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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Q.1 Explain the steps involved in a research process.

ANS: Steps of the Research process Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being objective and gathering a multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a conclusion. This process is used in all research and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method Step 1: Identify the Problem The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The research problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information that is needed by the agency, Step 2: Review the Literature Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. Step 3: Clarify the Problem Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad in scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the study. This can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research project. Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to the study. Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is reading the study. To minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases mean, the researcher must specifically define them for the study. Step 5: Define the Population Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development, employee evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of technology into the operations.

Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan The instrumentation plan serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how, when, and where data will be collected; and the content of the program. The group of participants is called the sample, which is a smaller group selected from the population specified for the study. Step 7: Collect Data The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the research question. Every study includes the collection of some type of datawhether it is from the literature or from subjectsto answer the research question. Data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature. Step 8: Analyze the Data The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research question can be answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of this analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to the research questions.

Q.2 What are descriptive research designs? Explain the different kinds of descriptive research designs. Descriptive research is the exploration of the existing certain phenomena. The details of the facts won't be known. The existing phenomena's facts are not known to the person The Descriptive Method of Research D The descriptive method of research design helps researchers plan and carry out descriptive studies, designed to provide rich descriptive details about people, places and other phenomena. This type of research is often associated with anthropology, sociology and psychology, but researchers in other fields, such as education, use it. The descriptive method often involves extensive observation and note-taking, as well as in-depth narrative. Because it does not lend itself to in-depth analysis or hypothesis testing, some researchers regard the descriptive method as unscientific. However, a descriptive research design can serve as a first step that identifies important factors, laying a foundation for more-rigorous research. Instructions Preparing a Descriptive Research Study Identify the subject or phenomenon you wish to study and make sure it is appropriate for a descriptive design. Descriptive research design aims to observe and describe a subject without affecting its normal actions.

Decide on the type of descriptive research design that will be most appropriate for your study. The most basic type is the single-subject case study, an in-depthnarrative that contains extensive details and description of the subject observed. Another type of descriptive design is a comparative study, in which a researcher describes two or more sets of subjects. For example, an education researcher may want to study the implementation of a new instructional method by comparing its use in three different classrooms or three separate campuses.

Articulate your key research questions. For example, you may want to describe how an instructional method's delivery differs across campuses or how members of a particular tribe interact with one another. Knowing the research questions you want to answer will help focus your observation and other field research. Without a clear research question, descriptive research runs the risk of becoming unfocused, with the researcher taking notes or making recordings of everything being observed without knowing how to use the information collected.

Conducting Descriptive Research Read over your field notes, interview transcripts, survey information and other data collected for your study. Keep your research questions in mind as you read the material, looking for patterns and trends in the material collected. Condense the data by drafting memos or summaries that organize extensive field notes and other information into a more concise form, which will help you write your report. Include specific examples of incidents or events you observed that help illustrate important points you want to make.

Q.3 Explain the concepts of reliability, validity and sensitivity It is important to ensure that the instruments (for example, tests, questionnaires, etc.) used in program evaluation are as reliable, valid and sensitive as possible. A measure that is poorly chosen or poorly conceived can completely undermine the worth of an impact assessment by producing misleading estimates. Only if outcome measures are valid, reliable and appropriately sensitive can impact assessments be regarded as credible'. Reliability The reliability of a measurement instrument is the 'extent to which the measure produces the

same results when used repeatedly to measure the same thing' The more reliable a measure is, the greater its statistical power and the more credible its findings. If a measuring instrument is unreliable, it may dilute and obscure the real effects of a program, and the program will 'appear to be less effective than it actually is. Hence, it is important to ensure the evaluation is as reliable as possible. Validity The validity of a measurement instrument is 'the extent to which it measures what it is intended to measure' This concept can be difficult to accurately measure: in general use in evaluations, an instrument may be deemed valid if accepted as valid by the stakeholders Sensitivity The principal purpose of the evaluation process is to measure whether the program has an effect on the social problem it seeks to redress; hence, the measurement instrument must be sensitive enough to discern these potential changes A measurement instrument may be insensitive if it contains items measuring outcomes which the program couldn't possibly effect. Only measures which adequately achieve the benchmarks of reliability, validity and sensitivity can be said to be credible evaluations. It is the duty of evaluators to produce credible evaluations, as their findings may have far reaching effects. A discreditable evaluation which is unable to show that a program is achieving its purpose when it is in fact creating positive change may cause the program to lose its funding undeservedly

Q4.Explain the questionnaire design process. A good questionnaire should not be too lengthy. Simple English should be used and the question shouldnt be difficult to answer. A good questionnaire requires sensible langu age, editing, assessment, and redrafting. Questionnaire Design Process St State the information required- This will depend upon the nature of the problem, the purpose of the study and hypothesis framed. The target audience must be concentrated on. State the kind of interviewing technique- interviewing method can be telephone, mails, personal interview or electronic interview. Decide the matter/content of individual questions- There are two deciding factors Is the question significant? - Observe contribution of each question. Does the question contribute for the objective of the study? Is

O Overcome the respondents inability and unwillingness to answer Decide on the structure of the question- Questions can be of two types: Structured questions Unstructured questions

Determine the question language/phrasing it should be unambiguous and easy to understand Properly arrange the questions To determine the order of the question, take decisions on aspects like opening questions (simple, interesting questions should be used as opening questions to gain co-operation and confidence of respondents), type of information (Basic information relates to the research issue, classification information relates to social and demographic characteristics, and identification information relates to personal information such as name, address, contact number of respondents), difficult questions (complex, embarrassing, dull and sensitive questions could be difficult), effect on subsequent questions, logical sequence, etc. Recognize the form and layout of the questionnaire Reproduce the questionnaire Paper quality should be good. Questionnaire should appear to be professional. The required space for the answers to the question should be sufficient. The font type and size should be appropriate. Vertical response questions should be used Pre-test the questionnaire Always pretest the questionnaire before full survey to know shortcomings Finalize the questionnaire If everything is in order finalize it.

Q.5 The procedure of testing hypothesis requires a researcher to adopt several steps. Describe in brief all such steps.

Introduction
Hypothesis testing is generally used when you are comparing two or more groups. When you are evaluating a hypothesis, you need to account for both the variability in your sample and how large your sample is. Based on this information, you'd like to make an assessment of whether any differences you see are meaningful, or if they are likely just due to chance. This is formally done through a process called hypothesis testing. Five Steps in Hypothesis Testing:

Specify the Null Hypothesis Specify the Alternative Hypothesis Set the Significance Level (a) Calculate the Test Statistic and Corresponding P-Value Drawing a Conclusion

Step 1: Specify the Null Hypothesis


The null hypothesis (H0) is a statement of no effect, relationship, or difference between two or more groups or factors. In research studies, a researcher is usually interested in disproving the null hypothesis.

Step 2: Specify the Alternative Hypothesis


The alternative hypothesis (H1) is the statement that there is an effect or difference. This is usually the hypothesis the researcher is interested in proving. The alternative hypothesis can be one-sided (only provides one direction, e.g., lower) or twosided. We often use two-sided tests even when our true hypothesis is onesided because it requires more evidence against the null hypothesis to accept the alternative hypothesis.

Step 3: Set the Significance Level (a)


The significance level (denoted by the Greek letter alpha a) is generally set at 0.05. This means that there is a 5% chance that you will accept your alternative hypothesis when your null hypothesis is actually true. The smaller the significance level, the greater the burden of proof needed to reject the null hypothesis, or in other words, to support the alternative hypothesis.
Q6 a) What are the different kinds of research reports available to the researcher? There are many ways to categorize the different types of research. For example, research in different fields can be called different types of research, such as scientific research, social research, medical research, environmental research and so forth. The research methods that are used and purposes of the research also can be used to categorize the different types of research. A few of these types of research include quantitative and qualitative research; observational and experimental research; and basic, applied and developmental research.

Quantitative and Qualitative

Quantitative research is the collecting of objective numerical data. Features are classified and counted, and statistical models are constructed to analyze and explain the information that has been gathered. Some of the tools used for this type of research include questionnaires that are given to test subjects, equipment that is used to measure something and databases of existing information. The goal of quantitative research is to compile statistical evidence, so the questionnaires used in this method typically include yes-or-no questions or multiple-choice questions rather than openended questions such as essay questions.

Observational and Experimental


Observational research is the collection of information without interference or input from the researcher. It is the examination of things as they naturally or inherently are. The researcher simply observes, measures or records what occurs. That information is then analyzed and used to draw conclusions.

Basic, Applied and Developmental


When the purpose of research is simply to reveal or discover what is true, it can be called basic research. This type of research involves exploring that which is not known or understood. Q6 b). What should be the ideal structure of a research report?

The ideal structure of a research report :Most research projects share the same general structure. The research process usually starts with a broad area of interest, the initial problem that the researcher wishes to study. The researcher has to narrow the question down to one that can reasonably be studied in a research project. This might involve formulating a hypothesis or a focus question Once the basic data is collected, the researcher begins to try to understand it, usually by analyzing it in a variety of ways. Even for a single hypothesis there are a number of analyses a researcher might typically conduct. At this point, the researcher begins to formulate some initial conclusions about what happened as a result of the computerized math program. Finally, the researcher often will attempt to address the original broad question of interest by generalizing from the results of this specific study to other related situations. For instance, on the basis of strong results indicating that the math program had a positive effect on student performance, the researcher might conclude that other school districts similar to the one in the study might expect similar results. the major components in a study: The Research Problem The Research Question The Program (Cause)

The Units The Outcomes (Effect) The Design

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