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X-RAYS
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X-RAYS
X-rays-
We all have studied about electromagnetic spectrumin previous chapters.
There are various types of electromagnetic waves in electromagnetic spectrumsuch as radioactive waves,
microwaves, infrared rays, visiblelights, U.V. rays, X-rays and gammarays. They all havedifferent frequencies
as well as different wavelengths. For example, radiowave have lowest frequency while gamma rays have
highest frequency among all electromagnetic waves as shown in below figure. But if we are talking about
wavelength, we can see that gamma rays haveshortest wavelength while radiowaves have longest wavelength.
The relation between frequency and wavelength is given by a formula
C =v
where,
v =frequency of electromagnetic wave
= wavelength of efectromagnetic wave
c =speed of light (constant).
The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is inversaly proportional to wavelength. For a constant value of
C, if frequency of any electromagnetic wave is higher, it will have shorter wavelength and vice versa.
Now inn this chapter, we will study most importantly about x - rays.
As we all know that a bulb exert visible light and due to that, we can see the things. Thus we can say, bulb is
a device /aparatus which produce visible light. Similarly, there is a small apartus in a T.V remote which
produce infrared rays. When we push the button of T.V. remote,channal becomes changed.
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In the similar way, x-rays are produced by a device know as coolidge tube. Coolidge was a scientist which
designed this machine.
Below figure shows the basic structure of coolidge tube.
Before studying the working principle of coolidgetube in details, we will see anew termnamed as thermionic
emission.
Thermionic Emission -
We have seen in photo electric effect that when photons fall on a metal surface, emission of electrons take
place. This phenomonon is known as photo emission.
But if we heat the metal plate, electrons inside the metal plate, absorb heat energy. Due to that, energy of the
electrons increases.When their energy increases by acertain amount, electrons areemitted. This phenomenon
is called thermionic emission (Emission of electron on suppling thermal energy).
Structure and Working of Coolidge Tube -
Figure shows the structure of a coolidge tube. On the left side, a battery is connected with a resistance. This
resistance is called filament of tube. When current flows in this circuits, filament gets heated and emits the
electrons uniformaly due to thermionic emission. This filament is also called electron gun as it is heated
continuously by a battery and due to that, it emits the electrons in continuous way.
The metallic substance in the right side is called target. Generally, it is made of tangsten or molybdenum.
When this device starts working, target becomes very hot. To cool down the target a, U shape tube (filled
with running water) is used.
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A constant potential difference is maintained between thefilament and the target. Due to the electric field setup
between filament and target, electrons emitted by filament are accelerated and strike with the target. When
electrons hit the target with very high speed they move inside the target. After some porcessing on electrons,
target emits electromagnetic waves, mainly X- rays.
As we know that in photo emission,each photon carry a certain amount of energy i.e. hv and work function
(|) amount of energy is needed to eject the electron frommetal surface.
But the emission of electrons will take place only when
hv > |
When the electron absorbs energy fromphotons, its energy suddenly increases by hv. Then it looses work
function amount of energy during emission from metal surface and rest of the energy (hv |) is converted
into kinetic energy of electrons.
While in thermionic emission,energy is supplied to metal surface by heating it, so energy of electrons increases
in continuous way but slowly.
When electrons absorb workfunction amount of energy, they are emitted from the metal surface. As electrons
waste entire energy in thermionic emission so their kinetic energy becomes zero.
Therefore when filament of coolidge tube emits the electrons they have zero initial velocity.
Since when electron moves fromfilament to target, potential changes by V
0
amount, so change in potential
energy will be
AV =eV
0
By conservation of energy
AKE =eV
0
0
AKE =eV
0
Now when electron moves inside the target, two types of processes occur.
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(a) Process 1-
The emitted electron collide with other electrons and photons inside the target and looses its kinetic energy
during collision.
By conservation of energy, some of kinetic energy is then converted into heat and the target as a result
becomes hot while rest of the kinetic energy is converted into photons which comes out fromtarget in the
formof electromagnetic waves.
When electron undergoes collision, it looses all its kinetic energy. This may happens sometimes in single
collision or sometimes in many collisions. But in one collision, how much kinetic energy converts into
photons and how much in heat is difficult to say.
In a collision, loss of energy (
e
E ) by electron
0 <
e
E s eV
0
... (1)
and enegry of photons (E
photon
) coming out fromthe target will be
0 <E
photon
s eV
0
... (2)
Photons can have energy equal to eV
0
only when electron will loose entire energy in single collision and this
entire energy is converted into photon.
The above equation can be written as
0
hc
0 eV < s

0
eV 1
0
hc
< s

0
hc
eV
> >
This equation tells us that target emits so many photons of different wavelength but thetheir wavelength must
be greater than
0
hc
eV
,
min
0
hc
eV
=
Below graph shows the variation in number of photons with wavelength. There are very few number of
photons emitted of minimumwavelength (
min
).
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Quiz.
(I) If we increase the potential (V
f
) of a battery attached with the filament
then how does graph change?
Sol. An increase in the potential of a battery, increases the flow of current in
filament and thus increases the number of electrons,emmited. If more
electrons will hit the target, number of collisions will be more. Therefore
large number of photons are emitted from the target. But what happens
with
min
?
Since, min
0
hc
eV
=
where, h, c and e all the constant and V
0
is the change in potential from
filament to target. Hence
min
remains same for increase in V
f
.
(b) Process 2 -
As wesaw previously that the target of acoolidgetube is made of tungsten or molybdenum(havy material) so
every atom of target material contains lots of electrons.
Suppose an accelerated electrons with high kinetic energy collides with an electron (say in n =1) of this atom
and knockout that. Now there are two possibities, either the accelerated electron itself fit in the orbit to fill
the vacancy or the electron fromhigher orbit makes at transition to fill the vacant state.
During the transition process, electron of the higher orbit radiates photons.
The two processes (process 1 & 2) are different fromeach other. Though in process 1, accelerated electron
collides with inner electron of atombut it does not knock out that electron. Radiation of electromagnetic
waves takes place due to collision of these electrons. While in process 2, electron of higher orbit radiates
electromagnetic waves during transition.
(II) If we increase the potential of a battery fixed between filament and
target material, how does the graph change?
Sol. As we know
min
0
hc
eV
= . So on increasing the accelerating voltage (V
0
),

min
decreases.
On the other side, an increase in the potential difference of a battery Q,
increases the electric field and therefore increases the kinetic energy of
electrons ( K.E. =eV
0
). Now when electron will hit the target with more
kinetic energy, number of collisions will be more and hence more number
of photons will be emitted by the target. Thus the graph will be seen as -
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The energy of these photons must be equal to energy gap between orbits of atom(AE).
hc
E = A

Graph shows variation in number of photons with wavelength.As fromgraph we can see that electrone of
higher orbit radiates larger number of photons of wavelength
1
and smaller number of photons of wavelength

2
. But for any value of wavelength say ' between the range of
1
and
2
, number of photons radiated by
electron are zero.-
It means,
energy gap between any two orbits = Energy corresponding to wavelength '.
From above discussion, it is concluded that when the electron fromhigher orbit make a transition to a lower
orbit, it radiates photons of discrete value of .
Quiz. What happens with the graphs (of process 1 and process 2) on
changing the target material?
Sol. Process 2-
If we usedifferent material for target, characteristics of atomwill be changed
and thus theenergy gap between different energy levels will also bedifferent.
hc
E = A

So when AE will change, graph will have different value of

1
,
2
,
3
and

4
.
(i) Process 1- The graph of process 1 is shown as
min
0
hc
eV
=
where, h, c and e all are constant and V
0
is the potential of battery.
As
min
does not depend on target material, so the graph of process 1 will
remain same.
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Key Point -
Graph of process 1is called characteristic spectra as it shows the characteristic of metal used as target.
Graph of process 2 is called continuous spectra.
The energy of atomare characterized by K shell, L Shell, M shell and so on.
As we have seen,when electron makes a jump fromhigher orbit to lower orbit, it radiates photons.
- If electron makes a jump fromn =2 to n =1, then photon emitted is called k
o
.
- If electron makes a jump fromn =3 to n =1, photon emitted is called k
|
.
- Similarly if electron makes a jump fromn =4 to n =1, photon emitted is called k

.
Now we can easily tell that when the electron makes a jump fromn =3 to n =2, photon emitted is called L
o
.
- If electron makes a jump n =4 to n =2 , photon emitted is called L
|
and so on.
Quiz. Find out the wavelength of K

.
Sol. K
o
is the photon emitted during the transition fromn =2 to n =1.
Energy of photon emitted is
hc
E = A

,
( )
2
2 2
1 1
13.6 Z 1
1 2
(
=
(

where, Z is the atomic number of element.
Note -
- For K-series, energy of photon is given by
( )
2
2 2
hc 1 1
13.6 Z 1
1 n
(
=
(

- For L- series
( )
2
2 2
hc 1 1
13.6 Z 7.4
2 n
(
=
(

Where n is the quantumnumber of shell fromwhich transition is made.
Illustration
If K

radiation of Z = 11 has wavelength of

0
then calculate the
value of Z of corresponding radiation which has wavelength of
4
0
.
Sol. For K
o
radiation
( )
2
2 2
hc 1 1
13.6 Z 1
1 2
(
=
(

When wavelength is
0
,
( )
2
0
hc 3
13.6 10
4
(
=
(

... (1)
When wavelength is 4
0
,
( )
2
0
hc 3
13.6 Z 1
4 4
(
=
(

... (2)
Dividing equation (1) by (2)
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( )
2
2
10
4
Z 1
=

, 2 Z 2 =10 , Z =6
In the previous section,we have studied two types process and their
respective graphs.
Now the overall graph of these two processes is shown as
Radiaton of photons (of wavelength
1
,
2
,
3
and
4
) takes place due to
both processes (process 1 and process 2).
While in the any range
1
to
2
or
2
to
3
etc., photons are emitted only
due to process 1.
Thus we can say that maximumphotons are emitted at
1
,
2
,
3
.....
But the values of s can be changed by changing the target material.
Here we choose tangsten or molybdenumas the target metal so that
electrons can radiate the photons of wavelength in the range of x- ray.
Illustration -
if x and y are taken as the target material then which of the following
graph is correct?
Sol. As continous spectra does not depend on target metarial so it remains
unchanged in both cases. But characteristic spectra depends on target
metarial so it will be different in both cases. Hence,option (ii) is correct.
Moseleys Law - Equation of K
o
radiation is
( )
2
2 2
hc 1 1
13.6 Z 1
1 2
(
=
(

( )
2 1
Z 1 o

( )
1
Z 1

This equation is called Moseleys Law. The law was invented before the
equation of k
o
radiation so at that time,this equation played avery important
role. But moseley had failed to prove this equation so this releation is known
as moseleys law. Later then, scientists had proved this law using the
equation of K
o
radiation.
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Illustration -
Figure shown a Moseleys graph between
1

and Z. Among the

two lines, which represent K

and which of K

?
Sol. For K
o
;
( )
2
2 2
hc 1 1
13.6 Z 1
1 2
(
=
(

( )
2 hc 3
13.6 Z 1
4
=

( )
1 13.6 3
Z 1
hc 4
=

... (1)
For K
|
;
( )
2
2 2
hc 1 1
13.6 Z 1
1 3
| |
=
|

\ .

( )
2 h 8
13.6 Z 1
9
| |
=
|

\ .
( )
1 13.68
Z 1
hc 9
=

... (2)
Equations (1) and (2) are clearly the equations of straight line.

( ) ( )
K K
Slope Slope
o |
<
Hence line B will represent K
|
and line A will represent K
o
.
Illustration -
An impure cobalt target is bombarded with e

& characteristic
spectrum is also observed- wavelength of K

for coblt and impurity

are 5.9 pm and 142.5 (impurity) what is the impurity?
Sol. When impure cobalt target is bombarded with high energy electrons, it
will radiate X-rays (photons of different wavelength).
Now the graph between number of photons and will be seen as
Small spites represent K
o
of impurity x and large spites represent K
o
of
cobalt.
Given,
K
o
(Co) =178.9 pm , K
o
(x) =143.5 pm
According to Moseleys Law
( )
1
Z 1

For cobalt,
( )
co
1
k Z 1
178.9
=
... (1)
For impurity x,
( )
x
1
k Z 1
143.5
=
... (2)
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Dividing equation (1) by (2)
Co
x
Z 1 143.5
178.9 Z 1

x
143.5 27 1
178.9 Z 1

Z
x
=30
It means the inpurity mixed with cobalt is zinc.
Absorption Of X-rays In Heavy Metal -
1. When photons of X-rays hit a metal surface, they are being absorbed by metal.
The intensity versus distancegraph shows that when we move inside the metal, intensity of photons decrease
exponentially. This is because the every layer of metal absorbs some of the photons and thus lesser number
of photons will go ahead. Therefore, their intensity keep decreasing with distance.
I =I
0
e
x
where,
=co-efficient of absorption.
If the value of mis more for a metal then it will absorb more X-rays.
Illustration -
Figure shows intensity versus distance graph for two materials A&B.
Is
A
>
B
?
Sol. No.
In case of metal B, intensity is decreasing faster than that in case of A. It
means, metal B absorbs more X- rays.
Hence,

A
<
B
Soft And Hard X-rays -
X- rays having lower energy photons are called soft X-rays.While x- rays which have higher energy photons
are called hard X- rays. It implies that
v
Hard
> v
Soft
In terms of , harder x-rays means co-efficient of absorption will be small and soft X-rays means coefficient
of absorption will be high.
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2. We saw earlier that when photons hit the metal, they can penetrate into the metal.
Variation of mwith frequency of X- rays in plotted as shown in figure.
When x- ray hit the electron of an atom, electron absorbs the energy fromX- rays and makes a jumb to
higher orbit. But as tungsten or molybdenumare heavy metals, so number of vacent seats in the atomof
target material is zero. Therefore, the higher energy electron moves out of atom.
We can say that an electron of atomwill absorb the photon only if the radiated photon have sufficient energy
which can take an electron out of atom.
In the graph shown above, the edges define that photons of frequecies v
1
, v
2
and v
3
are capable to take the
eletron out of atomso they have maximumvalue of .
- Photons which take the electron fromK shell will have more energy and thus higher frequency. Therefore the
edge at frequency v
3
is called as K- edge.
- Photons which take the electron fromL shell, will have moderate frequency. As in the graph, middle edge has
moderate frequency so this edge can be called as L-edge.
- Similarly the edge in the graph has lowest frequency so it can be called as M- edge.
Illustration -
Find out the frequency of K

radiation if (K-edge) = 5 10
18
,
(L-edge) = 3 10
18
.
Sol.
In case of K-dege,
E =hv
=h (5 10
18
)
In case of L-dege
E =hv
=h(3 10
18
)
We know,
Energy associated with K
o
=Energy gap between n =2 to n =1.
K
h
o
v
= AE

K K-edge L-edge
h =E - E
o
v
( )
18 18
K
h h 5 10 3 10
o
v =

18
K
2 10
o
v =