The Impact of Dams

on Life in Rivers

A WWF Research Report

Submitted to the
World Commission on Dams

Prepared by
Biksham Gujja and Diwata Olalia Hunziker

April 2000
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 2

This document brings together information on the impact of dams on river

ecosystems and species. This information was submitted by members of the
WWF Network and its consultants with a view to contribute to the process of the
World Commission on Dams. All scientific data mentioned herein were taken
from factsheets, which can be obtained on request from WWF International.
The views expressed in this document do not necessarily represent those of
WWF International.

The material and geographical designations in this report do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the aprt of WWF concerning the legal
status of any country, territory, or area, or concerning the delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries.

Published in April 2000 by WWF−World Wide Fund for Nature (formerly World
Wildlife Fund), Gland, Switzerland. Any reproduction in full or in part of this
publication must mentioned the title and credit the above-mentioned publisher as
the copyright owner.

© WWF International, April 2000

 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 3

The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers

A WWF Research Report

Submitted to the World Commission on Dams

Prepared by Biksham Gujja and Diwata Olalia Hunziker

Copyright WWF International

Gland, Switzerland

April 2000
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 4

Photo credits

Cover: WWF China

Page 8: © WWf/Sturre Karlsson Traneving
Page 17: © WWF-Canon/Michel Gunther
Page 27: © WWF Netherlands
© WWF-Canon/Mike Baltzer/TNPCP (Javan Rhino/Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus)
Page 25: © WWF-Canon/Paul Barruel
Page 26: © WWF-Canon/Juan Pratginestos
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 5

The Impact of Dams on life in Rivers

A Research Report
Submitted to the World Commission on Dams

CONTRIBUTIONS

Our heartfelt thanks to the following colleagues and contributors without whom this paper
would not have been possible, and to those who have chosen to remain anonymous.

Robin Adell (WWF USA);Azwar (Indonesia); Arch. Guglielmo Blanzone (Italy); Alain
Cassani (Switzerland); Monica Chundama (WWF Zambia); Alberto Fernandez (WWF
Spain); Michelle Handley (WWF Australia); Liang Haitang (WWF China); Najam
Kurshid (WWF Pakistan); Roger Landivar (WWF Bolivia); Chiseche M. Mutale
(Zambia); Daniel Ngantou (WWF Cameroon); Bernadete Ribas Lange (WWF Brazil);
Gert Polet (Vietnam); Juan Carlos Riveros (WWF Peru); David Claudio Antonio
Scarpinella (Brazil); P.A. Brasil; Joanna Tang (WWF Malaysia); Seng Teak, WWF
Indochina (Cambodia); Antonio Tricarico (Italy); David Stone (Switzerland); Liang
Haitang (WWF China); Syed Najam Khurshid (Pakistan); Alexander Zinke (Austria)

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Musonda Mumba and Amalia Romeo (WWF Freshwater Programme)
for their most valuable assistance in preparing this report.
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 6

Contents

I. Introduction

II. Methodology

III Brief context of the study

A. Dams
1. History of Dams
2. Functions of Dams
B. Rivers and species

III. Main findings

IV. Summary & conclusions

Annexes

Annex 1. Fact sheets

Annex 2. Synoptic table of dams and their impact on species and the ecosystem
Annex 3. List of threatened species according to the findings of the study, the 1996
IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants and the 1997 IUCN Red List of
Threatened Animals

References

List of tables

Table 1. Number of fact sheets received, by country

Table 2. Freshwater Ecosystems Index
Table 3. Number of fish species in the world's 11 most species-rich primary
watersheds
Table 4. Some of the major impacts of dams on ecosystems and species
Table 5. Selection of species that have disappeared, become extinct or
endangered by dam operations
Table 6. Samples of decline of species and how they are affected by
dam operations

Boxes

Box 1. Significance of major groups of organisms and their significance in freshwater

Box 2. Selected cases of how dams affect species
Box.3 Species indicated as NI (no information available)

I. Introduction
This report is a contribution of WWF World
Wide Fund for Nature to the ongoing work of
the World Commission on Dams (WCD). Prior
to this study and as a member of its Consultative
Forum, WWF had submitted a Discussion Paper,
A place for dams in the 21st century, and a
policy paper and recommendations. In the latter
document, WWF states its commitment to the
work of the WCD:
WWF will play a role in influencing the
agenda and implementation of the work
programme of the World Commission on
Dams. WWF will provide information,
advice, recommendations, and funding for
specific programmes that advance the
conservation and protection of nature and
wildlife affected by the construction of dams.
In subsequent informal discussions, the lack
of specific data on the impact of dams on
biodiversity was mentioned. Indeed, there
is an extensive documentation on the social
and environmental impacts of dams, but
specific information on the impact of dams
on ecosystems and species seem to be
insufficient.
In response to this need, WWF initiated a brief
study that would provide an overview of the
impacts of dams on river ecosystems.
The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 5
WWF is acutely aware of implications
of the degradation of ecosystems and
loss of species, on local peoples and
communities and their livelihood and
survival. While this question is
recognized as a vital issue by WWF
and since it is being addressed in
another thematic review of the WCD,
the data analysis was focused on loss
of species and degradation of
ecosystems.
The primary objective of this study is
to provide a factual snapshot of the
impacts of dams on species and
ecosystems by providing examples of
specific species and habitats which
have been lost and degraded due to
construction of dams, regardless of
their size. In view of the scope of the
subject, the technical expertise
required and the availability of
scientific data, this report is focused
on the information supplied by the
WWF network. We hope that the
findings would provide the WCD with
useful tools and information
necessary to accomplish its mission.

II. Methodology
A fact sheet (Annex 1) was developed and
first sent to WWF's freshwater network,
who had the technical expertise in
providing the information needed. Some
were able to provide information
immediately, and others had to hire
consultants for various reasons (work
overload, need for additional research, etc.)
or gave names of contact persons.
Considerable follow-up was required to
have the fact sheets submitted on time, and
the deadline was extended many times in
order to receive as many fact sheets as
possible.
The data received through the fact sheets
can be considered as primary first-hand
information. They came in four languages:
English, French, Spanish and Italian. The
majority was received from WWF network.
As expected from primary sources, the
information given revealed regional/cultural
influences and different levels of
understanding of the subject. These could
be mainly attributed to inadequate and/or
lack of scientific data. Nevertheless, the
data gathered represents sufficient evidence
and geographical representation (e.g.,
Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Cambodia,
Cameroon, China, Namibia, Pakistan,
Slovakia, and USA) to produce a synopsis
of some of the major impacts of dam
operations on ecosystems and
The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 6
species. The impacts could be more
significant than we could possibly
substantiate through the data received.
Information on a total of 91 dams
representing 30 countries were
received (Table 1). Pakistan provided
data on 23 dams and barrages that
constitute the water resources
development of the Indus River and
Spain enumerated information on
specific species threatened or
endangered in 19 dams. The
information submitted by Pakistan
and Spain underscores the degree of
difficulty in obtaining data required
on the dams. For dams in
1
Bangladesh, Brazil , Egypt and
Namibia 2, the information (for which
no fact sheets were written) given in
Annex 2 was researched by the
authors. Certain data given in the fact
sheets mention only the number of
endemic species that have become
extinct or have disappeared, or
endangered and threatened, without
necessarily specifying the name of the
species. Others contain information
limited to the first part of the fact
sheet (physical and geographical
description, EIA that are not analyzed
in this study). Altogether, the fact
sheets are the product of the time and
effort that the various offices and
individuals, within the given technical
capabilities and deadlines.
1
Tucurui Dam.
2
Epupa Hydropower Dam.

A synoptic table (Annex 2) has been drawn
to show the country, name of dam, location,
main purposes, status and the summary of
impacts on the ecosystem and species. The
original fact sheets will be reproduced in a
separate annex to the report. Finally, for the
purposes of the study, the species were
classified according to IUCN's Red List
categories (Annex 3) and the authors' own
designation (NI-no information available).
While most
Wattled crane (Grus carunculatus)
The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 7
species are not listed in the IUCN Red
List of Threatened Animals (1997)
and Threatened Plants (1996), they
are officially recognized in the
country itself as extinct, rare,
endangered, threatened or protected.
This explains the number of species
for which no information is available
in IUCN's Red List. Moreover,
considering that the IUCN Red List
goes back to four/five years, it is
highly probable that the species listed
in the fact sheets would be
appropriately indexed in the updated
Red List currently being prepared.
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 8

Table 1. Dams studied

Country No. of Name of dams
dams

Argentina, Bolivia, 1 Hidrovía Project

Brazil, Paraguay,
Uruguay
Australia 1 Lake Pedder (Serpentine Impoundment)
Bangladesh 10 Bank Protection and River Training Project, Brahmaputra River Bank Priority
Works, Dhaleswari Closure Dam, Farakka Barrage, Jamalpur Priority
Project, Jamuna River Project Embankment, Kalni-Kushiyara River
Improvement Project, Kaptai Dam, Manu Barrage, Teesta Barrage
Bolivia 1 Bala Dam Project
Brazil 6 Balbina Dam, Curua Una Dam, Itaipú Binacional, Porto Primavera Dam,
Serra da Mesa Mill Dam, Tucurui Dam
Cambodia 1 Prek Thnot Multipurpose Project
Cameroon 1 Barrage de Maga
Canada 1 Lake Winnipeg Churchill-Nelson River Diversion Project
Chile 1 Ralco Dam
China 2 Three Gorges Dam Project, Cascade Hydropower Projects
Colombia 1 Urra I Dam
Egypt 1 Aswan High Dam
Indonesia 2 Kedung Ombo Dam, Wadaslintang Dam
Italy 1 Diga di Genzano di Lucania Dam
Laos 1 Nam Theun-Hinboun Hydropower Project
Lesotho 1 Lesotho Highlands Water Project
Malaysia 1 Bakun Hydroelectric Project
Namibia 1 Hydropower Scheme on the Lower Cunene River (Epupa Hydropower Dam)
Nepal 1 Kaligandaki Hydroelectric Project
Nigeria 1 Tiga and Challawa Gorge Dams (Kano River Irrigation Project and Hadejia
Valley Project)
Pakistan 23 Kalabagh Dam Project, Kalabagh Barrage, Khanki Barrage, Khanpur Dam,
Kotri Barrage, Mangla Dam, Marala Barrage, Panjpad Barrage, Qadirabad-
balloki Link, Rasul Barrage, Rawal Dam, Sidhnai Barrage, Sukkur Barrage,
Suleimanki Barrage, Tanda Dam, Tarbela Dam, Taunsa Barrage, Trimu
Barrage, Warsak Dam
Peru 1 El Platanal Hydroelectric Project
Slovak Republic 1 Gabcikovo-Cunovo Dam
Spain 20 Enciso Dam, Rialp Dam, Itoiz Dam, Atance, Irueña Dam, Santa Liestra Dam,
Navia Dam, Breña II, Melonares Dam, Andevalo Dam, Castrovido Dam,
Biscarrues Dam, Janovas Dam, Sela Dam, Hozgarganta Dam, Venta del
Obispo Dam, Pozo de los Ramos, Genal Dam, Ubeda La Vieja Dam
Tanzania 1 Lower Kihansi Hydropower Project
USA 5 Glen Canyon Dam, Elwha Dam and Glines Canyon Dam, Rodman Dam and
Spillway (now Kirkpatrick Dam), Condit Dam, Ice Harbor Dam, Lower
Monumental Dam, Little Goose Dam, and Lower Granite Dam
Vietnam 1 Dong Nai No. 3 and Dong Nai No. 4 Combined Hydropower Project
Yugoslavia/Romania 1 Iron Gate I and Iron Gate II
Zambia 2 Itezhi-tezhi Hyropower Project, Kariba HydropowerDam
TOTAL 91

III. Brief context of the study
A. Dams
1. History of dams 3
Civilizations have consistently walled,
canalized and blocked river systems. The
earliest remains of dams found were built
around 3,000 BC as part of an elaborate
water supply system for the town of Jawa
in today's Jordan. The largest of the
dams was more than four metres high and
80 metres long. Some 400 years later,
around the time of the first pyramids,
Egyptian masons constructed the Sadd el-
Kafra, or 'Dam of the Pagans' across a
seasonal stream near Cairo.
By the late first millennium BC, stone
and earth dams had been built around the
Mediterranean, in the Middle East, China,
and Central America. The Romans built
some of the most impressive in Spain,
which
3 4
McCully, Silenced Rivers, pp. 12-17.
The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 9
continued to be preeminent in hydraulic
engineering through the Moorish period
and into modern times.
A 46-metre-high stone dam near Alicante
begun in 1580 and completed 14 years
later was the highest in the world for the
better part of three centuries.
South Asia, too, has a long history of dam
building. Long earthen embank-ments
were built to store water for Sri Lankan
cities from the 4th century BC. One of
these early embank-ments was raised in
460 AD to a height of 34 metres and was
the world's highest dam for more than a
millennium later.
The Elwha and
Glines Canyon
during
th
construction early 20
century 4
Technologies to convert the energy of flowing
water into mechanical energy have a history
http://www.nps.gov/olym/issues/isselwha2.htm

almost as long as that of irrigation. A type of
waterwheel known as the Noria which has
buckets around its rim to scoop up water from
a river or canal was used in Ancient Egypt and
Sumeria. By the first century BC, watermills
were used to grind corn in Rome. During the
later Middle Ages, watermills performed
numerous tasks in the industrial centres of
Germany and northern Italy including pulping
rags for paper, hammering iron, beating hides
in tanneries, spinning silk, crushing ores and
pumping water from mines. Ores from the
famous "silver mountain" at Potos’ in Bolivia
were ground in well over a hundred
watermills.
The industrializing world of the 19th century
built increasingly large dams to store water for
its expanding cities. These dams were mainly
earth embankments designed largely on the
basis of trial and error – until the 1930s there
was little scientific understanding of how soil
and rock behaved under pressure, leading to
quite a few catastrophes of structures
collapsing.
Following the production of the first
water turbines in 1832, advances in
electrical engineering led to building of
power stations and transmission lines.
The world's first hydro plant, a run-of-
river dam in Appleton,
The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 10
Wisconsin (USA), began producing
power in 1882. The following year hydro
dams were built in both Italy and
Norway.
Over the next few decades, small hydro
dams proliferated on the swift-flowing
rivers and streams of Europe, most
notably in Scandinavia and the Alps.
After the turn of the century, the size of
the dams and power stations being built
began rapidly to increase. Progress in
turbine design increased the head at
which turbines could operate from 30
metres in 1900 to more than 200 metres
by the 1930s, and improvements in dam
engineering allowed the high dams to be
built to create this head. A recent WWF
study on dams reports that worldwide,
there are 41,413 operational dams shigher
than 15m. 5.
2. Functions of dams
Dams are constructed for many reasons:
to protect land from floods, to store
water, to generate power, to redirect river
channels, to create artificial lakes
(reservoirs), to transport, and to keep
water levels high for the boats. All dams,
no matter why they are built, must be
strong enough to contain huge volumes of
water without leaking or breaking.
5
WWF, A Place for Dams in the 20th Century, p. 4

Dams have two main functions. The first
is to store water to compensate for
fluctuations in river flow or in demand
for water and energy. Storing water
requires raising the level of the water
upstream to enable water to be diverted
into a canal or to increase "hydraulic
head" – the difference in height between
the surface of a reservoir and the river
downstream. The creation of storage and
Fishing at the Elwha River in the 1800s 6
6
http://www.nps.gov/olym/issues/isselwha2.htm
The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 11
head allow dams to generate electricity
(hydropower provides nearly a fifth of the
world's electricity); to supply water for
agriculture, industries and households; to
control flooding; and to assist river
navigation by providing regular flows and
drowning rapids. Other reasons for
building large dams include reservoir
fisheries and leisure activities such as
boating (cf. column 4, Annex 2).

The Balui river and the surrounding forest,
7 watershed uplands.
where the Bakun dam is being built.
B. Rivers and species
Flowing waters such as rivers are rich in
species diversity. A river system
represents a complex aggregation of
physical and biological elements. In its
downhill journey, rivers carry along
water to refresh wells and springs and to
provide communities, farms and
factories. Rivers are responsible for
meeting most of the water resources for
human needs. A large river and its
drainage basin are an ecosystem in itself,
with both terrestrial and aquatic
components. The amount of debris in
the water – such as leaves and mud –
also affect their existence. If the river
environment changes, some its aquatic
species may have to migrate elsewhere
or perish.
Fish and other species live and depend
on rivers, adapting to its depth, flow and
temperature of water. Some fish fight
the fast currents of midstream, while
others flock near rocks in calm, shallow
waters. In addition, they serve as food to
migratory birds and are known to disperse
7 8
http://www.foe.co.uk/camps/biohab/bakunhom.htm
The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 12
seeds of trees and emergent vegetation of
the rivers, which in turn provide food to
other species in the adjacent ecosystems.8
Complex and dynamic, river systems can
change course radically as a result of
deposition and erosion of their channels
and tributaries, and the uplift and erosion of
The different
organisms living symbiotically in these
river ecosystems are consequently
threatened when their environment is
disturbed. Box 1 outlines some of the
major groups of organisms (listed in our
findings) and their significance/role in the
sustainability of freshwaters.
The project would involve clearing
69,640 ha of forest area, causing
extensive destruction of habitats
and loss of natural vegetation....
Dipterocarpus oblongifolius can
only be found in the upstream part
of most rivers in Sarawak .... The
extensive formation of its root
system effectively prevents erosion
in areas where the river flows fast
all the time. The fruits of this
species provide nutritious food for
aquatic life and wildlife.
(Malaysia, Bakun Hydroelectric
Project)
WWF International, Changing Worlds, pp. 91-101.
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 13

Box 1. Some of the major groups of organisms and their

significance in freshwaters

Plants
Provide a substrate for other organisms and food for many. Trees
are ecologically important in providing shade and organic debris
(leaves, fruit), structural elements (fallen trunks) and branches)
that enhance vertebrate diversity, in promoting bank stabilisation,
and in restricting or modulating floodwaters.

Invertebrates: protozoans
Found in virtually all freshwater habitats. Most abundant in waters
rich in organic matter, bacteria or algae. Feed on detritus, or
consume other microscopic organisms; many are parasitic on
algae, invertebrates or vertebrates.

Invertebrates: crustaceans
Include larger bottom-living species such as shrimps, crayfish and
crabs of lake margins, streams, alluvial forests and estuaries.

Invertebrates: insects
In rivers, streams and lake communities, grazing and predatory
aquatic insects dominate intermediate levels in food webs
(between microscopic producers, mainly algae, and fishes).

Vertebrates: fishes
More than half of all vertebrate species is fishes.
Fishes are the dominant organisms in terms of biomass, feeding
ecology and significance to humans, in virtually all aquatic
habitats, including freshwaters.

Vertebrates: birds
Top predators. Wetlands are often key feeding and staging areas
for migratory birds.

Vertebrates: mammals
Top predators, and grazers. Large species widely impacted by
habitat modification and hunting.

Source: WCMC/UNEP, 1998, pp. 18-20


Box 1 mentions organisms that inhabit
rivers, lakes and wetlands, which are home
for most of freshwater biodiversity.
Representing only one percent, river water
is therefore a small part of an equally small
and vulnerable ecosystem containing a
comparatively rich diversity of life. It is
so complex that "unlike forest ecosystems,
it is not possible to indicate biological
trends". WWF's Living Planet Report 1999
on freshwater ecosystems index − based on
102 freshwater species (available data
mostly North American and European)
including "... every mammal, bird, reptile,
amphibian, and fish species for which
time-series population data could be
obtained" − indicates that freshwater
species have, on average, declined by
about 45 percent over a period of 30 years
(Table 2). 9
The downward trend of fish species
represents both considerable biological and
economic significance. Other species
(birds and mammals) in the surrounding
ecosystems depend on
Table 2. Freshwater Ecosystems Index
Freshw ater Ecosystem s Index
12 0
10 0
80
60
40
20
0
19 70 19 75
9
WWF, Living Planet Report 1999, pp. 6-7.
The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 14
freshwater fishes and adjacent local
communities are sustained by them.
For example, inland wetlands of Africa are
reported to produce 1.5 metric tonnes of
fish annually and support one million
fishermen and about five million ancillary
fishery workers (Bernacsek, 1992). In
Asia alone, more than two billion people
depend on wetland crops and fish as their
main staple and protein source (Ramsar,
1998).
To illustrate further this richness, Table 3
summarizes information available provided
on some of the world's major watersheds.
The number of fish species indicated
includes estimates of the total number of
fish species present in each basin,
excluding introduced species where
relevant information was available. The
data has a significant error margin,
reflecting different survey and reporting
methods, different taxonomies, date and
completeness of surveys, etc. (WCMC,
1998).
19 80 19 85 19 90 19 95
Source: WWF International, Living Planet Report
1999, Gland, Switzerland.
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 15

Table 3. Number of fish species in the

Rivers do not only provide "shelter" to fish world's 11 most species-rich primary
watersheds
species but are also essential grounds for
waterbirds and other large aquatic species,
providing nutrients and supplying them Watershed/Continent No. of fish
species
vital biological corridors.
Amazon 2,500
Congo 700
Notable wildlife species on the Kafue
Nile & Lake Victoria 432
flats are the semi-aquatic Kafue
lechwe (Kobus leche kafuensis) and Mississippi 375
the Wattled crane (Grus Parana 355
carunculatus), both of which have in Yangtze 322
the past been identified as Kapus (Indonesia) 320
endangered by dam operations. Orinoco 318
(Zambia, Itezhi-Itezhi Hydro-power
Project) Source: WCMC/UNEP, 1998, pp. 94-101.

Kafue Gorge Dam (Zambia)

(Photo by Musonda Munda)

Lock gates and hydropower station

at Gabcikovo (Romania/Yugoslavia)

IV. MAIN FUNDINGS


Every every river and the species it supports
are both unique and complex at the same time.
The same could be said of the effects every
dam has on the river and its ecosystems. For
the downstream section alone, some of the
impacts the WWF discussion paper on dams
outlined include the following: loss and
damage to freshwater habitats and species,
reduction in silt due to filters and the dam
wall, changes in groundwater level, changes in
flow, and waterlogging and salinity.10
The major impacts of dams on ecosystems and
species considered in this report are outlined
in Table 4 below. According to the
submissions, the most significant consequence
of dams is the degradation or the destruction
of riverine ecosystems, isolating populations
of species living up and downstream of the
dam and cutting off migrations and other
species' movements. Almost all dams reduce
normal flooding, fragment ecosystems and
isolate migratory species. The elimination of
biological benefits to a chain of organisms
may be the most damaging impact of dams.
Initial analysis of information reveals that
dams built for irrigation, flood control and
hydroelectric purposes are those that most
endanger and threatens
10
WWF, A Place for Dams in the 20th Century, p.7-18.
The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 16
species and ecosystems. Irrigation waters, for
instance, whether from rivers or groundwater,
contain dissolved salts washed out of rocks
and soils.
Evaporation from reservoirs, canals and fields
increase the concentration of salts. When the
water reaches crops, the roots absorb water but
leave in the soil most of the toxic salts. This
has obvious severe consequence on the fields
of farmers whom, to prevent salinization,
apply more water to wash salts from the roots.
However, this procedure increases the salinity
of groundwater and in the absence of good
drainage, causes the water table to rise and
through a chemical process, reaches the
surface, eventually evaporating and leaving
behind a crust of white crystals, thus
waterlogging the roots of the crops. Finally,
saline wastewater draining back into the river
progressively reduces downstream water
quality for all users of water.11
Notable wildlife species on the
Kafue flats are the semi-aquatic
Kafue lechwe (Kobus leche
kafuensis) and the Wattled crane
(Grus carunculatus), both of which
have in the past been identified as
endangered by dam operations.
(Zambia, Itezhi-Itezhi Hydro-power
Project)
11
McCully, Silenced Rivers, pp. 168-169.
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 17

Table 4.
Some of the major impacts of dams on ecosystems and species

Immediate impact Long-term impact

Flooding and inundation changes in water flows,

levels and temperatures

Water withdrawal Sedimentation and erosion

Salinization, siltation, Reduction of oxygen flow,

waterlogging, alkanization loss of agricultural lands

Flooding and inundation of Destruction of aquatic

riparian communities and ecosystem, increase of
wetlands pollutants discharge and
other toxic gases

Destruction of river banks, Destruction of wildlife and

lakes and delta soils bird sanctuaries, Reduction
of nutrients and other trace
elements

Rise of groundwater levels Drainage problems, blocking

fish migration and reducing
fish reproduction, water
shortage

Increase in temperatures of Fish kills

fish ladders

Proliferation of aquatic Lower dissolved oxygen from

weeds decaying vegetation

Source: Factsheets

Examples of fishes which have adapted
morphologically to changes in water
12
temperatures
Razorback sucker (Xyrauchen texanus)
Flannelmouth sucker (Catostomus latipinnis)
Colorado squawfish (Ptychocheilus lucius)
Humpback chub (Gila cypha)
12
Source: USA Fact sheets
The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 18
Some of the impacts of dams can benefit
certain species to the detriment of others. For
example, impounding a reservoir will create
habitat for lake fish, and warm water released
from a reservoir can increase the abundance of
those that failed to thrive in the cooler
temperatures. The emergence of marsh plants
and exotic species were mentioned as
examples of the proliferation of species,
which were before negligible in numbers or
were not present at all (cf. Annex 2, Dam No.
83, col. 6). At the same time, morphological
adaptation was observed in the following
endemic fishes in the USA: humpback chub
(Gila cypha), bonytail (G. elegans), Colorado
squawfish (Ptychocheilus lucius), roundtail
chub (G. robusta), razorback sucker
(Xyrauchen texanus). The Colorado
squawfish is the largest cyprinid in North
America.
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 19

Box 2. Selected cases of how dams affect species

USA: Elwha Dam and Glines Canyon Dam

– constructed in 1912
– the Glines Canyon Dam lies within Olympic National Park, a World Heritage
Site
– built without fish passage facilities

Before the dam:

– an estimated 380,000 migrating salmon and trout spawned in the river,
including all five species of Pacific salmon (chinook/Oncorrhynchus
tschawytscha; coho/O. kisutch; sockeye/O. nerka; pink/O. gorbuscha; and
chum/O. keta), and 3 species of anadromous trout (steelhead/O. mykiss;
cutthroat/O. clarki; and Dolly Varden char/Salvelinus malma).
After the dam:
– eliminated 93 % of fish habitat
– all 10 runs of Elwha salmon and sea-going trout have subsequently
declined.
– rare wildlife species other than fish were adversely affected: Northern
spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina), Marbled murrelet (Brachyramphus
marmoratus), Fisher (Martes pennantiI), Harlequin duck (Histrionicus
histrionicus), Vaux's swift (Chaetura vauxi), Pileated woodpecker
(Dryocopus pileatus), and several uncommon amphibian species

Brazil − Porto Primavera Dam

− construction started in 1979; operational in February 1999
− situated within two ecosystems: Atlantic Rainforest and Brazilian savannahs
Impact:
− endangers rare endemic species such as the wetland deer, giant anteater
and freshwater otters
− threatens thousands of rare monkeys, birds, vegetal species (câtinga and
cerrado), and fishes

China: Yangtze Three Gorges Dam

– Construction started in December 1994; scheduled to finish in 17 years
– The dam will control 56 % of the Yangtze catchment, or 1 million km2 of
watershed area
Impact:
– modification of natural habitats of fish and birds that depend on the
surrounding wetlands, which contains Ramsar-designated sites: Dongting
Lake and Poyang Lake (two largest freshwater lakes in China), where more
200 migratory birds pass, including the endangered Siberian White Crane

Tanzania – Lower Kihansi Hydropower Project

– Construction started in 1995; scheduled to be completed end-1999
– The project area is located in the Uzungwa Mountains, a national park.
Impacts:
– destruction of evergreen forests and woody biomass (Parinari excelsa),
endangering the biological corridors (gene exchange) between Kihansi
Gorge and Uzungwa Scarpo forest communities
– modification of ecosystems depending on moisture and spray due to change
in water flows
– inundation of riverbank forest and consequent extinction of epiphytic
orchids and the possible extinction of the Sanja mangobey and Red colobus
monkeys

Source: Factsheets

Flooded forest along Rio Negro (Brazil)
during rainy season
The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 20
River and floodplain habitats are
some of the world's most diverse
ecosystems. The permanent
inundation of riverine forests has the
most obvious impact on the survival
of species. Although it is difficult to
ascertain in this study the direct
correlation between flooding and
inundation and the number of
species of plants and animals that
have become extinct, the study has
revealed a total of 245 species of animals and
plant species directly and indirectly affected by
dam operations. Table 6 below summarizes the
impact of dams on species using the IUCN Red
List categories. There are, however, some of
the species mentioned in the fact sheets as
extinct or disappeared are not mentioned in the
IUCN Red List categories (Table 6). More
specifically, six species are believed to have
disappeared or become extinct, and a few others
need to be specified with the area concerned
(e.g., extinction of two critically endangered
fish species (Namibia); extinction of other
aquatic species (Pakistan); loss and
disappearance of migratory birds of Siberia and
Kazakhstan (Pakistan), disappearance of
protected, endangered, red-listed or endemic
flora (Slovak Republic)). A dramatic example
of the loss of species is the case of the Itaipú
Binacional Mill Dam, where "all fauna classes
[were] eliminated".13
13
Brazil, Itaipú
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 21

The Gaur ( Bos gaurus ) inhabits evergreen

and deciduous forested hills and associated
grassy clearings up to 1,800m, eastwards
from India, Nepal and Bhutan to Myanmar,
Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam,
southern China and the Malay Peninsula. A
large (650 to 1,000kg) and where
undisturbed mainly diurnal animal, it lives
in herds of from 2 to 40 individuals
containing only one mature bull. (...)
During the dry season, herds congregate
and remain in small areas, dispersing into
the hills with the arrival of the monsoon.
While gaurs are dependent on water for
drinking, they do not seem to bathe or
wallow. When alarmed, gaurs crash into
the jungle at a surprising speed. Gaurs
live in herds led by a single adult male.
[Gaurs] are declining drastically through
over-hunting; intolerance of habitat
14
destruction and disturbance by people.

The species were grouped according to

mammals, fish and amphibians, birds and
plants. Although the majority of the names
are in English with the equivalent scientific
name, some data on species' names were
given only in the local language. This is
revealing of the fact that there is indeed
inadequate data to effectively catalogue all
species that have declined, disappeared or
gone extinct.

14

http://www.wcmc.org.uk/infoserv/countryp/vietnam/app4.html
#GAUR; http://www.ultimateungulate.com/gaur.html
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 22

Table 5. Selection of species that have disappeared, become

extinct, or endangered by dam operations

Species Dam

Siberian Crane Yangtze Three Gorges Dam

(China)

Coho salmon (O. kisutch) Ice Harbor Dam, Lower

Monumental Dam, Little Goose
Dam, and Lower Granite Dam
(Washington, USA)

Cob defassa (Kobus cob); Barrage de Maga (Cameroon)

Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus
equinus)

Gaur (Bos gaurus) Dong Nai No. 3 and Dong Nai No.
4 Combined Hydropower Project

Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser ) Lake Winnipeg Churchill-

Nelson River Diversion Project
(Canada)

Javan rhino (Rhinoceros Dong Nai No. 3 and Dong Nai No.
sondaicus annamiticus); White- 4 Combined Hydropower Project
winged wooden duck (Cairina (Vietnam)
scutulata)

Sanja mangobey monkey Lower Kihansi Hydropower

Red colobus monkey Project (Tanzania)
(Colobus rufomitratus)

Ganges river dolphin or susu Jamuna River Project

(Platanista gangetica) Embankment (Bangladesh)

Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) Irueña Dam, Melonares Dam,

Andevalo Dam (Spain)

Giant anteater Porto Primavera Dam (Brazil)

(Myrmecophaga tridactyla)

Ikan temoleh Prek Thnot Multipurpose Project

(Probarbus julleni) (Vietnam)

Amazon dolphin, or boto, Balbina Dam (Brazil)

tonina, or bufeo
(Inia geoffrensis)

Source: Factsheets
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 23

Some of the most vulnerable and endangered

15
mammals due to dam operations

Ganges dolphin
Hippo
tamus
(Platanista gangetica)
(Trich
echus
manat
us Javan rhino
latiros (Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus
tris)

15
cf. Annex 3
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 24

IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This study is intended to provide an

overview of the current situation rather
than suggest solutions to solve it. While it
recognizes the complex issues involved,
WWF hopes that these findings will be
integrated in the final report and
recommendations of the WCD.

Dams are giant barriers that trap river

water in reservoirs. They are known to
generate electricity or to protect homes
W
from disastrous floods. Yet, dams can hit
also prevent floodwaters from e-winged wood duck
(Cairina scutulata)
replenishing the soil downstream and, in
time, make the farmers' fields on the
river's floodplain less fertile – even
barren.
Table 6. Samples of species and how
16
Damming rivers have disastrous effects they are affected by dam operations

on the capability of most species to

survive. Many rivers are no longer free Species Dam operation
flowing, reducing flows and nutrients to Pedder Galaxias Impoundment filling
(Galaxias pederensis)
wetlands. Rivers have been blocked,
Wetland deer Flooding of wetlands
diverted and so fragmented that (Blastocerus
ecosystems and species are threatened. dichotomus)
The current study, undertaken within a Gato-maracaja Change in water
limited time frame, has documented a (Leopardus wiendii) quality of reservoir
total of total of 254 species. Of this Ganges river Reduction in the flow
dolphin/susu of freshwater, saline
number, 72 are registered and 182 are not (Platanista gangetica) encroachment in
in mentioned in the current IUCN Red delta habitat
Lists (cf. Boxes 3 and 4). Siberian White Crane Fluctuation in water
level, leading to
flooding during dry
season, blockage of
sedimentation
upstream, siltation,
erosion

16
Source: Fact sheets
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 25

The vulnerability of a small but rich and The destructive cycle not only affects
complex ecosystem such as rivers is aquatic species but also adjacent forest
heightened by the construction of dams. and wetland ecosystems on which
Primary analysis of the raw data received from migratory birds are dependent, (cf.
WWF network submissions indicate that Siberian White Crane, China, Annex 2)
general dam operations lead to changes in and other mammals (cf. Javan
water (e.g., see China, Yangtze Three Gorges, rhino/Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus,
Annex 2) or could be Vietnam, Annex 2).
long-term leading to the The task to determine the
disappearance or extent of the impact of
extinction of species (cf. dams on the species is
Annex 2, USA, coho made more difficult by
salmon/ the lack of any scientific
Oncorryncchus kisutch). study both before and
after a dam is
The survival of river constructed.
dolphins, for example, is
by far the most graphic Some endemic fish
example of the impact of species were observed to
dams on river have developed morpho-
ecosystems. A number of potential problems logical changes (e.g., see Colorado squawfish/
caused by waterway obstruction has been Ptychocheilulucius, Annex 2) or have
identified: (a) fragmentation of populations increased and adapted to the changes in water
into genetically isolated subpopulations; (b) flows and temperatures (e.g. see Piranha,
reduction in fish prey due to blocked Brazil, Annex 2). Other marsh plants species
migratory routes; (c) less diversity and smaller have also been observed to increase and
biomass of prey in impoundments upstream of develop following dam operations in the USA
dams due to lowered nutrient availability; (d) (e.g., netleaf hackberry/Celtic reticulata),
downstream effects on prey caused by changes honey mosquito/Prosopis glandulosa).
in flow rate, sediment transport, and estuarine
salinity; (e) limited dispersal of dolphins
between river systems due to saline
encroachment in estuaries (Reeves and Photo: Ganges dolphin
Leatherwood, 1994). (Platanista gangetica)
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 26

Some of the most vulnerable and endangered

birds and fishes due to dam operations

Bald Ibis
(Geronticus
17
calvus) Siberian White Crane
(Grus leucogeranus)
18

Atlantic Sturgeon
19
(Acipenser oxyrrhynchus)

Pedder Galaxias
20
(Galaxias pedderensis )

18
Photo taken from Partnership for a living Yangtze:
Joining hands for Better Future, WWF China.
19
http://www.dnr.cornell.edu/Sarep/fish/
17 Acipenseidae/atlsturg.html
http://perso.club-internet.fr/alfosse/
20
Threskiornithid.html http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/esl/pedder.html
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 27

Box 3. Summary of species listed in Annex 3 affected by

dams, and classified according to IUCN Red Lists

22
IUCN Red List Plants Mammals Fish and Birds TOTAL
21
Categories Amphibians
EX - - - -
EW - - - -
Ex/E - - - -
CR - 1 1 1 3
EN 2 5 3 3 13
VU 3 11 3 7 24
23
R - 2 3 - 5
LR cd - - - 2 2
LR nt 1 10 3 9 23
DD - - 1 - 1
NE - 1 - - 1
I - - - - -
TOTAL 6 30 14 22 72

Box 4. NI − Summary of species not mentioned

in the current IUCN Red Lists

Plants Mammals Fish and Birds Insects TOTAL

Amphibians
32 29 50 70 1 182

21
EX-extinct; EW-extinct in the wild; Ex/E-extinct/endangered; CR-critically endangered ; EN-endangered;
VU-vulnerable; R-rare; LR-lower risk (nt-near threatened; cd-conservation dependent); DD-data deficient;
NE-not evaluated; I-indeterminate
22
For plants, the pre-1994 IUCN Red List Categories was used.
23
Ibid.
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 28

Some species never before catalogued

may have been lost forever, and the
remaining need to be protected for the
benefit of future generations. It is certain
though that whatever the benefits
damming rivers are (e.g., generation
While the 91 dams studied produced concrete
electrical power), they will never bring
evidence of the impact of dams due to
back a dead species.
obstruction of rivers, the vulnerability of the
surrounding ecosystems was established by
the number of plants and wetlands animals Due to flood (...) forest, the fauna's
affected (cf. Annex 3). But the extent of the element that suffered more and more
into the list of animal extinction like
loss of biodiversity and species caused by
Tapirus terrestris (anta), Ozothocerus
dams may perhaps never be known due to bezoarticus (cervo), Mazama
inadequate data. gouazombira (veado catingueiro),
etc.((Brazil, Serra da Mesa Mill Dam)

12
Brazilian Tapir

24
Phot above: Giant Anteater

24
http://www.interlog.com/~insight/iwokrama/mammals/guides/ante0.html
12
http://vivabrazil.com/images/anta.jpg
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 29

REFERENCES

Bernacsek, G.M. 1992. Research priorities in fisheries management as a tool for wetlands
conservation and rural development in Africa in Conservation and Development: The
Sustainable Use of Wetland Resources, IUCN, Switzerland, 131-144.

Gujja, Biksham and Perrin, Mireille. 1999. A Place for Dams in the 21st Century? WWF
International, Gland, Switzerland.

Hertlein, Luke M.A. 1999. Lake Winnipeg Regulation Churchill-Nelson River Diversion
Project and the Crees of Northern Manitoba, Canada. Prepared for the Forest Peoples
Programme and the World Commission on Dams. Consultative Meeting on Dams,
Indigenous Peoples and Ethnic Minorities, July 31 to August 1, 1999, Geneva.
Switzerland.

Legal Assistance Centre. 1998 and 1999. The Epupa Debate and Case study on the
proposed Epupa Hydropower Dam in Namibia. Documentation presented at the
Consultative Meeting on Dams, Indigenous Peoples and Ethnic Minorities, July 31 to
August 1, 1999, Geneva. Switzerland.

McAllister, Don. E. et al. 1999. Freshwater biodiversity. Impacts of large dams.

IUCN/UNEP/WCD. Unpublished report.

McCully, Patrick. 1996. Silenced Rivers. The Ecology and Politics of Large Dams. Zed
Books, London, UK.

Moore, Deborah. 1999. Speech given at the Seventh Conference of the Parties to the
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, Costa Rica., May 1999.

Ramsar, 1998. The Key Role of Wetlands in Addressing the Global Water Crisis. Paper
prepared by the Bureau of the Convention on Wetlands, International Conference on
Water & Sustainable Development, Paris, March 1998, 6 pages.

Reeves, Randall R. and Leatherwood, Stephen. 1994. Dams and River Dolphins: Can
They Co-exist? in Ambio, Vol. 23 No. 3, May 1994, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Smith, Brian D. et al. 1998. Profile: River Dolphins in Bangladesh: Conservation and the
Effects of Water Development in Environmental Management, Vol. 22, No. 3, Springer-
Verlag, New York, USA, pp. 323-335.

World Conservation Monitoring Centre. 1998. Freshwater Biodiversity: a preliminary

global assessment. By Brian Broombridge and Martin Jenkins. WCMC-World
Conservation Press, Cambridge, UK.

WWF International. 1996. Changing Worlds. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland.

 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 30

WWF International, New Economics Foundation, and World Conservation Monitoring

Centre. 1999. The Living Planet Report 1999. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland.

WEB sources

http://natsafaris.com/beco2.htm
http://www.southwest.com.au/~kirbyhs/pinkdolphins.html
http://www.irn.org/pubs/wp/dolphin.html
http://www.delm.tas.gov.au/esl/pedder.html
http://www.mlists.net/sindh-intl/mail/mail_kalabagh.htm
http://www.riogrande.com.br/turismo/riozinho_faunaflora.htm
http://www.ucm.es/info/zoo/Vertebrados/papers.htm#Papers on Sturgeon
 The Impact of Dams on Life in Rivers 31

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