Artif Intell Rev DOI 10.

1007/s10462-011-9259-1

An articial immune system for solving production scheduling problems: a review

Ahmad Shahrizal Muhamad Safaai Deris

Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Abstract This article reviews the production scheduling problems focusing on those related to exible job-shop scheduling. Job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problems are one of the most frequently encountered and hardest to optimize. This article begins with a review of the job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problem, and follow by the literature on articial immune systems (AIS) and suggests ways them in solving job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problems. For the purposes of this study, AIS is dened as a computational system based on metaphors borrowed from the biological immune system. This article also, summarizes the direction of current research and suggests areas that might most profitably be given further scholarly attention. Keywords Production scheduling Job-shop scheduling Flexible job-shop scheduling Articial intelligence Articial immune system Evolutionary computation

1 Introduction Scheduling can be dened as a process to allocate limited resources in order to complete activities or tasks in a given period of time with the all constraints given (Baker 1974). Scheduling also can be considered as the optimizing of a problem, with the goal of nding the best sequencing of functions. Production scheduling are among the most common and significant problems faced by the manufacturing industry. Production scheduling problems deal with scheduling jobs on a machine (or a set of machines) in order to optimize a specic objective function such as total weighted completion time or total weighted tardiness.

A. S. Muhamad (B ) S. Deris Articial Intelligence and Bioinformatics Group, Faculty of Computer Science and Information System, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia e-mail: shahrizal@itechview.com

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A. S. Muhamad, S. Deris Fig. 1 Job-shop scheduling problems

Machine O1 Job1 Job2 Job3 Job4 1 2 3 2 O2 2 1 2 3 O3 3 3 1 1

Processing Time O1 4 1 3 3 O2 3 4 2 3 O3 2 4 3 1

Hermann (2006), offers three important perspectives for the production scheduling. These are the problem-solving perspective, the decision-making perspective, and the organizational perspective. The problem solving perspective views scheduling as an optimization problem. It is the formulation of scheduling as a combinatorial optimization problem isolated from the manufacturing planning and control system location. Viewed from decision maker perspective, scheduling includes decisions which humans must do. The schedule maker would use ofcial and informal information to establish a schedule capable of xing a specic task to be made in that schedule. From an organizational perspective view, scheduling is a complex information ow and decision maker that must decide production planning and system control. Usually a system is divided into various modules and is done in several different functions. In production scheduling, there are three types of scheduling problems most commonly faced. First is the open shop scheduling problem, where there are no ordering constraints on operations. Second is the job shop scheduling problem, where the operations of a job are totally ordered. Third is the ow-shop scheduling problem, where each job has exactly one operation for every machine and all jobs go through all the machines in the same order. In this paper, we address the issue of how to solving the job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problems by using an articial immune system. We also discuss the rescheduling for the job-shop and exible scheduling problems to determine how best to overcome the problems caused by a changing or dynamic environment in the manufacturing industry, problems such interruptions by equipment failure, changes of the customer requirements and others.

2 Job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problems A job-shop consists of a set of n jobs { j1 , j2 , . . ., jn } with a number of m machines {m 1 , m 2 , . . ., m m }. For each job there are a series of operations {o1 , o2 , . . ., oi } with each operation having a specied processing time {i 1 , i 2 , . . ., im }. All operations are required to be completed on a specic machine and at a particular time, with one machine being able to address only one operation. The goal of job-shop scheduling is to produce a schedule that minimizes the total time taken to complete all the activities. The process constraints will inuence the ability to nd the best schedule and determining whether its employment will be easy or difcult (Pinedo 2002). Figure 1 illustrates the job-shop scheduling problem. In most industries, job-shop scheduling is important because it determines the process maps and process capabilities (Roshanaei 2009). The possible solutions for n jobs on single machine are n !. When m machines exist, the number of possible solutions is (n !)m . Flexible job-shop scheduling problem is an extension of the classical job-shop scheduling problem that allows an operation to be processed by any machine from a given set of available machines. Like the job-shop, a exible job-shop consists of a set of n jobs { j1 , j2 , . . ., jn }

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An articial immune system for solving production scheduling problems: a review Fig. 2 Processing time for exible job shop scheduling problems

Operation Job1 O1 O2 O3 O4 O1 O2 O3 O4 O1 O2 O3 O4 M1 6 4

Machine M2 6 5 4

M3

Job2

7 6 5 4

6 5 9 3 3

Job3

Fig. 3 Types of schedules

Feasible Schedule Semi-active Schedule Active Schedule Non-delay Schedule

with a number of m machines {m 1 , m 2 , . . ., m m }. In each job Ji there are a series of operations {oi ,1 , oi ,2 , . . ., oi ,ni } with each operation having a processing time {i 1 , i 2 , . . ., im }. For the job-shop each operation only can be processed on one machine. But for the exible job-shop, each operation oi , j , i.e. the operation j of job i , can be processed by any among a subset Mi , j M of compatible machines. Figure 2 illustrates the exible job-shop scheduling problem. The symbol in the gure means that a machine cannot execute a corresponding operation. In other words, it does not belong to the subset of compatible machines for that operation or any other operation j of job i . Bruker and Schlie (1990) were among the rst to address the exible job-shop scheduling problem (Fig. 3). The main problem in job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling is that of obtaining the best possible schedules with optimal solutions. The solution to any optimized problem is evaluated by an objective function, with functions associated with cost, resource and time minimization. There are several objective functions within job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problem measurement. The common measurements are makespan, ow time, lateness, tardiness and earliness. The makespan is also known as maximum completion time and indicates the completion time of the last job to be completed. The makespan is important when having a nite number of jobs and is closely related to the throughput objective. Flow time is the sum of the completion times for all the jobs scheduled. This function minimizes the average number of jobs in the system. Lateness is the difference between the job completion time and the due date, L j = C j d j , and it may have a positive or a negative

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value. Tardiness indicates the time with which the job j is completed after its date. Therefore, tardiness is positive lateness and is equal to T j = max {0, C j d j }. Earliness is the time in which the job j is completed before its due date, E j = max {0, d j C j }. As French (French 1982) states; when considering minimum makespan at least one of the optimal solutions to a job-shop problem is semi-active, with a schedule classied as a feasible schedule, a semiactive schedule, an active schedule or a non-delay schedule. An optimal schedule exists in the set of active schedules. Recently, in the dynamic environment of the manufacturing industry, to refer to job-shop or exible job-shop problems obtained by the best schedules with the optimal solution is not sufcient. Optimal solutions to problems are often incredibly fragile, and if the original problem changes slightly, then an optimal solution cannot massaged a match, and a new one must be produced. In the real-world, such changes happen all the time and hence there is a great deal of interest in the scheduling communities for generating robust schedules rather than optimal ones (Jensen 2003). The most common changes in the current solutions are machine breakdown or new orders received from the customer. For machine breakdown or new orders received from customers, perhaps the rescheduling of the current solution is needed and this depend on the type of situation and when changes happened. For example, if the new order is received while the machine is processing a current job and the new job (order) is more important than the current job, the uncompleted operation for the current job needs to be rescheduled.

3 The method for solving job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problems There are several methods to solving the job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problems, and all can be classied into two categories; the exact and approximate methods. For the exact method, the most significant for the Job-Shop Scheduling Problem is called the Branch-and-Bound Method. This method was developed by Land and Doig (1960), and used primarily for the optimization of problems which could be formulated as linear programming problems with additional constraints. The main problem with the exact methods is cannot always give optimal solutions, especially when resolving scheduling problems. The exact method is suitable for small size problems (Baptiste and Le Pape 1996) and for job-shop scheduling problems. For the approximate methods, it does not always reach an optimal solution, but it can come very close. There are several techniques in the approximate method that are used to solve the job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problems such as priority dispatch rules, bottleneck based heuristics and articial intelligence. For the priority dispatch rules technique, jobs can be scheduled on machines taking into consideration certain rules, depending on the nal objective or purpose for which schedule is being generated. Gifer and Thomson (1960), use some rules in their algorithm for solving production scheduling problems. Adams et al. (1986), was developed the bottleneck base heuristics algorithm to solving job-shop scheduling problems. This technique starts by establishing partial schedules for each machine, with the schedules built for each machine individually taking into consideration the ready times for the jobs on each machine as the completion time on the preceding operation. Recently, articial intelligence techniques have become popular for solving various problems, especially scheduling problems. In the area of scheduling, articial intelligence refers to the evolutionary algorithm. There are several algorithms for articial intelligence techniques designed to solving job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problems, These include the genetic algorithm, articial neural networks, tabu search techniques, simulated annealing,

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An articial immune system for solving production scheduling problems: a review

M1 M2 M3

J3 J4 J1 2 4 J2

J4 J1 J2 6

J1 J3 J4 8 10

J2

Machine

J3 12 14

Processing Time
Fig. 4 An example of a nal solution for the job-shop scheduling problem

M3 M2 M1

Machine

J1 (O1,1) J2 (O2,1) J3 (O3,1) 2 4 6

J3 (O3,2) J1 (O1,2) J2 (O2,2) 8 10 12 14 J1 (O1,3)

J2 (O2,3) J2 (O2,4)

16

18

20

22

24

Processing Time
Fig. 5 An example of a nal solution for the exible job-shop scheduling problem

particle swarm optimization, articial immune system and others. Which ever technique is used, the objective is to obtain the best schedule with optimal and most robust solution. Figure 4 illustrates the best schedule for the job-shop problem as Fig. 1 has and Fig. 5 will illustrate, with the schedule for the exible job-shop problem shown in Fig. 2. In a dynamic environment, nding an optimal solution is of the utmost important for realworld applications. As we see in the research by Wiers (1997), articial intelligence is the good technique to nding a solution in the dynamic environment of real-world scheduling problem applications. In his research he presented the relati9ve applicability of operational research and articial intelligence techniques with their shortcomings in practice. These are: (i) robustness; (ii) complexity; (iii) performance measurement; (iv) xed versus changeable input; (v) organizational embedding; (vi) availability and accuracy of data; (vii) interaction with human scheduler; (viii) learning from experience (articial intelligence techniques); (ix) availability and reliability of human experts (articial intelligence techniques). In this paper we will employ articial intelligence for solving the job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problems by specifically using an articial immune system (Figs. 6, 7).

4 The natural immune system The natural immune system became a subject of research interest due to its powerful information processing capabilities. The immune system is a complex of cells, molecules and organs that function as an identication mechanism capable of perceiving and combating dysfunction from its own cells (infections self) and from the action of exogenous infectious microorganisms (infectious non-selves) such as viruses, bacteria and other parasites (so-called invading antigens). The interaction among the immune system and several other systems and organs allows the regulation of the body, guaranteeing its stable functioning (Jerne 1973; Janeway 1992).

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MHC protein APC Antigen (I) Peptide ( II ) T-cell ( III ) B-cell (V)

( IV ) Activated T-cell Lymphokines ( VI )

Activated B-cell (plasma cell)

( VII )

Fig. 6 How human immune system work?

The immune system performs six main tasks. First, Pieces of peptides are joined to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules and are displayed on the surface of the cell. Second, T cells are activated by that recognition divide and secrete lymphokines, or chemical signals, that mobilize other components of the immune system. Third, the B lymphocytes, which also have receptor molecules of a single specicity on their surface, respond to those signals. Fourth, when activated, the B cells divide and differentiate into plasma cells that secrete antibody proteins, which are soluble forms of their receptors. Fifth, by binding to the antigens they nd, antibodies can neutralize them or sixth precipitate their destruction by complement enzymes or by scavenging cells. MHC is one of the most focused components of immune system (Dausset 1980). It plays a central role in recognizing pathogenic antigens. Lymphocytes are small leukocytes that have a major responsibility in the immune system. There are two main types of lymphocytes; B lymphocytes (or B cells), which upon activation, differentiate into plasmocytes (or plasma cells) capable of secreting antibodies; and T lymphocytes (or T cells). The main functions of the B cells include the production and secretion of antibodies as a response to exogenous proteins like bacteria, viruses and tumor cells. Each B cell is programmed to produce specic antibodies. The T lymphocyte is also called a T cell because it matures within the thymus (Dreher 1995). The functions of T cell include the regulation of other cellular action and directly attacks the host infecting cells.

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An articial immune system for solving production scheduling problems: a review

Fig. 7 The clonal selection principle

5 Articial Immune Systems (AIS) Articial Immune Systems (AIS) are a set of techniques, which try to algorithmically mimic the behavior of natural immune systems (Hart 2008). The techniques are naturally used in pattern recognition, fault detection, diagnosis, and a number of other areas, including optimization (Costa 2002). AIS also can be dened as a computational system based on metaphors borrowed from the biological immune system. The work in the eld of AIS was initiated by Farmer (1986). They introduced a dynamic model of the immune system that was simple enough to be simulated on a computer. In their research, the antibody-antibody and antibody-antigen reactions are simulated via complementary matching strings. To develop the AIS model we need to consider the following important factors: i. Hybrid structures and algorithms that are translated into immune system components; ii. Algorithm calculations based on the immunology principle, distribution processing, clone selection algorithms, and network theory immunity; iii. Immunity based on optimization, self-learning, self-organization, articial life, cognitive models, multi-agent systems, design and scheduling, pattern recognition and anomaly detection; iv. The immune tools for engineering.

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Hoffman (1986) has constructed a model that incorporates some aspects of the immune system into a neural network. The scope of his model in terms of applications is not as extensive as that proposed by Farmer (1986). However, the unique idea of combining the two promoted more research into the area and numerous models have been generated since. In other studies by Ishida (1990, 1993), models of the immune system are developed and applied to areas such as process diagnosis. In his studies he deals with a model built on the recognition capabilities of the immune system and how it learns through a specic form of recognition. In other research, Bersini and Varela (1990, 1991) and Bersini (1991) have developed similar models of the immune system and applied them to the areas of machine learning, optimization and adaptive control. In earlier research, Chueh (2004) introduced an immune algorithm based on the biological immune system for the functions of optimization and scheduling. In his research, he applies the terminology of biological immune system to his immune algorithm model and a genetic algorithm (GA). Genetic algorithms are among the most popular techniques for solving scheduling problems. They are computational models that area particular class of evolutionary algorithms using techniques inspired by evolutionary biology. In another study, Luh and Chueh (2007) introduce a multi-modal immune algorithm to nding optimal solutions for job-shop scheduling problems. A study by Fabio and Maurizio (2006) on the comparison of AIS and GA performance states that in the performance of numerically evaluated functions, AIS succeed in detecting a larger number of optimal points than GA. There are several basic of immune system models and algorithm such as Bone Marrow Models, Negative Selection Algorithms, the Clonal Selection Principle, Somatic Hypermutation and Immune Network Models. In this paper for solving of job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problem, we will employ the Clonal Selection Principle.

6 The clonal selection principle The clonal selection principle or theory is the algorithm used by the immune system to describe the basic features of an immune response to antigen stimulus. It establishes the idea that only those cells that recognize the antigens are able to proliferate, thus being selected against those which do not. The clonal proliferation of B cells occurs inside the lymph nodes (Weissman and Cooper 1993) within a special microenvironment named the germinal center, which is located in the follicular region of the white pulp and is rich in antigen presenting cells (Tarlinton 1998). When a living body is exposed to an antigen, the B cells will respond by producing antibodies. Basically, B cells clone themselves into as many forms as is required to ght the infection and clone only those cells which are actually capable of ghting the intruder effectively. During the process of clonal proliferation, a hyper-mutation mechanism operates on the vulnerable regions of B cells. This hyper-mutation plays a critical role in creating diverse antibodies, increasing afnity and enhancing specicity of the antibodies. In the AIS, the number of antibodies produced can be analogized as the number of feasible solutions, where in the AIS this antibody was produced randomly. For the cloning and mutating processes for each feasible solution, it is capable of reaching a near optimal solution. When the number of clones for the mutation is large, the optimal solution can be reached more quickly. Burnet (1978) state the main features of clonal selection principle: i. The new cells are copies (clones) of their parents subjected to a mutation mechanism at high rates; ii. Elimination of newly differentiated lymphocytes carrying self reactive receptors;

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An articial immune system for solving production scheduling problems: a review

iii. Proliferation and differentiation on contact with mature lymphocytes with antigens; iv. Restriction of one pattern to one differentiated cell and retention of that pattern by clonal descendants; v. Generation of new random genetic changes, subsequently expressed as diverse antibody patterns by a form of accelerated somatic mutation.

7 Applying the AIS to solving the job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problem In past research by Burnet (1978), Hart et al. (1998) and Hart and Ross (1999a) it has been shown that the AIS model can be used to solve the scheduling problems for industries in a dynamic environment. In another study by Hart and Ross (1999b), the function of antigens is dened as a sequence of jobs on a particular machine given a particular scenario and that of antibodies as a short sequence of jobs that is common to more than one schedule. In their research, Aickelin et al. (2004) state that the schedules obtained by using AIS are more robust than those obtained by the GA, and it has been proven that increasing the number of antigens in an AIS improves the optimality of the schedules obtained. However, it decreases its tness. In a study by Tomoyuki (2003), the immune algorithm is used to solve job-shop scheduling problem, and he has demonstrated that the calculation time used by the immune algorithm was shorter compared with the GA. In other research, Chueh (2004) establishes nine steps in his proposed model for solving job-shop scheduling problems; (i) random initialization of antibody population, where the initial integer string-encoding antibody population is randomly generated; (ii) antibody representation and gene classication, where an operation-based representation (Gen et al. 1994) is used to represent the genes of an antibody; (iii) calculating combinatorial intensity, where the antibody-to-antigen afnity value is employed to illustrate the combinatorial intensity between antigen and antibody/schedules; (iv) clonal proliferation; (v) tournament selection for donor antibodies; (vi) germ-line DNA library construction; (vii) random gene fragment rearrangement; (viii) antibody diversication; and (ix) the stopping criterion. In their research, Ong et al. (2005) proffered an immune algorithm called ClonaFLEX, which is designed using the clonal selection principle and employed to solve exible jobshop scheduling problems. In this study, for the antibody population they take inspiration from research in applying GA to solving the exible job-shop scheduling problem by Kacem et al. (2002) and Tay and Ho (2004). Another study by Bagheri et al. (2010) introduces a model to solve exible job-shop scheduling problem by using an articial immune system. In their research, they produce the antibody population by follow the procedure proposed by Pezzella et al. (2008). From our discussion of means for solving the job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problem using AIS and for developing the AIS model to solve job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problems, we nd that the most important is the number of antibody population, number of clones and the mutation process for the antibody. When the number of antibodies is large, the feasible solution is close to optimal solution; and when the number of clones is large, the optimal solution can be reached more quickly. The mutation process is important in determining when the cloning is near an optimal solution after the mutation process or is far from the optimal solution. Chueh (2004) was used six types of mutation including somatic point mutation, somatic recombination, gene inversion, gene conversion and gene shift and nucleotide addition. Ong et al. (2005) has used two types; operation order mutation and machine order mutation.

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A. S. Muhamad, S. Deris Fig. 8 An integer string encoding antibody generated at random

Library 1 1 2 4 1 4 3 4 3 2 1 3 2 Library 2 2 1 3 1 4 2 4 3 1 3 4 2
1 4 2 2 3 1 4 4 3 1 3 2

Library 3 4 2 4 2 1 1 3 3 2 3 4 1

Library 4 4 3 4 3 2 2 4 1 1 1 3 2

Fig. 9 An integer string encoding antibody generated using a library

(1, 1, 1) (3, 1, 3) (2, 1, 2) (3, 2, 1) (2, 2, 3) (1, 2, 2) (1, 3, 2) (2, 3, 1) (2, 4, 2)

Fig. 10 An antibody representation for exible job-shop using approach 1

(1, 1, 1) (3, 1, 2) (2, 1, 2) (2, 2, 2) (1, 2, 2) (3, 2, 1) (2, 3, 1) (1, 3, 1) (2, 4, 2)

Fig. 11 An antibody representation for exible job-shop using approach 2

From another aspect, the way that antibodies are created will effect to most feasible solution. There are two ways to create antibodies for job-shop scheduling problems; rst, random generation; second, generation using libraries. Figures 8 and 9 present examples of antibodies for job-shop scheduling problems based on the problem as Fig. 1. The length of antibody for the job-shop scheduling problem is equal to m machine multiply by n jobs, where each job j will appear m times in an antibody. For a exible job-shop scheduling problem, there are two approaches to antibody creation; rst, the assignment process commencing the operation with the global minimum processing time in the processing time table, and then performing the machine workload update in the processing time table; second, the jobs and machines are randomly permitted before the localization approach is applied. For the exible job-shop scheduling problem, the length of the antibody is equal to the number of operations and for each gene it is formed by triplets (i , j , k ) according to the task sequencing list provide by Kacem et al. (2002), where i is the job that the operation belongs to; j is the progressive number of operations within job i ; and k is the machine assigned to that operation. Figures 10 and 11 present an example of antibodies for exible job-shop scheduling problems based on a specic problem, as in Fig. 2.

8 Conclusion This paper has introduced the basic concepts of natural immune system and articial immune system for the better understanding of the problems created by job-shop and exible jobshop scheduling. This paper also introduced a mapping of the natural immune system into an articial immune system. It has attempted to illustrate how the AIS can be adapted to tackle scheduling problems, especially the job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problems. To do so, existing AIS scheduling applications were carefully reviewed. Scheduling is an area

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An articial immune system for solving production scheduling problems: a review

demanding the application of efcient methods to tackle the combinatorial explosion of the results in real-world applications. There has been much significant effort and research undertaken to solve production scheduling problems by means of AIS, especially in the eld of job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problems. There remain challenging research areas worth exploring. The majority of existing efforts have been directed towards applying the AIS to static scheduling, especially for job-shop scheduling problems. For exible job-shop scheduling problems, there have been only a few attempts directed towards applying AIS to discover solutions. For further study, we suggest more investigating for the dynamic scheduling in job-shop scheduling problem and also to more concentrated investigation of the static and dynamic scheduling on exible job-shop scheduling problems. On the other hand, for further study also we suggest the introduction of the AIS model for solving the job-shop and exible job-shop scheduling problems, especially for the purpose of producing optimal and robust scheduling procedures.

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