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INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING Introduction Networking is a concept, where two or more computers are joined together to share information. This can be in the form of data or programs. These computers can be within a walking distance or in the same building of the office or in the same city or even across the cities. Why is this needed? Have you ever found yourself rushing from one computer to another in your office or home, attending to several different jobs at various locations? Or do you often find yourself moving files that need printing form a PC that you happen to be working on the PC that is connected to the printer? All of these situations can be made easier by allowing the various machines to communicate with each other by networking the PCs. The distance between the computers is narrowed down by the telephone lines. The information from the computer is converted to the media understandable by the communication lines and then transferred from one place to another. With networking you can not only share data and programs, but can also share the resources like printers, scanners, etc. In PC technology, such a collection of computers, all located within a few thousand feet of each other, is called Local Area Networking. Networking Basics Networking several computers together allows data to be transmitted form one machine to another in rapid and easily managed data streams. This sharing of data allows many of the resources that are located on a single machine to effectively become available to all other machines on the network. These resources can be physically located on the machine, e.g., as files on the hard disk, or connected logically to the machine. An example of a logically connected resource would be a printer that is connected to a PC, but which is then available over the network to other machines on that network. An alternative situation would be where access to the Internet is available to all the PCs on a network through a special communication device attached to the network. Access to all external and internal resources are thus made available to PC users on the network. A network server provides network services to a user workstation (server) on the network. Services can range from sharing database and files, printers, communications or other network resources. Thus, the network servers are also called file servers, print servers, communication servers, etc. They can be dedicated to the task of providing network services. They are then called dedicated network servers. Otherwise, they may be called non-dedicated servers. A typical networking is shown on the last page. Another factor, which also favours the networking, is the cost factor. Cost Reduction If you have two or three computers attached in a single networking system, you may go in for a single printer, which can be used, by all of them. The same goes for other devices like Scanner, Plotter, etc. This results in lots of costs savings. The main advantages of Networking can be clubbed as follows:
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Resource Sharing There are two main types of networking systems. The type used for larger networks is known as the Client/Server model. This model involves using a powerful computer that runs a Network Operating System and acts as the server. The Network Operating System then runs the server, supplying network services to the other client computers. These services might include the management of file transfers, running printing jobs, or even running applications across the network. For example, a word processing software package running on a PC is actually being served form the server across the network, rather than being loaded onto the PCs local hard disk. The problem with the Client/Server model is that it requires specialized hardware, software and to a large extent skilled networking techniques to configure and maintain the network. All of this can become expensive. The second model, the Peer-to Peer system or resource Sharing is fortunately a lot easier to implement and maintain and it is the model that we will use in this book. Resource Sharing is incorporated into Windows 98 & XP. Network Communications When you connect two or more computers so they can communicate with each other, you have to create a data network. This is true, whether you connect the computers using a cable, a wireless technology such as infrared or radio waves, or even modems and telephone lines. The technology that connects the computers together is called the network medium. Copper-based cables are the most common form of network medium, and for this reason, the term network cable is often used to refer to any kind of network Figure 1.1 medium. Figure 1.1 The networking protocols running on a computer form a layered stack, with each protocol providing services to the protocol operating at the layer above or below it, depending on the direction of data flow. When the data arrives at its destination, the receiving computer performs the same procedure as the transmitting computer, except in reverse. The data is passed up through the layers to the receiving application, with each protocol providing an equivalent service to the protocol in the layer above it. For example, if a protocol at layer three on the transmitting computer is responsible for encrypting data, the same protocol at layer three of the receiving system is responsible for decrypting it. In this way, protocols at the various layers
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in the transmitting system communicate with their equivalent protocols operating at the same layer in the receiving system, as illustrated in Figure 1.2.

Local Area Networks and Wide Area Networks A LAN is a group of computers located in a relatively small area and connected

Figure 1.3 by a common medium. Each of the computers and other communicating devices on the LAN is called a node. A LAN is characterized by three primary attributes: its topology, its medium, and its protocols. The topology is the pattern used to connect the computers together. With a bus topology, a network cable connects each computer to the next one, forming a chain. With a star topology, each of the computers is connected to a central nexus called a hub or switch. A ring topology is essentially a bus network with the two ends joined together. In many cases, an internetwork is composed of LANs in distant locations. To connect remote LANs, you use a different type of network connection: a WAN connection. WAN connections can use telephone lines, radio waves, or any one of many other technologies. WAN connections are usually point-to-point connections, meaning that they connect only two systems. They are unlike LANs, which can connect many systems. An example of a WAN connection would be a company with two offices in distant cities, each with its own LAN and connected by a leased telephone line. This type of WAN is illustrated in Figure
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1.3. Each end of the leased line is connected to a router and the routers are connected to individual LANs. Any computer on either of the LANs can communicate with any one of the other computers at the other end of the WAN link or with a computer on its own LAN. Network Topologies The topology of a network is the pattern used to connect the computers and other devices with the cable or other network medium. The Network+ exam always contains questions about the basic network topologies and their properties. The topology of your network is directly related to the type of cable you use. You cannot select a particular type of cable and install it using just any topology. However, you can create individual LANs using a different cable and topology for each LAN and connect them together using devices such as bridges, switches, and routers. When choosing the components with which to build a LAN, the topology should be one of the most important criteria you use to select a cable type. The three primary topologies used to build LANs are as follows: Bus Star Ring You should also be familiar with the following additional topologies: Tree Hierarchical star Mesh Wireless Bus Topology A network that uses the bus topology is one in which the computers are connected in a single line, with each system cabled to the next system. Bus networks are illustrated in Figure. Early Ethernet systems used the bus topology with coaxial cable, a type of network that is rarely seen today. The cabling of a bus network can take two forms: thick and thin. Thick Ethernet networks use a single length of coaxial cable with computers connected to it using smaller individual cables called Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) cables (sometimes called transceiver cables), as shown on the top half of Figure 2.1. Thin Ethernet networks use separate lengths of a narrower type of coaxial cable, and each length of cable connects one computer to the next, as shown in the bottom half of Figure 2.1. When any one of the computers on the network transmits data, the signals travel down the cable in both directions, reaching all of the other systems. A bus network always has two open ends, which must be terminated. Termination is the process of installing a resistor pack at each end of the bus to negate the signals that arrive there. Without terminators, the signals reaching the end of the bus would reflect back in the other direction and interfere with the newer signals being transmitted.
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Figure 2.1

The main problem with the bus topology is that a single faulty connector, faulty terminator, or break in the cable affects the functionality of the entire network. Signals that cannot pass beyond a certain point on the cable cannot reach all of the computers beyond that point. In addition, when a component failure splits the network into two segments, each half of the cable is also unterminated. On the half of the network that does receive the signals transmitted by each computer, signal reflection garbles the data. This is one of the primary reasons that bus networks are rarely used now.

Star Topology Whereas the bus topology has the computers in a network connected directly to each other, the star topology uses a central cabling nexus called a hub or concentrator. In a star network, each computer is connected to the hub using a separate cable, as shown in Figure 2.2. Most of the Ethernet LANs installed today, and many LANs using other protocols as well, use the Figure 2.2 star topology. Star LANs can use several different cable types, including various types of twisted-pair and fiber optic cable. The unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables used on most Ethernet LAN is usually installed using a star topology. Functionally, a star network uses a shared network medium, just as a bus network does. Despite the fact that each computer connects to the hub with its own cable, the hub propagates all signals entering through its ports out through all of its other ports. Signals transmitted by one computer are therefore received by all other computers on the LAN.
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The main advantage of the star topology is that each computer has its own dedicated connection to the hub, providing the network with a measure of fault tolerance. If a single cable or connector should fail, only the computer connected to the hub by that cable is affected. The disadvantage of the star topology is that an additional piece of hardware, the hub, is required to implement it. If the hub should fail, the entire network goes down. However, this is a relatively rare occurrence because hubs are relatively simple devices that are usually found in a protected environment, such as a data center or server closet. Ring Topology In terms of signal transmissions, a ring network is like a bus in that each computer is logically connected to the next. However, in a ring network, the two ends are connected instead of being terminated, thus forming an endless loop. This enables a signal originating on one computer to travel around the ring to all of the other Figure 2.3 computers and eventually back to its point of origin. Networks such as Token Ring, which use token passing for their Media Access Control (MAC) mechanism: The OSI Reference Model, in "Networking Basics"), are wired using a ring topology. The most important thing to understand about the ring topology is that, in most cases, it is strictly a logical construction, not a physical one. To be more precise, the ring exists in the wiring of the network, but not in the cabling. When you look at a network that uses the ring topology, you may be puzzled to see what looks like a star. In fact, the cables for a ring network connect to a hub and take the form of a star. The ring topology is actually implemented logically, using the wiring inside the cables (Figure 2.3). Ring networks use a special type of hub, called a Multi-station Access Unit (MAU), which receives data through one port and transmits it out through each of the others in turn (not simultaneously, as with an Ethernet hub). For example, when the computer connected to port number 3 in an eight-port MAU transmits a data packet, the MAU receives the packet and transmits it out through port number 4 only. When the computer connected to port number 4 receives the packet, it immediately returns it to the MAU, which then transmits it out through port number 5, and so on. This process continues until the MAU has transmitted the packet to each computer on the ring. Finally, the computer that generated the packet receives it back again and is then responsible for removing it from the ring. If you were to remove the wire pairs from the sheaths of the cables that make up a ring network, you would have a circuit that runs from the MAU to each computer and
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back to the MAU. The design of the physical star topology used by the ring makes it possible for the network to function even when a cable or connector fails. The MAU contains special circuitry that removes a malfunctioning workstation from the ring, but still preserves the logical topology. By comparison, a network that is literally cabled as a ring would have no MAU, but a cable break or connector failure would cause the network to stop functioning completely. The one commonly used protocol that does include an option for a physical ring topology, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), defines the use of a double ring, which consists of two separate physical rings with traffic flowing in opposite directions. When computers are connected to both rings, the network can still function despite a cable failure. Mesh Topology The mesh topology, in the context of local area networking, is more of a theoretical concept than an actual realworld solution. On a mesh LAN, each computer has a dedicated connection to every other computer, as shown in Figure 2.4. In Figure 2.4 reality, this topology only exists on a two-node network. For a mesh network with three computers or more, it would be necessary to equip each computer with a separate network interface for every other computer on the network. Thus, for a five-node network, each computer would require four network interface adapters, which is certainly not practical. A mesh LAN provides excellent fault tolerance, however, as there is no single point of failure that can affect more than one computer. In internetworking, the mesh topology is a cabling arrangement that you can actually use. A mesh internetwork has multiple paths between two destinations, made possible by the use of redundant routers, as shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5
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This topology is very common on large enterprise networks because it enables the network to tolerate numerous possible malfunctions, including router, hub, and cable failures. In most cases, when you see a reference to a mesh topology, this is the application being cited. Wireless Topologies The term topology usually refers to the arrangement of cables that forms a network, but it does not have to. Although wireless networks use what are called unbounded media, the computers still have specific patterns they use to communicate with each other. Wireless LANs have two basic topologies, the adhoc topology, and the infrastructure topology. In the adhoc topology, a group of computers is all equipped with Figure 2.6 wireless network interface adapters and are able to communicate freely with each other. This provides complete freedom of movement for all of the computers on the network, as long as they remain inside the communication range of the wireless technology. This topology is useful for a home or small business network that consists of only a handful of computers, and for which the installation of cables is inconvenient, impractical, or impossible. An infrastructure network consists of wireless-equipped computers that communicate with a network using wireless transceivers connected to the LAN by standard cables. These transceivers are Figure 2.7 called network access points. In this arrangement, the wireless computers do not communicate directly with each other. Instead, they communicate only with the cabled network via the network access points. This topology is better suited to a larger network that has only a few wireless computers, such as laptops belonging to traveling users. These users have no need to communicate with each other; instead, they use the wireless connection to access servers and other resources on the corporate network. Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Networking Topologies BUS Topology In this case all the server/nodes share a common bus of connecting cables. Every computer can communicate directly with ever other computer or device in the network. Each node is given an address. To access a particular, a user just
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needs to know its address. This topology is frequently used with local area networks. Going through a hierarchy of nodes is not necessary. Advantages of the Bus Network Short Cable Length and Simple Wiring Layout : Because there is a single common data path connecting all nodes, the bus topology allows a very short cable length to be used. This decreases the installation cost and also leads to a simple, easy to maintain, wiring layout. Resilient Architecture: The bus architecture has an inherent simplicity that makes it very reliable from a hardware point of view. There is a single cable through which all data passes and to which all nodes are connected. East to Extend: Additional nodes can be connected to an existing bus network at any point along its length. More extensive additions can be achieved by adding extra segments connected by a type of signal amplifier known as a repeater. Disadvantages of the Bus Network Fault Diagnosis is difficult: Fault detention in the bus topology is not a simple task. In most LANs based on a bus, control of the network is not centralized in any particular node. This means that detection of a fault may be performed from many points in the network. Fault Isolation is difficult: If a node is faulty on a bus, it must be rectified at the point where the node is connected to the network. Once the fault has been located the node can simply be removed. In the case where the fault is the network medium itself, an entire segment of the bus must be disconnected. Repeater Configuration: When a bus-type network has its backbone extended using repeaters, reconfiguration may be necessary. This may involve tailoring cable lengths adjusting terminators, etc. Nodes must be Intelligent: Each node on the network is directly connected to the central bus. This means that some way of deciding who can use the network at any given time must be performed in each node. It tends to increase the cost of the nodes irrespective of whether this is performed in hardware of software. RING Topology As the name suggests all the server/nodes are joined together to form a ring. There is no central server in this case. A ring may be unidirectional or bidirectional. A unidirectional ring moves data in one direction only; a bi-directional ring moves data in both directions, but only one direction at a time. In a unidirectional ring, if one computer breaks down, special software is required to keep the network functional. When one node malfunctions in a bi-directional ring, a message can usually be sent in the opposite direction still allowing the node to communicate with all the other active nodes in the network. Advantages of the Ring Network Short Cable Length: The amount of cabling involved in a ring topology is comparable to that of a bus and is small relative to that of a star. This means that less connections will be needed, which will in turn increase network reliability.

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No wiring closet space required : Since there is only one cable connecting each node to its immediate neighbors, it is not necessary to allocate space in the building for wiring closets. Suitable for Optical Fibers: Optical fibers offer the possibility of very high speed transmission. Because traffic on a ring travels in one direction, it is easy to use optical fibers as a medium of transmission. Also, since a ring is made up of nodes connected by short segments of transmission medium, there is a possibility of mixing the types used for different parts of the network. Thus, a manufacturing companys network could use copper cables in the office area and optical fibers in the factory areas, where electrical interference may be a problem. Disadvantages of the Ring Network Node Failure causes Network Failure: The transmission of data on a ring goes through every connected node on the ring before returning to the sender. If one node fails to pass data through itself, the entire network has failed and no traffic can flow until the defective node has been removed from the ring. Difficult to Diagnose Faults: The fact that failure of one node will affect all other has serious implications for fault diagnosis. It may be necessary to examine a series of adjacent nodes to determine the faulty one. This operation may also require diagnostic facilities to be built into each node. Network reconfiguration is difficult: The all or nothing nature of the ring topology can cause problems when one decides to extend or modify the geographical scope of the network. It is not possible to shut down a small section of the ring while keeping the majority of it working normally. Topology affects the Access Protocol: Each node on a ring has a responsibility to pass on data that it receives. This means that the access protocol must take this into account. Before a node can transmit its own data, it must ensure that the medium is available for use. STAR Topology In this case all the computers and the main server form a star like shape. All the computers are connected to a single main host. All communication first goes through the centralized computer allowing it to control the operation, work load, and resource allocation of the other computers in the network. The advantage is relative simplicity, but a problem exists with the single-point vulnerability of the network. If the central computer (server) breaks down, none of the other computers can communicate with each other. Advantages of the Star Network Ease of Service: The star topology has a concentration points, the central node and intermediate wiring closets. These provide easy service of the network. One Device per Connection: Connection points in any network are inherently prone to failure. In the star topology, failure of a single, connection typically involves disconnecting one node from an otherwise fully functional network. Centralized Control / Problem Diagnosis: The fact is that the central node is connected directly to every other node in the network. It means that faults are easily detected and isolated. It is a simple matter to disconnect tailing nods from
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the system. In the star topology, a defective node can easily be isolated from the network by removing its connection at the central Hub. Simple Access Protocols: Any given connection is a star network involves only the central node and one peripheral node. In this situation, contention for who has control of the medium for transmission purposes is easily solved. Thus in a star network, access protocols are very simple. Disadvantages of the Star Network Long Cable Length: Because each node is directly connected to the center, the star topology necessitates a large quantity of cable. While the cost of the cable is often small, congestion in cable ducts and maintenance and installation problems can increase costs considerably. Difficult to Expand: The addition of a new node to a star network involves a connection all the way to the central node. Expansion is usually catered for by providing large numbers of redundant cables during the initial wiring. However, problems can arise if a longer cable length is needed or an unanticipated concentration of nodes is required. Central Node Dependency: If the central node in a star network fails, the entire network is rendered inoperable. This introduces heavy reliability and redundancy constraints on this node. MESH Topology A network topology featuring a direct path between two nodes. The backbone of this topology looks like this, where most major cities have a direct connection to other major cities. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Mesh Network Units affected by Media Failure: Mesh topologies resist media failure better than other topologies. Implementations that include more than two devices will always have multiple paths to send signals from one device to another. If one path fails, the transmission signals can be routed around the failed link. Theoretically, no units are affected by media failure. However, if all paths normally use the maximum capacity of each link, some performance degradation will occur are signals are routed around a failed link. Ease of Installation: Mesh networks are relatively difficult to install because each device must be linked directly to all other devices. As the number of devices increases, the difficulty of installation increases geometrically. Ease of Troubleshooting: Mesh topologies are easy to troubleshoot because each medium link is independent of all others. You can easily identify faults and can isolate the affected link. Ease of Reconfiguration: Mesh topologies are difficult to reconfigure for the same reasons that they are difficult to install. HYBRID Topology It is a combination of two or more network topologies. The backbone is mostly a mesh network; each local loop is a star network with a central office at each hub. Advantages of the Hybrid Network Fault Diagnoses and Isolation : The presence of concentration points in the network greatly eases fault diagnosis. If a fault is detected on the network, the
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initial problem is to find out which concentration point in the ring is to blame. The fact that this ring is quite small in relation to the total size of the network makes this problem more manageable. The offending concentration point can be isolated easily, leaving the network in a fully functional state while further fault diagnosis is carried out. Ease of Expansion: The modular construction of a star-ring network means that new sections may be easily added. When designing the network originally, each concentration can have extra, unused lobes which can be called upon later, if needed. The next growth step involved adding a new concentration point and wiring it into the ring. Cabling: The concentration points in a star-ring are connected via a single cable. This simplifies wiring between areas in an installation and cuts down on the congestion of cable ducts. Also, the wiring practices involved are very similar to that of telephone system installation. These techniques are well understood by building engineers and lend themselves well to the pre-wiring of buildings. Disadvantages of the Hybrid Network Intelligent Concentration Points required: Depending on the implementation used, the concentration points may need to have built in intelligence/processing ability. This will be necessary if it is to assist in network fault diagnosis, node isolation or conversion from one form of transmission medium to another. Cabling: The intercloset cabling in a star ring is critical to its operation. This may mean that redundant cabling in the form of one or more back up rings may be necessary to meet reliability requirements. The largest section of the network (i.e. between the concentration points and the nodes) is laid out in a star. This means that a considerable amount of cable may be required. TREE Topology From a purely topological viewpoint, this network resembles an interconnection of star networks. Individual peripheral nodes must transmit to and receive from one other node only, toward a central node. An advantage of a tree structure is that functional groupings can be created. For example, one branch could contain all the general ledger terminals, another branch all the accounts receivable terminals, and so on. If one branch stops functioning, the other branches in a tree network are not affected. However, data movement through this network can be slow. Advantages of the Tree Network Easy to Extend: Because the tree is of its very nature, divided into subunits, it is easier to add new nodes or branches to it. Fault Isolation: It is possible to disconnect whole branches of the network from the main structure. This makes it easier to isolate a defective node. Disadvantages of the Tree Network Dependant on the Root: If the head-end device fails to operate, the entire network is rendered inoperable. In this respect, the tree suffers from the same reliability problems as the star.

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Cable Types There are three primary types of cable used to build LANs: coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber optic. Coaxial and twisted-pair cables are copper-based and carry electrical signals and fiber optic cables use glass or plastic fibers to carry light signals. Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable is so named because it contains two conductors within the sheath. Unlike other two-conductor cables, however, coaxial cable has one conductor inside the other, as illustrated in Figure. At the center of the cable is the copper core that actually carries the electrical signals. The core can be solid copper or braided strands of copper. Surrounding the core is a layer of insulation, and surrounding that is the second conductor, which is Figure 3.1 typically made of braided copper mesh. This second conductor functions as the cable's ground. Finally, the entire assembly is encased in an insulating sheath made of PVC or Teflon. There are two types of coaxial cables, which have been used in local area networking. RG-8, also known as thick Ethernet, RG-58, which is known as thin Ethernet, These two cables are similar in construction but differ primarily in thickness (0.405 inches for RG-8 versus 0.195 inches for RG-58) and in the types of connectors they use (N connectors for RG-8 and Bayonet-Neill-Concelman [BNC] connectors for RG-58). Both cable types are wired using the bus topology. Because of their differences in size and flexibility, thick and thin Ethernet cables are installed differently. On a thick Ethernet network, the RG-8 cable usually runs along a floor, and separate AUI cables run from the RG-8 trunk to the network interface adapter in the computer. The RG-58 cable used for thin Ethernet networks is thinner and much more flexible, so it is possible to run it right up to the computer's network interface, where it attaches using a T fitting with a BNC connector to preserve the bus topology. Twisted-Pair Cable Twisted-pair cable wired in a star topology is the most common type of network medium used in LANs today. Most new LANs use UTP cable, but there is also a shielded twisted pair (STP) variety for use in environments more prone to electromagnetic interference. Unshielded twisted pair cable contains eight separate copper conductors, as opposed to the two used in coaxial cable.

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Each conductor is a separate insulated wire, and the eight wires are arranged in four pairs, twisted at different rates. The twists prevent the signals on the different wire pairs from interfering with each other (called crosstalk) and also provide resistance to outside interference. The four wire pairs are then encased in a single sheath, as shown in Figure 3.3. The connectors used for twisted-pair cables are called RJ45s; they are the same as the RJ11 connectors used on standard telephone cables, except that they have eight electrical contacts instead of four or six. Figure 3.2 Twisted-pair cable has been used for telephone installations for decades; its adaptation to LAN use is relatively recent. Twisted-pair cable has replaced coaxial cable in the datanetworking world because it has several distinct advantages. First, because it contains eight separate wires, the cable is more flexible than the more solidly constructed coaxial cable. This makes it easier to bend, which simplifies installation. The second major advantage is that there are thousands of Figure 3.3 qualified telephone cable installers, who can easily adapt to installing LAN cables as well. In new construction, the same contractor often installs telephone and LAN cables simultaneously. UTP Cable Grades Unshielded twisted pair cable comes in a variety of different grades, called categories by the Electronics Industry Association (EIA) and the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA), the combination being referred to as EIA/TIA. These categories are listed in Table. The two most significant UTP grades for LAN use are Category 3 and Category 5. Category 3 cable was designed for voice-grade telephone networks and eventually came to be used for Ethernet. Category 3 cable is sufficient for 10-Mbps Ethernet networks (where it is called 10Base-T), but it is generally not used for Fast Ethernet (except with special equipment). If you have an existing Category 3 cable installation, you can use it to build a standard Ethernet network, but virtually all new UTP cable installations today use at least Category 5 cable.
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Category Used for 1 2 3 4 5 5e Voice-grade telephone networks only; not for data transmissions Voice-grade telephone networks, as well as IBM dumb-terminal connections to mainframe computers Voice-grade telephone networks, 10-Mbps Ethernet, 4-Mbps Token Ring, 100Base-T4 Fast Ethernet, and 100Base-VG-AnyLAN 16-Mbps Token Ring networks 100Base-TX Fast Ethernet, Synchronous Optical Network (SONET), and Optical Carrier (OC3) Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) 1000Base-T (Gigabit Ethernet) networks

Fiber Optic Cable Fiber optic cable is a completely different type of network medium than twisted-pair or coaxial cable. Instead of carrying signals over copper conductors in the form of electrical voltages, fiber optic cables transmit pulses of light over a glass or plastic filament. Fiber optic cable is completely resistant to the electromagnetic interference that so easily affects copper-based cables. Fiber optic cables are also much less subject to attenuationthe tendency of Figure 3.4 a signal to weaken as it travels over a cablethan are copper cables. On copper cables, signals weaken to the point of unread ability after 100 to 500 meters (depending on the type of cable). Some fiber optic cables, by contrast, can span distances up to 120 kilometers without excessive signal degradation. Fiber optic cable is thus the medium of choice for installations that span long distances or connect buildings on a campus. Fiber optic cable is also inherently more secure than copper because it is impossible to tap into a fiber optic link without affecting normal communication over that link. A fiber optic cable, illustrated in Figure, consists of a clear glass or a clear plastic core that actually carries the light pulses, surrounded by a reflective layer called the cladding. Surrounding the cladding is a plastic spacer layer, a protective layer of woven Kevlar fibers, and an outer sheath. SETTING UP THE CABLES We have theoretically learned about the networking and how the computers are connected to each other in different type of networking. In this chapter, you will read about the various types of cables used in connecting the computers and look at the various types of conduits, and wall boxes used in networking. Let us understand about the type of cables that are used for networking.
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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) It is made up of copper. Data cabling systems are now based around the Twisted Pair model. This type of cables are available as two types, referred to as Category 3 (Cat3) UTP and Category 5 (Cat5) UTP where the UTP standing f or Unshielded Twisted Pair. Both types consist of eight copper cores arranged as four pairs twisted together and surrounded by a protective sheath. The twisting of the pairs is carefully controlled during the manufacturing process to give the high-speed data carrying capacities associated with this kind of cable. The Cat 3 cable is rated to carry up to 10MHz and the Cat 5 to 100 MHz. As most new installations need to be future proofed for new data technologies, the Cat 5 cable is generally the most popular and as such is more widely available at little additional cost. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Twisted Pair cable is also available with Shield, called STP. This type of cable has an additional metal shield around the four pairs of wires. It is used for cabling, where protection from excessive electrical noise is required. As in heavy engineering establishments. Generally this additional protection is unnecessary. Twisted Pair cables use RJ-45 plugs. You have seen a modular phone plug, an RJ-45 plug looks same, but it has eight connectors instead of the 4 connectors that phone wires use. The steps and requirements for making these cables are: Category 5 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable, easily available at all computer stores and electrical goods shops. RJ-45 ends (jacks), which are also available at computer hardware shops. An RJ-45 Terminating Tool, which is used to fix the RJ-45 ends of the UTP cable. Some terminating tools will work for both 4-wire and 8-wire plugs. These may expensive but very useful, if you are working on lots of cables. Inexpensive cable continuity tester. Start with the cable. Strip the outer insulation back about an inch, very carefully, do not damage the wires inside. Notice that you have 4 pairs of wire inside, one is white/orange and orange, one is white/green and green, one is white/blue and blue, and one is white brown and brown. Separate these wires so that they line up in the following order from left to right. Trim all the ends equally so that they are of the same length. You can use the wire cutters or the cutter edge of your terminating tool for trimming. Now comes the tricky part, insert all 8 wires into the RJ-45 end so that they are inserted as far as possible. Then push the cable jacket up under the notch in the end. Carefully insert the end in the terminating tool to its full depth and squeeze the terminating tool tightly. This will crimp the end onto the cable and connect the pins on the RJ-45 jack to the wires in the cable. Now do the same at other end. Straight Cable Most 1OBASE-T and 100BASE-T patch cords are straight through, which means that the colours are lined up the same at both ends. You can make a standard
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1OBASE-T cable using colour sequences as given below (568B cabling specifications), the most common wiring used for networking. Pin No. End 1 colour End 2 colour 1 White/Orange White/Orange 2 Orange Orange 3 White/Green White/Green 4 Blue Blue 5 White/Blue White/Blue 6 Green Green 7 White/Brown White/Brown 8 Brown Brown Crossover Cables If you have got Ethernet hubs or switches to interconnect it is necessary in many cases to use a specially made cable a crossover cable. Essentially, it looks like a standard 1OBASE-T patch cable except that it is wired differently. In a crossover cable, the difference is that the wire on pin 1 at each end must connect to pin 2 at the other end, and pin 3 on each end must terminate at pin 6 at the other end. Therefore, the wiring scheme is as follows: Pin No. End 1 colour End 2 colour 1 White/Orange Orange 2 Orange White/Orange 3 White/Green Green 4 Blue Blue 5 White/Blue White/Blue 6 Green White/Green 7 White/Brown White/Brown 8 Brown Brown This works because Ethernet only uses pins 1, 2, 3, and 6. A crossover cable connects pin 1 at one end to pin 2 at the other and pin 3 to 6. It is useful and it is easy to make. If you have followed the above instructions, you should be able to plug the cable you have made into a cable continuity tester and see that pin 1 at one end connects to pin 1 at the other end, followed same up to the pin 8. Do not get discouraged if your first cable does not work. Thinnet Cables It uses a special kind of coaxial cable. It is referred to by the coaxial cabling standards as type RG58 C/U. The main characteristics of this cable are an impedance rating of 50 ohms and an outside diameter of 4.95mm. Various cable manufacturers refer to this cable generically as Thinnet, the specifications and characteristics may vary slightly from vendor to vendor. It must meet out the Ethernet standard, which is technically referred to as the IEEE 802.3 standard. Advantages & Disadvantages of Thinnet Cables
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Advantages: Inexpensive Disadvantages: 10MHz Ethernet only More vulnerable to network failure Advantages & Disadvantages of Twisted Pair Cables Twisted Pair generally used in Star System Advantages: More compliant to International Standards 10 MHz and 100 MHz Ethernet capability Less vulnerable to network failure Disadvantages: Requires a distribution hub More cabling required Network Interface Adapters The network interface adapter (NIC, which installed in an expansion slot) is the component that provides the link between a computer and the network of which it is a part. Every computer must have an adapter that connects to the system's expansion bus and provides an interface to the network medium. Some computers have the network interface adapter integrated into the motherboard, but in most cases, the adapter takes the form of an expansion card that plugs into the system's Industry Standard Architecture (ISA), Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI), or PC Card bus. An ISA-bus NIC is illustrated in Figure 3.5. The network interface itself is, in most Figure 3.5 cases, a cable jack such as an RJ45 for UTP cables or a BNC or AUI connector for a coaxial cable connection, but it can also be a wireless transmitter of some sort.

Figure 3.6 REPEATERS Repeaters, located within the physical layer of a network, regenerate and propagate signals from one to another. They do not change any information being transmitted, and they cannot filter any information. Repeaters help to extend the distances of networks by boosting weak signals.
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HUB Hubs and switches both receive data packets from the computers on the network, but they process them differently. Hub operates at the physical layer only. Hubs connect all computer LAN connections into one device. When a hub receives signals through one of its port, it amplifies the signal and immediately transmits them out through the other ports of hub. Hubs cannot determine destinations; they merely transmit to every line attached in a half-duplex mode. It works as a repeater having multiport. SWITCH Switches operate at the data link layer. When a switch receives signal through one of its ports, it interprets those signals as a data packet and read the destination address from the data link layer protocol header. The switch then transmits the packet through the only port that is connected to the computer using that address. Switches connect all computer LAN connections, same as hubs. The difference is that switches can run in full-duplex mode and are able to direct and filter information to and from specific destinations. Thus switches reduce the amount of traffic on the network and the number of collisions. BRIDGE Bridges and Routes are both devices connect network cable segments together, but they process these packets arriving from the segments in different ways. Bridges operates at data link layer and connect segment together. When a bridge receives a packet through one of its port, it reads the destination address in the data link layer protocol header and consults its internal address tables to determine the destination computer segment. If the destination computer is on the same segment as the source computes, the bridge discards the packet, because it already reached its destination. But if the destination is on the other segment, the bridge transmits the packet out through its other ports. Bridges are intelligent, they regenerate transmitted signals, but unlike repeaters, they can also determine destinations. Bridges relay all broadcast messages between the segments. ROUTER Router operates at the network layer and connects networks together. When a packet arrives at a route through one of its ports, the router strips off the data link layer protocol frame and uses the destination address in the network layer protocol header to determine where to send the packet next. The router then encapsulates the network layer data in a new data link layer frame before transmitting it. Routers are a step up from bridges. They are able to route and filter information to different networks. Some routers can automatically detect problems and redirect information around the problem area. These are called "intelligent routers." The routes may send the packet directly to the destination (if the destination computer is on one of the networks to which the router is connected) or another router, which relay the packet in the same way. Routers do not forward broadcast packets.
Note: If you find any typing or printing error/s, inform immediately to your branch office.
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