a function of wind speed that the turbine is operating in. Once we incorporate various engineering requirements of a wind turbine - strength and durability in particular - the real world limit is well below the Betz Limit with values of 0.35-0.45 common even in the best designed wind turbines. By the time we take into account the other factors in a complete wind turbine system - e.g. the gearbox, bearings, generator and so on - only 10-30% of the power of the wind is ever actually converted into usable electricity. Hence, the power coefficient needs to be factored in equation (4) and the extractable power from the wind is given by: P avail =
1 2
A 3 .(4)
Av3C p .(5)
The swept area of the turbine can be calculated from the length of the turbine blades using the equation for the area of a circle: A = r2 .(6) where the radius is equal to the blade length as shown in the figure below:
Calculation with given data We are given the following data: Blade length, l = 52 m Wind speed, v = 12 m/sec
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Air density, = 1.23 kg/m3 Power Coefficient, Cp = 0.4 Inserting the value for blade length as the radius of the swept area into equation (8) we have: l = r = 52m A = r2 = x 522 = 8495 m2 We can then calculate the power converted from the wind into rotational energy in the turbine using equation (5): P avail =
1 2
Av3C p =
1 2
x 1.23 x 8495 x 123 x 0.4 = 3.6 MW
Conclusion This value is normally defined by the turbine designers but it is important to understand the relationship between all of these factors and to use this equation to calculate the power at wind speeds other than the rated wind speed. Having knowledge of how a turbine behaves in different wind speeds is critical to understand the income lost by any down time of the turbine. It is also useful to understand what power a turbine should be producing so that if there is a problem with the turbine this can be picked up on due to lower than estimated energy values. Predictions of how much energy will be produced by a turbine are important to the energy market, as energy is sold before it is actually produced. This means that accurate calculations of the energy are very important to balancing the energy in the market and to forecasting a companys income.
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Index of Figures Wind Energy

FIGURE 1
WINDGENERATE.BLOGSPOT.COM
FIGURE 2 WWW .LIFESTYLEHOMESMN.COM FIGURE 3 HTTP://SCIENCE.HOWSTUFFWORKS.COM/ENVIRONMENTAL/GREEN-SCIENCE/WIND-POWER2.HTM FIGURE 4 HTTP://WWW.ALTERNATIVE-ENERGY-NEWS.INFO/TECHNOLOGY/WIND-POWER/WIND-TURBINES/ FIGURE 5 HTTP://WWW.GWEC.NET/PUBLICATIONS/GLOBAL-WIND-REPORT-2/GLOBAL-WIND-REPORT -20102/ FIGURE 6 HTTP://WWW.GWEC.NET/PUBLICATIONS/GLOBAL-WIND-REPORT-2/GLOBAL-WIND-REPORT -20102/ FIGURE 7 HTTP://WWW.TREEHUGGER.COM/RENEWABLE-ENERGY/CHINA-US-INDIA-ADD-MOST-WINDPOWER-IN-2011-SO-FAR.HTML FIGURE 8 HTTP://WWW.ENERGYMATTERS.COM.AU/INDEX.PHP?MAIN_PAGE=NEWS_ARTICLE&ARTICLE_ID= 3069 FIGURE 9 HTTP://WWW.RAENG.ORG.UK/EDUCATION/DIPLOMA/MATHS/PDF/EXEMPLARS_ADVANCED/23_WIN D_TURBINE.PDF
References
HTTP://WWW.WINDUSTRY.ORG/RESOURCES/HOW -MUCH-DO-WIND-TURBINES-COST HTTP://WWW.UCSUSA.ORG/CLEAN_ENERGY/OUR-ENERGY-CHOICES/RENEWABLE-ENERGY/HOW WIND-ENERGY-WORKS.HTML HTTP://WWW.EWEA.ORG/ HTTP://WWW.TRANSPARENCYMARKETRESEARCH.COM HTTP://WWW.TRANSPARENCYMARKETRESEARCH.COM/WIND-ENERGY-WIND-TURBINEMARKET.HTML HTTP://WWW.WHOLESALESOLAR.COM/WIND.HTML HTTP://WWW.PRNEWSWIRE.COM/NEWS-RELEASES/THE-GLOBAL-MARKET-FOR-WIND-ENERGY-WIND-TURBINE-IS-BOOMING-WIND-TURBINE-EXPECTED-TO-ATTAIN-MARKET-SIZE-OF-USD-931BILLION-IN-2016-WHILE-WIND-ENERGY-CUMULATIVE-CAPACITY-WILL-RISE-TO-1750000-MW -BY2030-133060778.HTML HTTP://ENERGY.GOV/ENERGYSAVER/ARTICLES/SMALL-WIND-ELECTRIC-SYSTEMS HTTP://WWW.LOWENERGYHOUSE.COM/SMALL-WIND-TURBINES.HTML
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Ocean Energy
Introduction
As we know, ocean energy shows up in different ways: Swell: The waves are produced by the action of the wind on the sea surface. Subsequently these travel hundreds of miles across the sea. Tides and currents: The movement of large masses of water produced by the gravitational action of the sun and the moon causes locally periodic variations in sea level and currents that can be harnessed by human to produce energy Thermal gradient: Solar radiation causes differences between the temperature in the surface of the sea and in the bottom of the sea that can exceed 20 C Salinity gradient: At the mouths of rivers there are strong differences in salt concentration between ocean water and river water.
However, marine energy is the renewable energy source that is less developed to reach commercial maturity. In the following paragraphs, the physical principle of exploitation will be described for each way of
ocean energy. Theoretical and Technical efficiencies will be shown as well and finally some economics data and current status of market technologies will be indicated.
Physical principle of exploitation

In this paragraph, the physical principle of exploitation will be described for several technologies and for the different ways of ocean energy: Wave Power The energy available from the ocean's surface wave motion is almost in limited, but it has proved frustratingly difficult to capture. Many ingenious systems have been proposed but, except for very small installations, very few are generating electricity commercially and most have been thwarted by practical problems. Some of these proposals are outlined below. Most are still in an experimental phase and many are not scalable into high capacity systems. Oscillating Float System One of the simplest and most common solutions is the oscillating float system in which a float is housed inside a cylinder shaped buoy which is open at the bottom and moored to the seabed. Inside the cylinder the float moves up and down on the surface of the waves as they pass through the buoy.
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Figure 1: Sketch of a linear generator for the extraction of energy from wave power. Source: Oskar Danielsson, Uppsala University Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach Various methods have been employed to turn the motion of the float into electrical energy. These include: Hydraulic systems in which air is compressed in a pneumatic reservoir above the float during its upward movement on the crests of the waves. After the crests have passed, the air expands and forces the float downwards into the following troughs of the waves. A hydraulic system then uses the reciprocating movement of the float to pump water through a water turbine which drives a rotary electrical generator. Pneumatic systems in which the air displaced in the cylinder is used to power an air turbine which drives the generator. Linear generators to turn the reciprocating motion of the float directly into electrical power. Instead of generating the electricity on board the buoy, some systems pump the hydraulic fluid ashore to power shore based generators.
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Oscillating Paddle System This system uses large paddles moored to the ocean floor to mimic the swaying motion of sea plants in the presence of ocean waves. The paddles are fixed to special hinged joints at the base which use the swaying motion of the paddles to pump water through a turbine generator. Oscillating Snake System The snake system uses a series of floating cylindrical sections linked by hinged joints. The floating snake is tethered to the sea bed and maintains a position head on into the waves. The wave-induced motion at the hinges is used to pump high-pressure oil through hydraulic motors via smoothing accumulators. The hydraulic motors in turn drive electrical generators to produce the electrical power. Oscillating Water Column Water columns are formed within large concrete structures built on the shore line or on rafts. The structure is open at both the top and the bottom. The lower end is submerged in the sea and an air turbine fills the aperture at the top. The rising and falling of the water column inside the structure moves the air column above it driving the air through the turbine generator. The turbine has movable vanes which rotate to maintain unidirectional rotation when the movement of the air column reverses.
Figure 2: Oscillating Water Column System Sketch. Source: www.mpoweruk.com Pressure Transducer System The hydraulic pump system uses a submerged gas-filled tank with rigid sides and base and a flexible, bellows like, top. The gas in the tank compresses and expands in response to pressure changes from the waves passing overhead causing the top to rise and fall. A lever attached to center of the top drives pistons, which pump pressurized water ashore for driving hydraulic generators. Wave Capture Systems Wave capture systems use a narrowing ramp to funnel waves into an elevated reservoir. Waves entering the funnel over a wide front are concentrated into a narrowing channel which causes the amplitude of the wave to increase. The increased wave height coupled with the momentum of the water is sufficient to raise a quantity of water up a ramp and into a reservoir situated above the sea
46
level. Water from the reservoir can then be released through a hydroelectric turbine located below the reservoir to generate electricity.
Figure 3: Wave Capture System Sketch. Source: www.mpoweruk.com Overtopping Wave Systems These are floating systems similar to the land based system described above. They focus waves onto a tapered ramp which causes their amplitude to increase. The crests of the waves overtop the ramp and spill into a low dam. Water from the low dam then flows through hydroelectric turbines back into into the sea beneath the floating structure. Lever Systems Various lever based energy capture systems have been developed. Long levers may be mounted on steel piles or on floating platforms. Large floats or buoys are attached to the extremities of the levers which move up and down with the waves. Movement of the lever arms force fluid into a central hydraulic accumulator and through to a generator turbine. Alternatively high-pressure water can be pumped ashore to power shore based generators. Available Power In deep water where the water depth is larger than half the wavelength, the wave energy flux is:
with P the wave energy flux per unit of wave-crest length, H m0 the significant wave height, T the wave period, the water density and g the acceleration by gravity. The above formula states that wave power is proportional to the wave period and to the square of the wave height. When the significant wave height is given in metres, and the wave period in seconds, the result is the wave power in kilowatts (kW) per metre of wave front length. Example: Consider moderate ocean swells, in deep water, a few km off a coastline, with a wave height of 3 m and a wave period of 8 seconds. Using the formula to solve for power, we get
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meaning there are 36 kilowatts of power potential per meter of wave crest. In major storms, the largest waves offshore are about 15 meters high and have a period of about 15 seconds. According to the above formula, such waves carry about 1.7 MW of power across each metre of wave front. An effective wave power device captures as much as possible of the wave energy flux. As a result the waves will be of lower height in the region behind the wave power device. In a sea state, the average energy density per unit area of gravity waves on the water surface is proportional to the wave height squared, according to linear wave theory:
where E is the mean wave energy density per unit horizontal area (J/m2), the sum of kinetic and potential energy density per unit horizontal area. The potential energy density is equal to the kinetic energy, both contributing half to the wave energy density E, as can be expected from the equipartition theorem. In ocean waves, surface tension effects are negligible for wavelengths above a few decimetres. As the waves propagate, their energy is transported. The energy transport velocity is the group velocity. As a result, the wave energy flux, through a vertical plane of unit width perpendicular to the wave propagation direction, is equal to:
with c g the group velocity (m/s). Due to the dispersion relation for water waves under the action of gravity, the group velocity depends on the wavelength , or equivalently, on the wave period T. Further, the dispersion relation is a function of the water depth h. As a result, the group velocity behaves differently in the limits of deep and shallow water, and at intermediate depths:
Quantity
Symbol
Units
Deep Water (h > )
Shallow Water (h < 0.05 )
Intermediate depth (all and h)
Phase Velocity
m/s
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Group Velocity
m/s
Ratio
Wave length
for given period T, the solution of: m
GENERAL Wave Energy Density Wave Energy Flux J / m2
W/m
Wave Number
rad m
Tidal Energy Harnessing the power of the tides can be achieved by placing bi-directional turbines in the path of the tidal water flow in bays and river estuaries. To be viable, it needs a large tidal range and involves creating a barrier across the bay or estuary to funnel the water through the turbines as the tide comes in and goes out. Although tidal energy captured in tidal ponds have been used since Roman times to power mills, there are few modern installations. The first plant to utilise tidal energy on a large scale for electricity generation was built at Rance in France in1966. Others followed in Canada and Russia.
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Angular Frequency
rad / s
Figure 4: Electrik Power from Tidal Flows Sketch. Source: www.mpoweruk.com Tidal power comes closest of all the intermittent renewable sources to being able to provide an unlimited, continuous and predictable power output but unfortunately there are few suitable sites in the world and environmental constraints have so far prevented their general acceptance. Shrouded water turbines placed in deep water tidal currents show better potential for exploitation, though the associated civil works are more complicated, and several projects are under development. Power is available for only six to twelve hours per day depending on the ebb and flow of the tides. The maximum power output from a shrouded water turbine used in tidal energy applications is equal to the kinetic energy of the water impinging on the blades. Taking the efficiency of the turbine and its installation into account, the maximum output power P max is given by P max =Av3 where v is the velocity of the water flow and A is the swept area of the blades.
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A turbine of one metre in diameter with a water current of one metre per second flowing through it would generate 0.4 kW of electricity assuming 100% efficiency. Similarly a 3 meter diameter turbine with a water current of 3 metres per second would produce 32 Kw of power. Thermal Gradient Energy OTEC energy harvesting is similar to geothermal energy extraction except that the temperature gradient has an opposite slope. Sea water is heated by energy both from the Sun and from the Earth below. The solar energy falling on the water surface is greater than the heat flow emanating from the Earth so that the temperature at the surface is greater than the temperature in the depths of the water. OTEC systems convert the heat energy of the surface water into electrical energy using Binary Electric Generating Plants. The available energy depends on the temperature gradient in the water. Warm water at the surface vaporizes a working fluid such as ammonia or butane and the vapor is used to drive a turbine generator. Cold water, pumped up from the depths (down to 1000 metres), condenses the vapor. In many geothermal and hydrothermal plants the water temperature and pressure are too low for driving a steam turbine efficiently if at all. Dual cycle "binary plants" have been developed to make more efficient use of lower temperature water in the range from 100 C to 175 C. In a binary plant the hot water circuit passing through the thermal source is separated from the closed loop working fluid circuit used in the turbine by a heat exchanger. The hot water gives up its heat in the heat exchanger to a working fluid with a low boiling point and high vapour pressure at low temperatures when compared to steam. The working fluid is typically an organic compound such as ammonia, butane, pentane or isopentane which circulates through the secondary side of the heat exchanger where it vaporises and the vapour is then used to rotate a turbine in a conventional Rankine cycle electricity generating plant. After the vaporised binary liquid has passed through, and given up its energy to, the turbine it is condensed and recycled for re-use through the heat exchanger.
Figure 5: Ocean Thermal Electric Conversion Sketch. Source: www.mpoweruk.com After passing through the heat exchanger the water in the primary circuit is pumped back down the bore hole into the hot rock. Binary systems have the added advantage that contaminated water from
51
the primary heat source (salt water from the ocean or polluted water from aquifers and hot rocks) never comes in contact with the turbine generator units. The marine system is similar to the geothermal system adapted for the low temperature source. Hot water is taken from the surface of the ocean to vaporize the fluid in the turbine circuit. Cold water is pumped from the depths of the ocean to condense the working fluid. A rigorous treatment of OTEC reveals that a 20C temperature difference will provide as much energy as a hydroelectric plant with 34 m head for the same volume of water flow. The low temperature difference means that water volumes must be very large to extract useful amounts of heat. A 100MW power plant would be expected to pump on the order of 12 million gallons (44,400 metric tonnes) per minute. For comparison, pumps must move a mass of water greater than the weight of the Battleship Bismark, which weighed 41,700 metric tons, every minute. This makes pumping a substantial parasitic drain on energy production in OTEC systems, with one Lockheed design consuming 19.55 MW in pumping costs for every 49.8 MW net electricity generated. For OTEC schemes using heat exchangers, to handle this volume of water the exchangers need to be enormous compared to those used in conventional thermal power generation plants, making them one of the most critical components due to their impact on overall efficiency. A 100 MW OTEC power plant would require 200 exchangers each larger than a 20 foot shipping container making them the single most expensive component. Available Power The conversion efficiency depends on the temperature gradient in the water and is determined by Carnot's Law. Only sites with at least a 20 degree temperature difference are likely to be economically viable. Unfortunately in most locations the temperature difference is much smaller than this. For a 20 degree temperature difference the maximum theoretical maximum efficiency is given by: 1 - (5+273)/(25+273) =1 - 278/298 = 7%. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach Practical installations will also have large pumping losses as well as heat losses within the system which reduce this efficiency even further and overall conversion efficiencies of 2% to 3% are typical. Salinity Gradient Energy Pressure Retarded Osmosis (PRO) uses the selective diffusion of water across a membrane in order to pressurize seawater. Freshwater and seawater are placed on either side of a membrane, and the seawater side is pressurized. As the seawater side increases in pressure and decreases in salinity, part of the water is discharged through a turbine while the rest is put in a pressure exchanger to pressurize the incoming seawater, as illustrated in the following figure.
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Figure 6: Salinity Gradient Electric Power Generation Sketch Map. Source ClimateTechWiki The pressure difference across the membrane is the main supplier of energy and can be as much as 200 meters of hydraulic head. Membrane performance in the 4 - 6 W/m2 range is currently the target range by the main research institution investigating PRO. The lifetime of the membrane also needs to increase to around 7 to 10 years before the technology can become commercial. Test modules have so far demonstrated energy densities of about 1.7 W/m2. The technology is still in its infancy. The salinity gradient technologies are in their part-scale (tank) phase which means that the concepts and prototypes are undergoing tests in the laboratory environment. Clearly, the other ocean energy technologies have advanced further in the R&D process. However, the global potential of the technology of using the salinity gradient for energy is estimated to be around 2000 terawatthour on an annual basis (TWh/year).
Figure 7: Technology maturity of various ocean energy conversion schemes. Source: IEA, 2009
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Efficiencies
Electric power plant efficiency is defined as the ratio between the useful electricity output from the generating unit, in a specific time, and the energy value of the energy source supplied to the unit in the same time period. An oscillating water column device enables the conversion of wave energy into electrical energy via wave interaction with a semi-submerged chamber coupled with a turbine for power take off. Typical peak magnitude resonant efficiencies are in the order of 70%. Tidal power is actually incredibly efficient (85% efficiency) when compared to things like coal power plants (30% efficiency) which is where the majority of electricity currently comes from. However, in order to obtain this efficiency level certain conditions need to be met. For example the difference between high and low tides needs to be 7 meters or more and efficiency is greatest in areas with semidiurnal tides (two high and low tides in a single day). However, even when these optimal conditions arent present efficiency is still much higher than traditional energy sources. The problem is the expense associated with building tidal power stations which means return on investment often takes much longer. A heat engine gives greater efficiency when run with a large temperature difference. In the oceans the temperature difference between surface and deep water is greatest in the tropics, although still a modest 20 to 25C. It is therefore in the tropics that OTEC offers the greatest possibilities. OTEC has the potential to offer global amounts of energy that are 10 to 100 times greater than other ocean energy options such as wave power. OTEC plants can operate continuously providing a base load supply for an electrical power generation system. The main technical challenge of OTEC is to generate significant amounts of power efficiently from small temperature differences. It is still considered an emerging technology. Early OTEC systems were 1 to 3 percent thermally efficient, well below the theoretical maximum 6 and 7 percent for this temperature difference. Modern designs allow performance approaching the theoretical maximum Carnot efficiency and the largest built in 1999 by the USA generated 250 kW. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach The table below shows the theoretical efficiency of converting various energy sources by a variety of methods into useful electrical energy.
54
Figure 8: Electricity Generation Efficiencies. Source: Eurelectric
Economics data
Ocean energy could contribute to energy security and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, while ocean energy technology could enhance the competitiveness of European industries. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach Estimates set the global theoretical energy production potential of OE at over 100 000 TWh/year. For comparison, global electricity consumption is currently around 16 000 TWh/year. The global wave energy resource exploitable with todays technology is estimated to be in the order of 1 400 TWh/year. Conversion of wave resources into energy could supply a substantial part of the electricity demand of several countries in Europe, such as Ireland, UK, Denmark, Portugal and Spain. Due to the variety of forms in which the ocean stores and supplies energy, there are a large number of concepts for wave energy conversion. Various wave energy systems have been deployed at sea in several countries and these technologies are making the transition from research to demonstration to market penetration. Though wave energy is not yet competitive with more mature technologies such as wind, in the medium term it will contribute significantly to energy markets close to the sea. In the longer term, wave energy could become a much more important part of the worlds energy portfolio. The best resources are found between 40-60 latitude, which takes in most of the European Atlantic coast, where the available resource is 30-70 kW/m with peaks to 100 kW/m.
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The cost of wave power is very site and technology specific. The cost of current prototypes are of the order of 6450 to 13500 /kW, while initial capital investment costs of first production units are estimated to be of the order of 2500 to 7000 /kW. The predicted electricity generating costs from wave energy converters have shown a significant improvement in the last 20 years, reaching an average price below 10 euro cents per kWh. Compared to the average electricity price in the EU, which is approx. 4 euro cents per kWh, the electricity price produced from waves is still high, but is forecast to decrease. If the maximum potential is realised, wave energy could potentially avoid between 15 Mt/year CO 2 and 25 Mt/year CO 2 , with respect to the baseline. The corresponding maximum cumulative avoided CO 2 emission for the period 2010 to 2030 would be up to 275 Mt CO 2 . Wave energy technologies can replace fossil fuel-based power plants in the peak to medium scale base load 3000 hrs to 4000 hrs. Achieving the maximum potential for wave energy could lead to avoiding up to 5 Mtoe of fossil fuel use in 2020 and 10 Mtoe in 2030, with a maximum cumulative fossil fuel avoidance of 80 Mtoe, for the period 2010 to 2030. These figures do not account for the possible needs for fossil-fuel based power back-up to firm wave power capacities. The cost of tidal energy is rather inexpensive in the long run. The cost mainly comes from the building of the dam, and once the dam is built, there is not much cost other than the maintenance of the dam. Also, as the basin of water or river is renewable and does not cost anything, tidal energy hardly requires any cost. Tidal energy has also a relatively high efficiency rate. About 80% of the kinetic energy from the waves can be converted into usable electrical energy for our use. Finally, it should be pointed out that the installation of some ocean energy plant implies the creation of direct and indirect jobs. In the following chart the number of jobs creation per MW of ocean energy installed capacity by 2050 can be perceived.
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Figure 9: Job creation per MW of ocean energy installed capacity by 2050
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Index of Figures Ocean Energy:

FIGURE 1 OSKAR DANIELSSON, UPPSALA UNIVERSITY FIGURES 2, 3, 4, 5 HTTP://MPOWERUK.COM FIGURE 6 CLIMATETECHW IKI FIGURE 7 IEA, 2009 FIGURE 8 EURELECTRIC FIGURE 9 EUROPEAN OCEAN ENERGY ASSOCIATION
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References
Websites ALTENERGYSTOCKS.COM: HTTP://WWW.ALTENERGYSTOCKS.COM/ARCHIVES/OCEAN_POWER/ UPPSALA UNIVERSITET RESEARCH AREA: HTTP://WWW.EL.ANGSTROM.UU.SE/FORSKNINGSPROJEKT/W AVEPOWER/LYSEKILSPROJEKTET_E .HTML THE ELECTROPAEDIA: HTTP://WWW.MPOWERUK.COM/ WIKIPEDIA: HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/ENERGY_CONVERSION_EFFICIENCY THE W OLF AT THE DOOR: HTTP://WATD.WUTHERING-HEIGHTS.CO.UK/MAINPAGES/EFFICIENCY.HTML ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT THEMED EXHIBITION, CHINESE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES: HTTP://WWW.NOBELKEPU.ORG.CN/FORUME/INNOVATION/133422.SHTML CLIMATETECHW IKI: HTTP://CLIMATETECHWIKI.ORG/TECHNOLOGY/JIQWEB-RO WIKIPEDIA HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/ RENEWABLE ENERGY INDEX HTTP://RENEWABLEENERGYINDEX.COM/QUESTIONS
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Documents SEVERN TIDAL POWER, FEASIBILITY STUDY CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY REPORT, DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE SOUTH W EST RDA, OCTOBER 2010 WWW .DECC.GOV.UK WAVE ENERGY: A GUIDE FOR INVESORES AND POLICY MAKERS WWW .WAVEPLAM.EU TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF W AVE POWER PLANT, ZATIROSTAMI AHMAD, DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING, SARI BRANCH, ISLAMIC AZAD UNIVERSITY SARI: HTTP://WWW.EUROJOURNALS.COM/AJSR.HTM OCEAN WAVE ENERGY, EUROPEAN COMISSION, STRATEGIC ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES INFORMATION SYSTEM RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN SALINITY GRADIENT POWER, A.T. JONES AND W. FINLEY: HTTP://WADERLLC.COM/2284-2287.PDF
Biomass Energy
Introduction
The use of animal and plant products to produce biomass energy can be the result of the collection of waste products or the growth of plant materials specifically for the production of biomass energy. Biomass energy has been used throughout human history, with the burning of animal and plant waste for heat in fire the most common form of biomass energy use. Biomass materials can be grown on land unsuited for food production, such as pasture land, or it can be produced in rotation with food crops. These materials can be collected from forest residue or from urban areas, in products including shipping pallets and tree clippings. As a renewable source of energy, the carbon released during the decay of plant and animal products can be taken up by new plant growth replacing harvested materials.
Expansion of the market

Because biomass technologies use combustion processes to produce electricity, they can generate electricity at any time, unlike wind and most solar technologies, which only produce when the wind is blowing or sun is shining. The market for biomass power plants is experiencing a continuous expansion. The internationally increasing subsidisation of renewable energies is the main reason for this growth. Biomass has a special status among the renewable energies as generating energy from biomass follows the demand contrary to the energetic use of sun, wind and water. Between 2007 and 2011, more than 750 biomass power plants with a capacity of over 8,200 MWel went operational more than ever before. This growth will even accelerate in the years to come. Approximately another 820 power plants with a capacity of 12,500 MWel will be commissioned by 2016. All of today's biomass power capacity is based on mature, direct combustion boiler/steam turbine technology. The average size of existing biomass power plants is 20 MW (the largest approaches 75 MW), and the industry average biomass-to-electricity efficiency is 20 percent.
Biomass conversion energies

A huge amount of technologies for converting biomass are commercial today while others are being piloted or in research and development. There are several combustion technologies for converting biomass into electricity, ranging from simple furnaces and boilers that burn the biomass to produce hot gases containing potential energy, to gas turbines and co-firing power plants.
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There are various conversion technologies that can convert biomass resources into power, heat, and fuels for potential use. Figure 1 gives a first look of the various biomass conversion processes. However, few of them except combustion have been deployed at commercial scale nationwide.
Figure 1 Biomass conversion processes.
A more precise classification of the processes used to convert biomass into energy is needed in order to understand the different ways of obtaining this energy. In the following lines we will distinguish three ways of converting biomass: Combustion process; Gasification process; Pyrolysis process. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach
Deeper study of these processes will be explained and understood helped also by graphics.
Combustion The direct burning, or combustion, is the oldest and the most commercially widespread conversion technology. It is basically applied for wood and for the most diverse agro-industrial residues such as sugar cane bagasse and rice husks. This most well-known process is simple. The combustion process generates heat that's transformed into energy. In the combustion process biomass is burned and converted into energy.
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The advantage of biomass combustion is that you can use the heat without needing to convert it into another form of energy such as electricity. You simply use the heat directly for such things as heating your home and heating the water in your home. In addition, the combustion heat can be used for direct heat in plants, manufacturing facilities and even office buildings. Direct heat can also be converted into electricity. Biomass is a fuel rich in volatiles, which constitute almost 3/4 of its weight. This causes the combustion process to take place in 6 well-defined consecutive stages: Drying; Volatile emission; Volatile ignition; Volatile flame burning: Volatile flame extinction; Coke combustion.
Figure 2 shows the fraction of consumed mass and the corresponding temperature of each of those stages for burning wood as an example.
Figure 2 Wood combustion stages. During the biomass combustion process, it is mandatory to know that this process first takes place in an homogenous stage (volatile burning) and then in a heterogeneous stage (coke combustion). According to the conditions of air supplying and its mixture with the fuel, the velocity of the initial stages is generally higher than the velocity of the last stage when the fuel is burning in a solid state. When biomass is burnt in fixed bed on a grate, the volatiles are released and are burnt on the bed. This way, one can understand the reason why it is convenient to divide the combustion air flow into
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two parts: the primary air which is used for the coke combustion and the secondary air used for the volatile combustion. This procedure is carried out in industrial systems as shown in Figure 3. There are systems where the carbon of the fuel (C) is burned in the bed only until it becomes CO concluding its combustion as CO 2 with the volatiles.
FIGURE 3 INDUSTRIAL GRATE SCHEME. In summary, the combustion reaction of a fuel using air can be represented according to the following scheme: Biomass + Air = CO 2 + SO 2 + H 2 O + N 2 + O 2 + CO + H 2 + CH 4 + soot + ashes For biomass combustion, each one of the groups colored above correspond to: Blue complete oxidation products: CO 2 , SO 2 , and H 2 O. Once the biomass sulfur content is usually low, the percentage of SO 2 is almost insignificant. Yellow excess air (N 2 + O 2 ) and, eventually, fuel and air moisture. Green gaseous products (CO, H 2 and CH 4 ) and incomplete combustion solid products (soot). Purple biomass non-combustible mineral fraction (ashes). In physical-chemical terms and in a little more detailed way, wood combustion and, generically, biomass combustion can be presented as a three-process sequence: drying, volatilization and oxidation, as shown in Figure 4, where a chemical formula for dry wood is also presented, CH 1.7 O 0.7 . Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach
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FIGURE 4 WOOD COMBUSTION PROCESS SCHEME (NUSSBAUMER 1991) It must be observed in the previous figure whether or not there are fuel gases such as carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons in the combustion products, if so the combustion is said to be incomplete. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach
Co-firing process The co-firing process is considered an inefficient method of combustion. In this process, the biomass replaces anywhere from 15 to 20 percent of the coal used in a power plant. This helps to reduce the emissions from coal fuel and even reduces the operating costs. Switchgrass is the most common material used for this process. Switchgrass is a perennial summer grass that's a natural plant found in the American Great Plains region and in some areas of the South. It's a strong resistant plant that can withstand drought, flood, pests, and poor soil. It's a resilient crop that can also be cultivated without the need of harmful fertilizers than can result in runoff pollution into the rivers, streams and oceans. Many scientists believe that switchgrass is a more efficient feedstock for ethanol production than corn.
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Gasification The gasification process takes place by using high temperatures and controlling the amount of oxygen and steam when converting carbon materials such as petroleum, coal, biomass, and biofuels into hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Here the production of heat is not the main goal, but the conversion of biomass into fuel gas through its partial oxidation at these high temperatures. This conversion process produces what's known as syngas and is a more efficient product of biomass than the combustion process. Syngas can be burned directly, used to create methanol and hydrogen and even be further converted into a synthetic fuel. Although the produced gas has a relatively low calorific value, about 5 MJ/m3, and there are also energy losses during the conversion process, the gasification presents some advantages when compared to direct combustion in several situations: The combustion of the gas is possible to take place in kilns, steam boiler furnaces and internal combustion engines that were originally designed for liquid and gaseous fuels derived from petroleum without any great modification in its equipment and/or reduction in efficiency. This is very important when conventional systems that use fossil fuels are intended to be converted into biomass systems. The small-scale electricity generation can be accomplished without the need of a steam cycle by using biomass gas directly in an internal combustion engine or respectively a gas micro turbine or fuel cell. These primary drivers are interesting because of their simplicity in operation and maintenance. They are also suitable for isolated systems, exactly in places where the energetic biomass can be eventually supplied at competitive prices. The use of biomass in combined cycles with gasifiers and gas turbines, commonly known as BIG/GT Systems (Biomass Integrated Gasifier/Gas Turbine), which are still being developed showing good prospects within the next few years though, allows electricity generation with an efficiency which is equal or higher than the electricity generation using fossil fuels. In addition, the kWh cost is competitive, even when the capacity is only a few MWs. By using this technology, sectors that have a wide availability of biomass at a low cost, such as sugar and wood industries, will also be able to become great electricity producers.
The biomass gasification process is a result of complex reactions, which are not still completely known in a whole. However, in an introductory way and in theoretical terms, it can be divided in several stages:
1. Pyrolysis or thermal decomposition stage volatilization it takes place at temperatures close to 600 C; 2. Oxidation of a part of the fuel fixed carbon the thermal energy source for the volatilization and gasification processes; 3. Gasification - it includes heterogeneous reaction between the gases and the coke, as well as heterogeneous reactions between the products that have already been formed;
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4. Tar cracking a thermal destruction process of the molecules of the tar forming counponds obtaining CO, CO2, CH4 and other gases as products; 5. Partial oxidation of the pyrolysis products. Depending on the gasification process organization (relative movement of the biomass and the gasification gas), these stages take place in different regions of the gasifier or inside the gasifier as a whole in a simultaneously way. In some special situations a solid fuel can be gasified by using pure oxygen or air enriched with this gas, this way reducing the calorific value reduction associated with the presence of inert gases, such as the nitrogen, that constitutes 79% in volume of the atmospheric air. The gas produced in this case presents a much more elevated calorific value, however, the high production cost of the oxygen is an important economical imitation against this alternative. Pyrolysis While the gasification deals with solid biomass being transformed into gas fuel through its partial combustion with air, the basic proposal of the pyrolysis is the thermal degradation of biomass in total or almost total absence of an oxidant reagent at relatively low temperatures (500 1.000 C). This way the biomass is transformed into other fuels: solid, liquid or gaseous fuel fractions. The required heat can be supplied by the biomass combustion; however, the product does not come from this combustion, but from the thermal action. The biomass pyrolysis can be accomplished in different conditions of temperature and residence time, variables that affect directly the sort of resulting product and the proportion of solid, liquid and gaseous fractions as it is indicated in Figure 5. The effect of the reactor operating pressure shows a small influence, but it is also important.
FIGURE 5 BIOMASS PYROLYSIS TECHNOLOGIES.
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A case that causes particular interest is the carbonization, a slow form of pyrolysis employed centuries ago in order to convert firewood into a more homogenous fuel with greater energy density. Other pyrolysis technologies which are faster and employ low temperature levels and small-sized biomass particles distributions are, in general, oriented for the production of liquid fractions (tar, pyroligneous acid, bio-oils, etc.) or fuel gases. However, they are still being developed. In all these cases, the physical-chemical reactions of biomass decomposition and formation of new 59 compounds are complex and they are still subjected to studies. A summary of the characteristics and parameters of the most important up-to-date pyrolysis technology in presented in the following Figure 6.
FIGURE 6 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TECHNOLOGIES FOR BIOMASS PYROLYSIS. Other processes Torrefaction The torrefaction for biomass production is a thermo-chemical processing by the use of heat. The required temperature for this process is between 200 to 320 degrees Celsius. During the process oxygen is removed and any moisture in the biomass is removed, leaving what's termed as volatile matter. Superfluous volatiles are also removed for a purer form of useable biomass. Superfluous volatiles can include cellulose and other biopolymers that give off an array of volatiles as they decompose. The result of this process is a dry dark solid biomass that's known as bio-coal. The biocoal is typically made into pellets or briquettes and burned for heating in homes and fuel for industries. Bio-coal has less smoke than other combustibles. Chemical conversion (non-combustion processes) There are other processes for converting biomass into energy that don't require burning. These methods are able to convert biomass materials in the raw and turn them into various forms of solid fuel, gas and liquid. The power plants are then able to use these converted energies, directly without any further processing. Because most of the biomass has ample carbohydrates, they can be reduced to several different chemicals that are considered viable fuel sources.
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Biomass oils Corn, sugar cane, soybeans, and other renewable plant life can be converted into liquid forms as fuels and used in place of diesel and gasoline. Cooking oils are often collected from restaurants and recycled into biodiesel. Fermentation, methane and alcohol The non-combustion of plants requires heating the plants in an effort to break down the chemical structure of the plant. These chemicals are solid, gas and liquid. Some of these chemicals can be used directly, while others need to be broken down further through other refining methods. For example, to use methane requires a biomass gasifier to extract the methane by forcing the plants to release it. The methane is then used in gas form to power the turbines that produce electricity. Methane is also converted into a hydrogen fuel that's used to generate electricity with very low emissions.
FIGURE 7 SAMPLE OF METHANE FERMENTATION APPLICATION FOR PROVIDING ELECTRICITY AND HEAT. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach
Biomass power plants

A biomass power plant most often produces steam through combustion. The steam can be used for industrial processes or to produce electricity. Alternatively, the heat from combustion could be directly used in an industrial process. Another variation is a co-fired power plant fueled by coal or natural gas combined with a biomass source. A biomass power plant includes the following major components: Fuel storage area; Fuel conveyor system; Chipper/grinder; Boiler; Turbine;
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Generator; Condenser; Pollution control devices; Smokestack; Cooling system; Electrical substation; Administration building.
Wood waste fuel would typically be stored in an outdoor pile in quantities adequate to fuel the power plant anywhere from 60 days to several years. Agricultural waste fuel would be stored in silos. Agricultural products such as switchgrass, hybrid poplars, or cottonwood trees would be stored in barns or storage domes on site. Depending upon the type of boiler, the fuel is either transported directly to the powerhouse via a belt conveyor, or first processed in a chipper/grinder to produce a finer texture. Municipal solid waste is deposited into pits where cranes mix the refuse and remove any large, non-combustible items; sometimes, it is further processed to remove ferrous materials, glass, and other non-combustible materials. In a fluidized bed boiler, the fuel is suspended on highpressure jets of air during the combustion process. This not only allows combustion at relatively low temperatures and higher efficiency, but it also decreases the production of nitrogen oxide, an air pollutant. Combustion of the fuel produces steam in the boiler that powers a turbine/generator to generate electricity. The steam is then returned to the liquid state in a condenser by circulating cooling water around the condenser tubes containing the steam. The condensed water is then recirculated to the boiler to again be heated into steam. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach The heated cooling water from the condenser is either discharged directly to a receiving body of water (a "once-through" cooling system) or, more commonly, directed to a "closed loop" cooling system where it can be cooled and recirculated back to the condenser. A number of different closed loop cooling systems are used in power plants, either individually, or in combination. These include evaporative wet cooling systems (also known as recirculating wet cooling systems) and dry cooling systems. As the name implies, evaporative wet cooling systems remove heat from the cooling water by allowing some small portion of that water to evaporate to the atmosphere. Thus, evaporative wet cooling systems require a continuous supply of additional cooling water to replace the water lost to evaporation as well as an additional amount of water that is periodically removed from the system (blowdown) to maintain dissolved solids levels at suitable levels. Under certain ambient air temperature and humidity conditions, evaporative wet cooling systems can also create vapor plumes as the evaporated water quickly condenses to a liquid as it leaves the cooling system. Dry cooling systems are closed-loop systems that cool the water through convection. Dry cooling systems are efficient in the winter months but least efficient in hotter weather when electricity demand tends to be the highest. Because they are less thermally efficient than wet cooling systems, dry cooling systems affect the overall performance of the plant, imposing a penalty of as much as a 25%
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reduction in power production during the hottest hour, and an annualized power production reduction of as much as 10%. Nevertheless, dry cooling systems may be the most appropriate choice in arid regions where water resources are limited. Although they require up to two and a half times more land area than evaporative wet cooling systems, dry cooling systems are also often preferred in areas where the viewshed is particularly sensitive to the effects of vapor plumes. Finally, wet/dry hybrid cooling systems are also used and are especially effective in areas with low relative humidity.
FIGURE 8 SAMPLE OF THE WORKING PROCESS INSIDE A BIOMASS POWER PLANT. Variations in these cooling systems are described below: Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach Once-through cooling systems withdraw water from a water body such as a river or lake, and the heated water from the condenser is returned to the river or lake. Water requirements, water availability, distance from the water source, and ecological effects of water withdrawal and heated effluent return are considerations when choosing this system. A mechanical-draft wet cooling tower is a closed-cycle system that cools the heated water by evaporation as the water falls from the top of the tower and passes through moving air produced by large fans. A natural-draft wet cooling tower uses the buoyancy of the exhaust air rising in a tall chimney to provide the draft that cools the water. This type of cooling system is used primarily at very large power plants. Dry cooling towers operate by convective heat transfer through a surface that separates the cooling water from ambient air, such as in a heat exchanger or automobile radiator. They do not use evaporation and are primarily used when water availability is limited. Dry cooling towers can be mechanical-draft or natural-draft.
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Wet/dry hybrid cooling systems spray a fine mist of water into the ambient air flowing over a dry condenser or spray water onto the surface of the condenser. The water flash evaporates, removing heat energy from the air or cooling the surface of the condenser, dramatically increasing cooling capacity. Although some water is lost to evaporation, the amount is substantially less than evaporative losses from equivalently sized wet cooling systems.
For an industrial process that requires steam, other industrial equipment replaces the turbine/generator and condenser. For an industrial process that requires only a heat source, the condenser is still required. A biomass power plant typically requires 15 to 100 acres for all the facilities. The total area of the site is usually larger, landscaped, and serves as an exclusion area to the public.
Biomass in Spain
Spain uses biomass from many and varied sources (forest chips, olive pits, nut shells, etc.) which ensures a continuous and abundant supply anywhere in our country. Its use in both thermal applications (air conditioning, ACS or industrial processes) as in power plants, has clear advantages because as well as it replaces any fossil energy, this is done by giving the same benefits of comfort, simplicity and quality, and generating a cost savings due to the lower price of biomass compared to conventional fuels. In this sense, the use of biomass from forest residues, especially firewood, for thermal uses is a feature of Spain, the European leader in so-called "forest loggers" that is primarily for the production of energy wood. In thermal applications is taking place in Spain the recent but strong growth in new economic activity in the field of production of densified fuels (mainly pellet). Many different industrial sectors are
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FIGURE 9 BIOMASS POWER PLANT.
making investments estimating that production capacity has increased over the past 10 years, from 60,000 t / year in 2004 to a production capacity of close to 600,000 t / year 2009. Furthermore, thermal applications of biomass count with equipment suppliers, especially in the range of small and medium power, and power market technologies with a significant presence, especially in exports to America. One element that is considered crucial for further progress in the presence of biomass in thermal applications is the performance of energy service companies (ESCOs) to ensure good design and maintenance of facilities, ensuring the supply of biomass to the user and so in a manner competitive with other options from economic viewpoint.
FIGURE 10 ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION FROM SOLID BIOMASS IN THE EU. As for electrical applications, in Spain are used both products of pulp and paper production, the various industries of wood processing and production of oil and biomass from energy crops and agricultural residues (straw, olive tree pruning ) or our mountains. All of them they mean a total capacity of over 400 MW. The remuneration framework that could allow substantial growth of biomass power applications is recent (RD 661/2007) and practically coincided with the financial crisis. But these projects should mobilize new resources potential in the coming years. Moreover, several Spanish companies made a significant effort to come into the gasification technology development in small-scale, which has allowed the first commercial embodiments. The advantages of quantitative easing supply, high energy efficiency, cogeneration optimal fit and relatively low levels of investment (and thus accessible to many investors), allow us to provide a hopeful future.
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Currently, an electricity generation plant fueled by biomass, of 10 to 100 MW, has capital costs of 20 to 35 euros per MWh. As most plants are built, costs will decrease probably to a 20% cheaper and will be priced similar to coal plants more expensive. Maintenance costs also tend to be reduced by 20% taking values between 4 and 8 euros per MWh, slightly more expensive than those for plants coal, which is reasonable to be bulkier biomass fuel (European Climate Foundation, 2010). Investors need to know that biomass will be important in future as a source of energy and there will be enough raw material at a reasonable cost, because investment costs are important.
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Index of Figures Biomass Energy

FIGURE 1 HTTP://WWW.CAMELCLIMATECHANGE.ORG/ARTICLES/VIEW /165171/ FIGURE 2 HTTP://WWW.NEST.UNIFEI.EDU.BR/PORTUGUES/PAGS/DOWNLOADS/FILES/CAPITULO_4F.PDF FIGURE 3 HTTP://WWW.NEST.UNIFEI.EDU.BR/PORTUGUES/PAGS/DOWNLOADS/FILES/CAPITULO_4F.PDF FIGURE 4 HTTP://WWW.NEST.UNIFEI.EDU.BR/PORTUGUES/PAGS/DOWNLOADS/FILES/CAPITULO_4F.PDF FIGURE 5 HTTP://WWW.NEST.UNIFEI.EDU.BR/PORTUGUES/PAGS/DOWNLOADS/FILES/CAPITULO_4F.PDF FIGURE 6 HTTP://WWW.NEST.UNIFEI.EDU.BR/PORTUGUES/PAGS/DOWNLOADS/FILES/CAPITULO_4F.PDF FIGURE 7 HTTP://WWW.TOHOKU-EPCO.CO.JP/ENVIRO/TEA2005E/07/07G.HTML FIGURE 8 HTTP://WWW.BIOMASSINNOVATION.CA/COMBINEDHEATANDPOWER.HTML FIGURE 9 HTTP://WWW.NCE.CO.UK/STEVENS-CROFT-BIOMASS-POWER-STATION/1995380.ARTICLE FIGURE 10 HTTP://WWW.FUNDACIONIDEAS.ES/SITES/DEFAULT/FILES/PDF/DT-LA_BIOMASA_EN_ESPANAUNA_FUENTE_DE_ENERGIA_RENOVABLE_DE_GRAN_FUTURO.PDF
References
HTTP://GREENLIVING.LOVETOKNOW .COM/BIOMASS_ENERGY_PROCESSES; HTTP://ZEBU.UOREGON.EDU/1998/PH162/L17.HTML; HTTP://WWW.EHOW .COM/INFO_8271830_WAYS-TURN-BIOMASS-ENERGY.HTML; HTTP://WWW.POWERSCORECARD.ORG/TECH_DETAIL.CFM?RESOURCE_ID=1; HTTP://WWW.GLOBALPROBLEMS-GLOBALSOLUTIONSFILES.ORG/GPGS_FILES/PDF/UNF_BIOENERGY/UNF_BIOENERGY_5.PDF; HTTP://WWW.ECOPROG.COM/EN/PUBLICATIONS/ENERGY-INDUSTRY/BIOMASS-TOENERGY.HTM?GCLID=CNJOR5_OULUCFCFWZAODNLQAPQ; HTTP://WWW.FUNDACIONIDEAS.ES/SITES/DEFAULT/FILES/PDF/DT-LA_BIOMASA_EN_ESPANAUNA_FUENTE_DE_ENERGIA_RENOVABLE_DE_GRAN_FUTURO.PDF; HTTP://TEEIC.ANL.GOV/ER/BIOMASS/RESTECH/DESC/BIOMASSPLANTS/INDEX.CFM; HTTP://WWW.RENOVABLESMADEINSPAIN.COM/TECNOLOGIA/PAGID/18/TITULO/BIOMASA/LEN/ES
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Biofuel Energy
Combustion Engine
Without getting into too much detail, the internal combustion engine in a car can be distinguished into two categories: compression-ignition engine and spark ignition. Both engines convert chemical energy available in the fuel into mechanical energy of the moving cylinders. Both engines convert fuel into energy through a series of small explosions or combustions. However their processes diverge, just like their fuel needs. As we have seen a fuel can be classified according to its octane rating and to its cetane number. The octane number measures the resistance of a fuel to auto-ignition, while the cetane number measures the ignition delay of the fuel. Ethanol has a high octane rating of 106 RON (Research Octane Number), actually higher than gasolines 91-93 RON. This means it doesnt autoignite easily, allowing high compression ratios in the engine and making it suitable for efficient spark ignition engines. In the other hand, Biodiesel has a low octane rating and high cetane IGNITION CYLINDER ratings just like regular diesel fuel (40-55 CN). This means that the fuel has low resistance to autoignition and that the combustion quality is higher, making it suitable for a compression-ignition engine.
FIGURE 1- SPARK
FIGURE 2- DIESEL ENGINE CYCLE
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Combustion of the fuel

To have an idea of the energy released (available to convert to mechanical work), the adiabatic flame temperatures and the end products (and more importantly pollutants emissions) of the combustion, the equation of the reaction may be written. Emissions
Carbon Monoxide CO: Carbon monoxide emissions are caused by incomplete combustion of fuels. This most often occurs when the ratio of air to fuel in the combustion chamber is too low for complete combustion, or when there is inadequate mixing of fuel and air, leading to isolated pockets where the air-fuel ratio is too low for complete combustion. When the air-fuel ratio is too low, there is insufficient oxygen to convert all the carbon in the fuel to carbon dioxide. A small amount of carbon monoxide is also formed when there is much more air than required for complete combustion (i.e., very weak fuel-air mixtures), due to chemical kinetic effects.
NOx : Nitric oxide (NO) is the main form of NOx produced by internal combustion engines, although nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is also produced in significant quantities. Nitric oxide is formed from the reaction of nitrogen and free oxygen at high temperatures. The rate of formation of NO is a function of oxygen availability, and increases exponentially with flame temperature.
Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons emitted with engine exhaust gases are composed of unburned fuel and products of partial combustion (such as ethylene) that were still present (i.e., not yet combusted) in engine cylinders at the beginnings of the engine exhaust strokes. This failure to complete combustion during the power stroke is generally related to the movement of fuel mixtures and speed of propagation of the flame in the engine cylinders during the power stroke. Abnormal engine operation, such as cylinder misfiring, can also cause significant quantities of hydrocarbons to be introduced into the engine exhaust stream.
Particulate Matter (PM): Particulate matter emissions are produced more by diesel engines than by spark-ignition engines. They are formed mainly from carbon particles (soot) produced in fuel-rich zones of the combusting gases and hydrocarbons adsorbed on to the carbon particles. Particulate matter also contains unburned lubricating oil and ash-forming fuel and oil additives. PM emissions from spark-ignition engines result mainly from condensation of lubricating oil in the exhaust.
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Combustion Ethanol vs. Gasoline The chemical formula of Ethanol is C 2 H 5 OH and therefore its combustion reaction is described by the following equation: 2 5 () + 3 [ 2 () + 3,76 2 () ] 22 () + 32 () + 11,28 2 () stoichiometric combustion equation Ethanol
The stoichiometric reaction gives the products of the combustion if the reaction was complete and with the exact quantity of air needed. It doesnt take into account the dissociation and combination of Nitrogen with Oxygen which happens at high temperatures:
2 + +
The reaction has an enthalpy of combustion that is = 1368 /, the negative sign meaning that energy is being released since the reaction is exothermal. Comparing with gasolines combustion equation: 8 18 () + 12,5 [ 2 () + 3,762 8 2 () + 92 () + 472 () Gasoline stoichiometric combustion equation. Gasoline has a an enthalpy of combustion of = 48230 At first sight we can observe that combustion of ethanol leads to somewhat fewer carbon dioxide emissions. Also the fuel is derived from plant matter, the CO 2 produced is extracted from the atmosphere during the growth of the plant, which means that the CO 2 is neutral.

2 + 2 +
2 + +
C 6 H 12 O 6 2C 2 H 5 OH +CO 2 fermentation of sugar
TABLE 1 - EMISSIONS CO2 ACCORDING TO PERCENTAGE OF ETHANOL*

*according to the Assessment of Net Emissions of greenhouse gases from Ethanol-Gasoline Blends in Southern Ontario Levelton Engineering Ltd.
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Since ethanol is an oxygenated fuel, the use of ethanol may offer environmental benefits such as reduction in emissions of products of incomplete combustion (namely carbon monoxide) as well as total hydrocarbons (THC).
FIGURE 3 - GASOLINE VS. E85 EMISSIONS* Having lower heating value compared to gasoline, it was expected that ethanol had a worse fuel economy. However, as we can see in figure n4, ethanol burns with higher flame temperature. This leads to increasing the peak temperature inside the cylinder and therefore higher heat losses and NOx emissions.
F IGURE 4 - E THANOL
TEMPERATURE
BLENDS
A DIABATIC
FLAME
FIGURE 5 FUEL CONSUMPTION E85 VS. GASOLINE**
*VSP stands for Vehicle Specific Power and its units are Watts per kg. **The fuel consumptions graphs were obtained for a FFV Ford Focus operating on E85 and on gasoline fuels.
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Biodiesel vs. Diesel A typical molecule of biodiesel looks like the structure below. Mostly it is a long chain of carbon atoms, with hydrogen atoms attached, and at one end is what we call an ester functional group.
FIGURE 6 - BIODIESEL MOLECULE Therefore an approximation to the combustion reaction of biodiesel is 17 32 2 () + 24[2 () + 3,762 ()] 172 () + 162 () + 90,262 ()
While the average chemical for Diesel fuel is C 12 H 23 and its combustion equation in air is defined by 12 23 () + 17,5[2 () + 3,762 ()] 122 () + 11,52 () + 66,742 ()
Since the biodiesel is also an oxygenated fuel, the combustion tends to be more complete, reducing the CO emissions. The production and use of biodiesel creates 78% less carbon dioxide emissions than conventional diesel fuel.
FIGURE 7-EMISSIONS CORRELATIONS*
*Source: A Comprehensive Analysis of Biodiesel Impacts on Exhaust Emissions, Draft Technical Report, Assessment and Standards Division Office of Transportation and Air Quality, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. October 2002. EPA420-P-02-001
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Burning biodiesel fuel also effectively eliminates sulfur oxide and sulfate emissions, which are major contributors to acid rain. Thats because, unlike petroleum-based diesel fuel, biodiesel is free of sulfur impurities. Combustion of biodiesel additionally provides a 56% reduction in hydrocarbon emissions and yields significant reductions in carbon monoxide and soot particles compared to petroleum based diesel fuel. As we can observe the emissions of Nitrogen oxides are the only emissions that are negatively affected by the use of biodiesel. Also, biodiesel can reduce the carcinogenic properties of diesel fuel by 94%.
FIGURE 8- BIODIESEL EMISSIONS REDUCTION
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Index of Figures Biofuel Energy

FIGURE 1 HTTP://IMAGES.MACHINEDESIGN.COM/IMAGES/ARCHIVE/71548COMPRESSIO_00000049469.JPG FIGURE 2 HTTP://BASICSOFMARINEENGINEERING.BLOGSPOT.COM/2012_12_01_ARCHIVE.HTML TABLE 1 HTTP://WWW4.NCSU.EDU/~FREY/CONF_PR/ZHAI_ET_AL_2007A.PDF FIGURE 3 HTTP://WWW4.NCSU.EDU/~FREY/CONF_PR/ZHAI_ET_AL_2007A.PDF FIGURE 4 HTTP://WWW4.NCSU.EDU/~FREY/CONF_PR/ZHAI_ET_AL_2007A.PDF FIGURE 5 HTTP://WWW4.NCSU.EDU/~FREY/CONF_PR/ZHAI_ET_AL_2007A.PDF FIGURE 6 HTTP://WWW.GOSHEN.EDU/CHEMISTRY/BIODIESEL/CHEMISTRY-OF/ FIGURE 7 HTTP://WWW.BIOFUELS.COOP/PDFS/9_EMISSIONS.PDF FIGURE 8 HTTP://WWW.BIOFUELS.COOP/PDFS/9_EMISSIONS.PDF
References
HTTP://MACHINEDESIGN.COM/ARTICLE/COMPRESSION-IGNITION-COMES-TO-GAS-ENGINES-
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1025 HTTP://WWW.PROCARCARE.COM/IMAGES/SHAR/ENCYCLOPEDIA/88528G13.GIF HTTP://WWW.GOSHEN.EDU/CHEMISTRY/BIODIESEL/CHEMISTRY-OF/ HTTP://WWW 4.NCSU.EDU/~FREY/CONF_PR/ZHAI_ET_AL_2007A.PDF HTTP://WWW.IAENG.ORG/PUBLICATION/WCE2010/WCE2010_PP1501-1504.PDF HTTP://WWW.BESTEUROPE.ORG/UPLOAD/BEST_DOCUMENTS/INFO_DOCUMENTS/BEST%20REPORTS%20ET C/D9.14%20%20REVIEW %20OF%20ETHANOL%20FUEL%20IMPACTS%20ON%20LOCAL%20AIR%2 0QUALITY_080516.PDF HTTP://WWW.GHGENIUS.CA/REPORTS/AAFCCORNETHANOL.PDF HTTP://OPENI.NLM.NIH.GOV/DETAILEDRESULT.PHP?IMG=3211307_1556-276X-6-2468&QUERY=THE&FIELDS=ALL&FAVOR=NONE&IT=NONE&SUB=NONE&UNIQ=0&SP=NONE& REQ=4&SIMCOLLECTION=1440878_GKL147F1&NPOS=83&PRT=3 HTTP://ARS.ELS-CDN.COM/CONTENT/IMAGE/1-S2.0-S0016236112006114-GR1.JPG HTTP://WWW.BIOFUELS.COOP/PDFS/9_EMISSIONS.PDF
Hydropower Energy
Fundamentals of hydropower and Physical principles
The basic principle of hydropower is due to the rivers that provide the necessary flow of water (primary energy) giving a speed that is the cause of energy use (kinetic energy). This energy is stored as potential energy which will not be fully converted into kinetic energy because exist friction losses due to particle transport in eddies form and turbulence, etc...
Figure 1
In general, the mechanical energy from the processing of the stored potential energy of water in a reservoir. To convert mechanical energy into electricity in a generators are used two basic parts: The stator: Armor metal, which remains at rest, covered inside by copper wires, which form various circuits.
Rotor is inside the stator and rotated by the turbine. Is formed on the inside by a shaft, and in its outermost part by circuitry, which become electromagnets when applied a small amount of current.
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Figure 2
When the rotor rotates at high speed due to the mechanical energy in the turbine, it produces a current in the copper wires inside the stator. These streams provide the generator called electromotive force, capable of producing power to any system connected to it. Electrical energy is produced by mechanical generators or alternators. A generator comprises in its simplest form: A rotating loop driven by some external means. A uniform magnetic field created by a magnet, within which the coil rotates above.
Figure 3
=BS=BScos( t)
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Figure 4
As the loop rotates, the magnetic flux through it changes over time, inducing one fuerzaelectromotriz, and if there is an external circuit, an electrical current will flow. As we have seen the turbine is responsible for moving the rotor of the generator and produce electrical current. The turbine in turn is driven by the mechanical energy of pressurized water steam or a water jet. All power plants consist of a system of "turbine-generator" whose basic operation is in all very similar, varying from each other the way it drives the turbine, or, put another way source primary energy is used to convert the energy contained in it into electrical energy.
Figure 5
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Parts of hydropower plants type (Explanation in a Pumping central)

A hydroelectric plant type
1. Back water, 2. Dam, 3. Strainer screens, 4. Penstock, 5. Turbine-alternator, 6.Turbine, 7. Axis, 8. Generator 9. Lines of electric power transmission, 10. Transformers
Figure 6
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Figure 7
Hydro Pump The pumping stations are a special type of hydroelectric plants that enable a more rational use of water resources of a country. They have two reservoirs located at different levels. When demand for electricity is at its highest during the day, pumping stations operate as a conventional power generating. When falling the water stored in the upper reservoir, rotates the turbine runner associated to an alternator. After the water is stored in the lower reservoir. During daylight hours in which energy demand is less water is pumped to the upper reservoir to the production cycle can begin again. This plant has a motor-pump groups or, alternatively, its turbines are reversible so they can function as pumps and motors and alternators.
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Type pumping Central
1. Upper reservoir, 2. Dam, 3. Driving Gallery, 4-5. Penstock, 6. Central, 7. Turbines and generators, 8. Drains, 9. Lines of electric power transmission, 10. Reservoir or river bottom.
Main components of a hydropower Among the main components are: the pPresa or dam spillways, water intakes, diversion channels, the surge tank, the pipe forced the powerhouse, water turbines and generators. Dam The first element found in a hydroelectric dam or weir is, who is responsible for tackling the river and dam waters. With these constructions is achieved a certain level before the water containment and different level thereafter. This gap is used to produce energy. Dams can be classified by the material used in its construction: earth dams and concrete or dams, the latter are the most used.
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Figure 8
Earthen dam Figure 9
Concrete dam Figure 10
The Spillway The spillways are vital elements of the dam whose mission release some of the water is detained without passing through the engine room. They are in the main wall of the dam and can be surface or background. The spillway is misison of release, if necessary, large quantities of water or meet irrigation needs. To prevent water damage can occur when falling from a great height, the spillways are designed so that most of the liquid is lost in a basin at the foot of the dam, called buffer. To get the water through the spillways are large steel doors that can be opened or closed at will, on demand of the situation. Hydrants Water intakes are adequate structures that allow the liquid to take pick up the machines by means of channels or pipes. These jacks, plus a gate to regulate the amount of water that reaches the turbines have metal grilles which prevent foreign bodies such as logs, branches, etc. can reach the blades and cause damage. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach Bypass channel The bypass channel is used to convey water from the dam to the turbines of the power station. Surge shaft Due to varying load conditions or unanticipated alternator chimneys are used to avoid equilibrium overpressure in the penstock and turbine blades. The surge chamber is a vertical shaft located closest to the turbine. When there is an excess of water is less resistance to penetrate the well to the pressure chamber of the turbine pushing up the level of the surge. In the case of depression occur and opposite lower level. Penstocks The structures forced or pressure usually regular steel reinforcements along its length or concrete reinforced with iron coils must be anchored to the ground by appropriate sill. Roundhouse It is the building where the machines are located (turbines, alternators, etc.) and command and control elements.
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In the figure below we have the schematic section of a central high flow and low headloss. The dam comprises in its very structure to the powerhouse. It is seen in the figure that the arrangement is compact, and that the water inlet to the turbine is done by means of a camera built in the dam itself. The entry and exit gates are used without water to leave the area of the machines in case of repair or dismantling.
Central High Flow Diagram
1. Reservoir, 2. Check dam, 3. Water input to machines (jack), screened, 4. Water inlet conduit 5. Flat input gates in position "hoisted", 6. Hydraulic turbine, 7. Alternator, 8. Guidelines for regulating the entry of water turbine 9. Bridge crane engine room 10. Water outlet (tube), 11. Gates flat-out, in position "hoisted", 12. Overhead crane to maneuver exit gates, 13. Overhead crane to maneuver entrance gates. Figure 11
The figure below show the outline of a central low and high flow drop, as above, but with generators called "a bulb" which are fully submerged in operation.
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Central low head and high flow
1. Reservoir, 2. Water inlet conduit 3. Entrance gates "hoisted", 4. Bulb assembly with the turbine and alternator 5. Bridge crane of the machine room 6. Lifting mechanism of the exit gates, 7. Exit gate "lifting", 8. Chute. Figure 12
In the figure below shows the schematic section of a central medium flow and medium also jump with the engine room at the foot of the dam. The water enters the sockets formed therein dam, and is carried to the turbines through metal pipes embedded in the levee. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach
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Central Flow and medium jump
1. Reservoir, water connection, 3. Metallic conduit embedded in the dam, 4. Gates entry into lifting position, 5. Water inlet valves to turbine 6. Turbine, 7. Alternator, 8. Overhead crane plant, 9. Exit gate "lifting", 10. Overhead crane for hoisting the exit gate, 11. Chute. Figure 13
In the figure below we outline a central high pressure and low flow. This type of engine room is built away from the dam. The water comes through a pressure pipe from the socket, usually far from the center, and the path is usually a surge tank. The high water pressure that occurs in these cases requires placing valves for regulating and closing and withstand water hammer.
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Central High pressure and low flow
1. Penstock from the surge tank, 2. And closing control valve 3. Bridge crane valve room, 4. Turbine, 5. Alternator, 6.Overhead crane, engine room, 7. Output gates in position "hoisted", 8. Overhead crane for the exit gates, 9. Outlet pipe (tube). Figure 14
Turbines There are three main types of hydraulic turbines: Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach The Pelton wheel, which is suitable for large jumps The Francis turbine is suitable for medium jump The propeller or Kaplan turbine, very useful in small jumps.
The most convenient in each case depend on the waterfall and the power turbine.
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Pelton wheel Scheme
1. Impeller, 2. Spoon, 3. Needle, 4. Nozzle, 5. Inlet conduit 6. Regulating mechanism 7. Outlet chamber.
A water jet directed and regulated suitably, affects the impeller spoons which are uniformly distributed over the periphery of the wheel.Due to the shape of the bucket, water is diverted without shock, yielding all its kinetic energy, to finally fall into the bottom and out of the machine. Adjustment is accomplished through a needle placed within the pipe. This type of turbine is used for large jumps and pressures.
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Figure 15
Impeller and a turbine Penton spoon. Figure 16
Penton turbine and alternator. Figure 17
For medium jumps Francis turbines are used, which are reaction. In the picture we can see the general shape of an impeller and the important fact that the water enters and leaves an address in another at 90, which is not Francis Turbine presented in the Pelton wheel. The blades or vanes Francis wheel are warped. A fact is also significant that these turbines instead of nozzles have a water distributor crown. This crown completely surrounds the impeller. To make the water between the impeller radially from the distributor crown there spiral or spiral chamber ensures proper dosage at each point of entry of water. The impeller has blades to properly producr swirls desired effects without additional character or hydrodynamic losses.
Figure 18
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Kaplan Turbine
Figure 19
In cases where the water flow in the axial direction only by the elements of the impeller, have the propeller or Kaplan turbines. Kaplan turbine having moving blades to suit the state of the load. This turbine ensures good performance even at low speeds. Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach
Operations and calculates and costs.

The power of a hydroelectric plant is usually measured in megawatts (MW) and is calculated using the following formula: where: Pe = power in watts (W) = fluid density in kg / m t = hydraulic turbine efficiency (0.75 to 0.94) hg = performance of the electric generator (between 0.92 and 0.97) m = mechanical efficiency of the turbine generator coupling (0.95 / 0.99) Q = flow turbinable in m3 / s
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H = slope available in the dam between upstream and downstream, in meters (m) In a hydroelectric plant is defined: Average power: power calculated by the above formula considering the average flow available and the average gap available. Installed power: rated power of the generators installed in the plant. Calculating available power A simple formula for approximating electric power production at a hydroelectric plant is (In SI units) , where

is Power in watts, is the density of water (~1000 kg/m3), is height in meters, (difference between inlet and outlet) is flow rate in cubic meters per second, is acceleration due to gravity of 9.8 m/s2, is a coefficient of efficiency ranging from 0 to 1. Efficiency is often higher (that is, closer to 1) with larger and more modern turbines.
Annual electric energy production depends on the available water supply. In some installations the water flow rate can vary by a factor of 10:1 over the course of a year. A hydropower resource can be evaluated by its available power. Power is a function of the hydraulic head and rate of fluid flow. The head is the energy per unit weight (or unit mass) of water. The static head is proportional to the difference in height through which the water falls. Dynamic head is related to the velocity of moving water. Each unit of water can do an amount of work equal to its weight times the head. To illustrate, power is calculated for a turbine that is 85% efficient, with water at 62.25 pounds/cubic foot (998 kg/cubic metre) and a flow rate of 2800 cubic-feet/second (79.3 cubic-meters/second), gravity of 9.80 metres per second squared and with a net head of 480 ft (146.3 m). In SI units:
which gives 96.4 MW Operators of hydroelectric plants will compare the total electrical energy produced with the theoretical potential energy of the water passing through the turbine to calculate efficiency.
Costs The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of renewable electricity. The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour
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Index of Figures Hydropower Energy

FIGURE 1 HTTP://WWW.TARINGA.NET/POSTS/CIENCIA-EDUCACION/10439292/COMO-HACER-UNA-TURBINAHIDRAULICA-SIMPLE.HTML FIGURE 2, 3, 4, 5 HTTP://THALES.CICA.ES/RD/RECURSOS/RD99/ED99-0226-01/CAPITULO2.HTML FIGURE 6 WWW .REE.COM FIGURE 7 HTTP://WWW.TVA.GOV/POWER/HYDROART.HTM FIGURE 8 WWW .WIKIPEDIA.COM FIGURE 9-19 HTTP://WWW.PROFESORENLINEA.CL/FISICA/CENTRALESHIDROELECTRICAS.HTM
References
WWW .WIKIPEDIA.COM HTTP://WWW .ENDESAEDUCA.COM/ENDESA_EDUCA/RECURSOS-INTERACTIVOS/PRODUCCION-DEELECTRICIDAD/XI.-LAS-CENTRALES-HIDROELECTRICAS HTTP://WWW .PROFESORENLINEA.CL/FISICA/CENTRALESHIDROELECTRICAS.HTM HTTP://WWW .ENDESAEDUCA.COM/ENDESA_EDUCA/RECURSOS-INTERACTIVOS/EL-SECTOR-ELECTRICO/XIX.EL-MERCADO-DE-LA-ELECTRICIDAD WWW .REE.ES
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Conclusion to Task 2
Each of the technologies is at a different stage of maturity, which influences its chances of commercialization, its cost of deployment, or - in the case of the most mature technologies - its market cost and the level of subsidies required to attain market competitiveness with incumbent energy technologies. In Figure below, various alternative energy technologies are graphed on a time continuum, which maps the stages of technology development starting with basic research, moving to development, then demonstration, deployment and ultimately, maturity.
Figure 1: Stages of R&D, demonstration and commercialization of Renewable Energy technologies
The graph demonstrates that tidal and wave technologies are still in the development stages, signaling both a high cost and a rising cost as they follow the curve towards demonstration. Further along the cost curve in the demonstration phase, central receiver STE, a version of concentrating solar power (CSP) that uses tracking mirrors to concentrate the suns rays on a central heating tower, is at the highest cost point and just beginning move towards the deployment stage. Parabolic trough STE, a version of CSP that uses concave mirrors to heat pipes full of heat conducting liquid, thin-film PV, and silicon PV, round out solar technologies in the graph, and are all at various points in the deployment stage. Silicon PV is the furthest along in terms of affordable price, but in real terms it is still very expensive and requires generous subsidies to compete in the technology market. The final technology we are focusing our research on, wind, shows two vastly different costs for offshore and onshore deployed technology. Offshore wind is experiencing a growing market, but still suffers from high costs due to the size of the turbines - they are designed to produce up to 5MW per turbine and tend to be several hundred feet tall - the cost of designing turbines that can resist the increased pressures of high winds, rough water, and salt corrosion, and the difficult and costly underwater electrical transmission infrastructure - not to mention environmental permitting costs of offshore development. Additionally the difficulty of conducting regular maintenance raises costs as well. Onshore wind is the most competitively priced and most mature of the current alternative energy technologies. It is only eclipsed by hydropower, which has been used as a mainstream electricity
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source around the world for many years. Hydropower is not typically included in alternative energy technology growth studies due to its limited growth potential. There are very few river sites available, and in many cases rivers are experiencing reduced flows (in the US) and the required permitting to construct a dam is both complicated and expensive. Concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies have been around for 25 years and measured approximately 400 MW of electrical capacity in 2008 with another 400 MW being built and 6GW in the planning stages. The market for CSP is being driven by government subsidies in Spain, the USA, and other countries. As mentioned above, parabolic trough and central receiver CSP technologies are on the path to maturity, though newer technologies referred to as solar dish and Fresnel-lens CSP, are less mature and are not noted in the Figure. Solar PV technologies are expensive as mentioned above, but they have benefited from generous subsidies in Germany, Spain, Japan and the US, which have greatly expanded their markets. The result has been a steady reduction in the cost of the technology. Developing economies like China and India are starting to build large PV manufacturing industries, which have similarly reduced the prices of PV panels. While silicon PV panels are the most mature PV technology, new thin-film panels are coming down in price and beginning to benefit from increases in efficiency. Concentrating PV is another technology that is still in the development stages, but which shows great promise. Investments in on- and off-shore wind technology equaled 27.5 Billion in 2007 and the technologies are considered mainstream. Know-how for onshore wind technology is more prevalent and has spread quickly, especially in Europe. Offshore wind is experiencing growth in the UK, the USA, and South East Asia. Economies of scale have brought the price of wind technology down and onshore wind is approaching cost competitiveness incumbent fossil energy technologies.
Figure 2: Development and trends of Renewable Energy technologies
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Index of Figures Conclusion to Task 2

FIGURES 1,2 HTTP://CYBER.LAW .HARVARD.EDU/COMMONSBASEDRESEARCH/ALTERNATIVE_ENERGY/BIBLIOG RAPHY_BY_RESEARCH_QUESTION
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RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Task 2: Technical approach

Univerza v Ljubljani Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Erasmus Students 2012-2013

Renewable Energy Sources

Task 2: Technical approach

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Figure 1: Sun distribution

Figure 4: Schematic diagram of CSP parabolic trough plant

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Figure 4: Fresnel collector operation

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Figure 5: Schematic diagram of a CSP central receiver plant

Figure 7: Functional principle of a dish/Stirling system

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Figure 9: trends of the CSP tecnhnologies

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Figure 10: Comparison of solar thermal power technologies

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

1 46, 2 sin 2 s 1 2D C max, = 2,15 sin s

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Figure 11: Solar cells conversion efficiencies

0.8 2.5 4.2 5.8 7.5 9.2 10.8 12.5

0.9 2.7 4.5 6.4 8.2 10.0 11.8 13.6

1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0

1.1 3.3 5.6 7.8 10.0 12.2 14.4 16.7

1.3 3.8 6.3 8.8 11.3 13.8 16.3 18.8

1.4 4.3 7.1 10.0 12.9 15.7 18.6 21.4

1.7 5.0 8.3 11.7 15.0 18.3 21.7 25.0

2.0 6.0 10.0 14.0 18.0 22.0 26.0 30.0

2.5 7.5 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 37.5

Solar collector efficiency

The efficiency eqn. for Enerworks(FP) is:

(T + T ) (T + T ) = 0.717 4.033 i a 0.0184 i a

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Index of Figures Solar Energy

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

How Geothermal Energy Is Captured

Geothermal Power Plants

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Geothermal Heat Pumps

Geothermal energy costs

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

F IGURE 3: W ORLDWIDE GEOTHERMAL POWER GENERATION AND DIRECT USE

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Index of Figures Geothermal Energy

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Source: Energy Information Administration

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

The Mechanics of Wind Turbines

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Renewable Energy Sources Task 2: Technical approach

Figure 3: Different parts in a Wind Turbine

Figure 4: Mechanism in a wind turbine [Source: NREL]