Habitat

Nematods can be found in soil , fresh water, salt water and as parasites in plants and animals.

External Anatomy
Nematodes are unsegmented worms and are commonly known as round worms. They have cylindrical and bilaterally symmetrical bodies. Their bodies are covered with resistant elastic cuticle made up of protein. They range in size from 0.5 mm to over 1m in length.

Circulatory and respiratory system

They have no circulatory or respiratory systems so they use diffusion to breathe. Although they have no circulatory system, nutrients are transported throughout the body via fluid in the pseudocoelom.

Reproduction
Reproduction is usually sexual. Males are usually smaller than females (often much smaller) and often have a characteristically bent tail for holding the female for copulation.

Gonads
The other end of the female gonad is attached to the body wall and opens immediately outwards, whereas the male gonad opens into the rectum, which thus becomes a typical cloaca.

Female gonad
In general, nematodes have two female genital tubes; however, some trichurids and strongylids have only a single gonad. The tubes are subdivided into the ovaries, the oviducts, the receptacula seminis, and the uteri, which join to form the single vagina opening through the vulva to the exterior. The vagina lays on the ventral side, often in the midregion; however, in filariae it is found close to the very anterior end, whereas in strongylids it opens immediately beside the anal pore in the most posterior region. The wall of the ovary consists of a basal lamina and a layer of epithelial cells, which in the proximal region of the ovary may contain basally arranged myofilaments. The oviduct is a short tube lined by epithelial cells which have many myofilaments at their base. The surrounding basal lamina interdigitates deeply with the epithelum, and the myofilaments are attached by hemidesmosomes to these protuberances of the lamina. The luminal surface of the epithelial cells protrudes microvilli. The oviduct forms a constrained tube through which the oocytes pass in a single file. Maturation of the eggs takes place in the uteri, which are lined by an epithelium covered by a basal lamina and some ring muscle cells. The muscle layer is thin in the wall of the seminal receptacle, but becomes prominent towards the end of the uterus. In the vagina uterina, the distal bifurcated portion of the vagina, the ring muscles are multilayered. In some groups of nematodes this region is modified to a strongly musculated ovijector, which serves as a valve. The surface of the proximal portion of the vagina, the vagina vera, is lined by cuticle.

Male gonad
The male genital tube consists of the blind-ending testis, the seminal vesicle, the vas deferens, and the ejaculatory duct which opens into the rectum

testis contains the spermatogonia The seminal vesicle is a storage organ for spermatozoa and in some species the final development to these stages takes place in this organ. The vas deferens and the ejaculatory duct lead to the cloaca. The wall of these ducts secretes substances that stimulate the transformation of the sperms into the amoeboid form The spicules are characteristic copulatory structures of male nematodes . In most nematodes there are two spicules, which often differ in length and shape, but in some species only a single spicule is found . The spicules are needle-shaped and consist of thick cuticular material which surrounds a cytoplasmatic core with nerve processes. The nerve endings are covered by cuticular material. In many species the spicule wall is bent to form a hollow needle with an opening at its base and tip. The spicules are formed in a dorsal sac of the cloaca called the spicular pouch. The spicules can be moved back and forth by accessory muscles and during copulation they are inserted into the female vulva. The bursa is a lobular modification of the male posterior end, which is highly elaborated in stronglylid nematodes. The bursa surrounds the vulvular region of the female worm.

Gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis Male gamete production system is called spermatogenesis. The spermatogonia in the terminal region of the testis multiply by mitotic divisions . It remains doubtful whether a cap cell gives rise to the spermatogonia or a population of stem cells lies in the terminal lumen and proliferates the spermatogonia, as has been observed in Dirofilaria immitis. When the cells enter the next region of the testis, they begin the prophase of the first meiotic division. In the diplotene the spermatocytes grow and differentiate the organelles characteristic of the nematode sperms. The meiotic divisions, resulting in four spermatids from each spermatocyte, occur either at the posterior portion of the testis or in the seminal vesicle.

Oogenesis
At the tip of the female gonad a syncytial mass or a cap cell may proliferate oogonia. The cap zone is part of the germinal zone in which the oogonia multiply by mitotic divison. The cytoplasm of all germinal cells is connected to a cytoplasmatic strand (rachis) running in the middle of the ovarial lumen. The oogonia have a spherical shape with little cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus . Reaching the growth zone of the ovary the germinal cells cease mitotic activity and begin the prophase of the first meiotic division. The oocytes then remain in the diplotene stage and begin intense synthetic activity. In a first step they increase in size by adding more cytoplasm. The cells often elongate and become arranged radially around the rachis. During further development in the maturation zone, oocytes produce nutrient stores (e.g., lipid droplets, hyaline granules, dense granules and glycogen) and materials for eggshell formation (refringent granules, shell granules and glycogen). The oocytes continue the first meiotic division as they leave the ovary and pass through the oviduct.

Fertilization
When the oocyte enters the seminal receptacle, fertilization takes place. The whole sperm then enters the cell. Penetration of the sperm is followed by formation of the eggshell and by completion of the two meiotic divisions resulting in expulsion of two polar bodies

Eggshell Formation
The eggshell is formed immediately after fertilization and usually contains four layers. The outermost

(uterine) layer consists of material that is secreted by the uterine epithelial cells. The next, vitelline, layer originates from the vitelline membrane which is formed after fertilization of the oocyte. The underlying chitinous layer contains chitin and is often the thickest layer of the eggshell. The most internal layer is the lipid layer which is responsible for the extreme impermeability of the nematode eggshell. Some nematodes, like other animals (for example segmented worms), are hermaphroditic. The hermaphroditic nematode keeps its self-fertilized eggs inside its uterus until they hatch. The juvenile nematodes will then ingest the parent nematode.

Body layers Hypodermis (=Epidermis)

The hypodermis underlies the cuticle and covers the somatic muscle cells as a thin cytoplasmatic layer. The hypodermis forms thick chords which are in contact with the pseudocoel between the four sectors filled by muscle cells. Depending on their position they are called dorsal, ventral and lateral hypodermal chords . The hypodermis consists of multinucleate cells (=syncytia) with nuclei in the chords. Frequently, there is a row of large dorsal and another row of large ventral syncytia which are in contact in the lateral chords. In the middle of each chord a row of small cells may be situated between the large syncytia. During secretion of the new cuticle the hypodermis is modified, showing the morphological features characteristic of intense protein synthesis. The nuclei are enlarged and contain a prominent nucleolus and extended chromatin. The number of the mitochondria is increased. The cytoplasm is filled with rough endoplasmic reticulum and many Golgi apparatus. The formation of vesicles, their transport to the outer membrane, and their release can be observed. The hypodermis in the sectors where the muscle cells are (= interchordal hypodermis) is a thin layer crossed by numerous tonofibrils which are attached to the muscle cells by desmosome like junctions and to the cuticle by hemidesmosomes . These fibrils are a stable link between the systems acting antagonistically in nematode locomotion. Only a few mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi complexes, and some multivesicular bodies are found in the interchordal hypodermis after molts . These organelles are often concentrated in corners where two muscle cells abut and the hypodermis is slightly thicker. In middle cells of the lateral hypodermis chords the channels of the excretory system are found.

cuticle As they grow, their cells get larger, but the total number is constant. The epidermis secretes a layered cuticle made of three layers of collagen that protects the body from drying out, or from digestive juices or other damaging substances. Although this cuticle allows movement and shape changes, it is very inelastic so does not allow the volume of the worm to increase. Therefore, as the worm grows, it has to molt and form new cuticles. The cuticles don't allow volume to increase so as to keep hydrostatic pressure inside the organism very high. For this reason, the roundworms do not possess circular muscles (just longitudinal ones) as they're not required. This hydrostatic pressure is the reason the roundworms are round. The mouth is often surrounded by various flaps or projections used in feeding and sensation. The

portion of the body past the anus is called the "tail."

Feeding and digestion

Nematodes are one of the simplest animal groups to have a complete digestive system, with a separate orifice for food intake and waste excretion, a pattern followed by all subsequent, more complex animals. As a pseudocoel, the body cavity lacks the muscles of coelomate animals that force food down the digestive tract. Nematodes thus depend on internal/external pressures and body movement to move food through their digestive tracts. The mouth is often surrounded by various flaps or projections used in feeding and sensation. Excretion is through a separate excretory pore. The hydrostatic pressure of the body fluid closes the esophageal lumen. This pumping mechanism presses the food through the intestine to the anus. At the end of the esophagus there is an additional valve which prevents the reflux of the ingested material. A gland cell is situated in the dorsal and both subventral sectors of the posterior portion of the esophagus. The cells produce digestive secretions which are released through ducts into the lumen. The intestine is a cylindrical tube and its wall consists of a basal lamina and a single layer of epithelial cells which carry microvilli on their luminal surfaces . The microvilli stand close together and contain an axial core which is extended into the underlying cytoplasm and is connected to the terminal web. The terminal web is a porous layer of structural proteins lying below the bases of the microvilli and connected to the core of the microvilli. On its other side numerous microfilaments are continuous with the underlying cytoplasm . The mouth opens into a muscular pharynx, which acts as a pump to bring food from the mouth into the intestine (You can examine the digestive system later once you dissect your specimen). From the pharynx, a long tubular intestine travels the length of the body to the anus. Digestive enzymes are produced by the single layer of epithelial cells lining the intestine. Digestion begins extracellularly within the intestinal lumen but is then completed intracellularly. The cytoplasm of epithelial cells of the anterior intestine contains mainly mitochondria, rough endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi complexes producing digestive enzymes which are released into the intestinal lumen. The cells of the middle and posterior region contain more structures which are associated with absorption, intracellular digestion, and storage of reserves and/or waste products. Intestinal cells usually contain energy reserves such as glycogen and lipid droplets. The outer membrane of the intestinal cells is often folded into a basal labyrinth which is covered by the basal lamina as the outer lining of the intestinal cylinder. The intestinal cells of bloodsucking nematodes usually contain large amounts of concentric granules. These granules contain iron originating from the hemoglobin of host erythrocytes. In several species further disintegration leads to the complete disappearance of these granules. Glycogen is rather rare in the intestinal cells of blood-feeding nematodes, whereas in others it forms large aggregations. The intestinal cells of adult females of Onchocerca volvulus and O. gibsoni are extremely thick, thus reducing the intestinal lumen to a system of intercellular clefts

Excretory System
The excretory system of nematodes was named as such from morphological descriptions, but its function is rather osmoregulatory, ion regulatory, and even secretory rather than excretory. The tubular type of excretory system is the most common type among parasitic nematodes. It consists of a system of tubes and one or two gland cells which have a joint excretory duct. The lateral tubes run inside the

lateral chords of the hypodermis . The hypodermal cytoplasm and the excretory tube are separated by membranes. The cytoplasm of the tube contains numerous canaliculi which open into the main canal . In the anterior region of the worm, the lateral tubes are connected by a transverse canal. An excretory duct which is lined with cuticle runs from this transverse canal to the excretory pore. The subventral gland cells are connected to the transverse canal . These gland cells have a secretory function, and they have been shown to release acetylcholinesterase and protease in some species. In the first-stage larvae of filariae (microfilariae) the excretory system consists of a single cell, and adult worms of this group apparently lack excretory systems. The hypodermal gland cells or bacillary cells are thought to have an osmoregulatory or secretory function in trichurid nematodes . Single and sometimes branched cells are frequently found in the pseudocoel adjacent to the gonads or other internal organs, and in the anterior or posterior end portions of nematodes. These cells are called coelomocytes and are assumed to be phagocytic and to purify the body fluid

Sensory and nervous system

Nematodes have a simple nervous system, with a main ventral nerve cord and a smaller dorsal nerve cord..Sensory structures at the anterior end are called amphids, while sensory structures at the posterior end are called phasmids. There are no circular muscles, so the body can only undulate from side to side. Contact with solid objects is necessary for locomotion; its thrashing motions vary from mostly to completely ineffective at swimming. Amphids (Greek: amphi, around, double) are inervated invaginations of cuticle in nematodes. They are usually found in the anterior (head) region of the animal, at the base of the lips. Amphids are the principal chemosensory organs of nematodes. Each amphid is made up of 12 sensory neurons with ciliated dendrites. There are two main classes of the chemosensor: direct and distance. Examples of distance chemoreceptors are: olfactory receptor neurons in the olfactory system neurons in the vomeronasal organ that detect pheromones Examples of direct chemoreceptors include taste buds in the gustatory system carotid bodies and aortic bodies that detect changes in pH and CO2 inside the body. Phasmids are unicellular sensilia in the lateral tail region of certain species of nematodes. They are similar in their structure to amphid sensilla, but smaller. Phasmid neurons were recently shown to function in modulation of chemorepulsion behavior.

sensilla are mechanoreceptors A mechanoreceptor is a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical pressure or distortion