Proceedings of Bridge Engineering 2 Conference 2009 April 2009, University of Bath, Bath, UK

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF SAO PAULOS OCTAVIO FRIAS DE OLIVEIRA ROAD BRIDGE

Edward C Wilkes1
1Undergraduate

student University of Bath

Abstract: This is a detailed paper on the Octavio Frias De Oliveira bridge in Sao Paulo. It will initially cover how the requirement for such a bridge came about and how the chosen design fulfilled these requirements. A structural analysis will be carried out, including relevant design calculation checks to British Standards. The paper will discuss the aesthetics, construction and other issues including future changes and improvements. Keywords: cable-stayed, centrifugal, curved deck, Inclined towers, junction.

1 Introduction The bridge Octavio Frias De Oliveira is a unique reinforced concrete, cable-stayed highway bridge consisting of two separate curved bridge decks with a total span of 290m each. It is situated in the heart of Sao Paulo, Brazil, and provides an important road connection aimed at reducing congestion in the city. 1.1 Sao Paulo congestion Since the beginning of the 20th Century, post world war and depression in the US, Sao Paulo has undergone an industrial boom. This has seen a dramatic rise in the population and a subsequent rapid expansion of the city. This has lead Sao Paulo to become one of the most congested cities in the world, having a fleet of over 6 million cars. As a result, the citys road network is undergoing significant investment and reconstruction [1]. The bridge Octavio Frias de Oliveira is part of this project, specifically it provides a connection between the roads Marginal Pinheiros and Marinho Avenue. Marginal Pinheiros is a main North-South traffic artery for Sao Paulo that runs alongside the River Pinheiros, originally part of a ring road for the city but long since overgrown during the citys expansion [5]. As shown in figure 1 (red arrows) it is made up of 2, one-way, 4 lane carriageways on either side of the river. Marinho Avenue is one of many east west routes into the city centre (blue arrows in figure 1). It is the 13th cossing over the River Pineiros, providing another important connection between an east west route in to the city and the Marginal Pinheiros.

1.2 Function and concept birth The specific function of the bridge is to relieve traffic at two other similar junctions to the north and south of the bridge. The bridge design therefore had specific requirements to manage a certain volume of traffic. It also would act as the junction between the perpendicular roads itself by being curved in plan. This allowed a smooth junction whilst achieving the necessary spans over the river. Both an entrance and exit slipway were required. This meant the bridge had to provide 2 separate curved bridge decks. The designers chose to provide this using only one support tower, creating a twin cable stayed structure with one mast; something never previously done before. This allowed exploitation of this unique structure as a landmark for the city. The bridge Octavio Frias is able to receive up to four thousand vehicles per hour in each lane. It is a relief to the bridge of Morumbi, which at times of peak gets up to seven thousand cars per hour. [2]

Figure 1 Road connections

2 Aesthetics Bridge aesthetics will be analysed in accordance with Fritz Leonhardts 10 rules for aesthetic analyses of bridges. These 10 rules cover every aspect of bridge aesthetics necessary for a successful design. Guidance from Ref [8].

sleek deck; as such, the mess of cables becomes less of an issue. The cross shape of the tower itself provides areas of light and shadow underneath each side, which help to accentuate its unique shape. However, to prevent it appearing too bulky against the deck, a dark line is apparent, splitting the tower in two, this makes it appear as if there are two separate slimmer towers. 2.3 Order Order is important in the lines and edges of a bridge, repetition can be used to produce a crisp, ordered design. The bridge deck is viewed as one element, there are no horizontal lines or edges except that of the mass of the deck itself. The bridge curves with a satisfying constant curvature with equal spacing of cable tie supports. The connections of the cables to the deck are the only element that breaks up the soffit; however these provide a reassuring functional effect when viewed from beneath. The angle of each connection is set into the concrete of the deck and specifically angled to match the corresponding cables angle. This ensures continuity of the line of action of the cables when viewed from the side. Although the shape of the bridge is so unique, consisting of two curved decks, symmetry in the design is still upheld. The two tracks are simple inverted repetitions of each other even though they sit at different levels. 2.4 Refinements The tower is made up of two crossing, tapered columns. The tapering is for structural efficiency, however it also prevents the tower from looking top heavy. The cable anchorages are expressed in the soffit beneath the deck. These do not break the flow of the slender deck however they act as a reminder to how the deck is supported and highlights its reliance on the primary element, the tower.

Figure 2 full bridge view and dramatic night shot 2.1 Fulfilment of function This is an important area of bridge aesthetics for producing a beautiful bridge. The main structural element is the tower, this stands proud above the city at a height of 138m. It can be seen to rise from ground level to the top without interruption as a single element, carrying the vertical loads from each of the two bridge decks directly to the ground. This gives the impression of strength and stability; the backbone to the structural system. The cables at deck level are clearly the main support for the deck, this is accentuated by the shallow deck. However when your eyes follow the cables up to the tower, it becomes unclear as to which cables support what part of the deck. This is due to the crossing over of the 144 cables. This is a fundamental floor in the aesthetics of the bridge; as soon as people are faced with the confusing criss-cross of cables, the whole design looses its beauty. 2.2 Proportions The many cables however, have allowed the bridge decks to be designed very shallow and sleek. This is well proportioned against the strong primary element, the tower. This draws your eyes to the tower itself and its impressive shape, and away from the messy net of cables. The cables begin to be viewed as a single element that connects the stable tower to the

Figure 3 Refinements 2.5 Integration into environment Cable stayed bridges work well in cityscapes. Their towers can be tall and elegant, and the bridge decks low and sleek. This bridge has achieved these, however the bridge was meant to be a new, impressive landmark for the city and through its unique design it achieves this too. Its mast height is similar to that of surrounding high rise office buildings so that it is not too overwhelming in the area, although it gives so

much more to the city and to the landscape than any convention structure or building. 2.6 Texture Texture is an important feature on bridges. It is often overlooked such as is the case with the bridge Octavio. The finish on the bridge is a rough plain matt finish. Each 3m stage of casting of the tower can clearly be seen, and same goes with the deck. The soffit from afar looks smooth, however upon closer inspection, lines and defects in the surface from the construction process are visible. 2.7 Colour Colour is often used to create different effects on bridges. The bridge Octavio Frias has a bright yellow covering around the cables. This has been used with previous cable-stayed bridges to contrast the blue sky. It also gives the impression of diverging sun rays breaking through clouds. The bright colour also helps to blend the cables together and to reduce the negative visual effect of them crossing. Phillips have installed an advanced lighting system consisting of LEDs into the bridge. The LED ColorBlast projectors provided by Phillips allow the dynamic interchange of colours. This allows the bridge to be illuminated in almost any colour; possibly reflecting special celebrations or events depending on the time of year [3]. This further highlights how the bridge can be looked upon as a local landmark as it can be used to represent local and global occasions. 2.8 Character The bridge Octavio Frias has huge amounts of character. Its unique design is impressive; it causes people to ask themselves how it works; how the separate decks balance each other and how the loads are shared through the tower, and whether in actual fact it acts more like two separate bridges than one or if each deck relies on the other for support. 2.9 Complexity An amount of complexity within a bridge can be visually interesting and exciting. The complexity due to the crossing cables can provide this from certain angles, however at others it can be chaotic as shown below.

2.10 Nature The incorporation of nature into structural design of bridges and other structures can be a useful way to make use, or remind people (through sculptural appreciation) of the forms evolved over billions of years by something other than man. There is some mention of the influence of Leonardo da Vincis Vitruvian Man on the design of the bridge highlighted in Ref [4] as shown below. However there may be a hint of architectural/sculptural post rationalization here.

Figure 5 Comparison to Vituvian man 3 Structural strategy The bridge Octavio Frias de Oliveira is very unique. It functions not only as a bridge to span the river Pinheiros, but as the slip roads that form the connection between the two perpendicular main roads. Cable stayed bridges are best suited for mediumspan, low-level river crossings such as that required by the bridge Octavio Frias de Oliveira. They largely only transmit vertical loads through their foundations, which is beneficial regarding the commonly poor ground conditions adjacent to riverbanks. They are also elegant and relatively cheap and simple compared to other forms of bridge construction. For this particular situation in Sao Paulo, a cable stayed bridge was simply the only choice. Considering the requirement for a bridge deck with such a tight curvature, most bridge types are ruled out; such as suspension, stress ribbon and cantilever. Many beam bridges in the same area of Sao Paulo have been built with similar curvatures, however with much smaller spans. An arch bridge was not possible due to poor ground conditions. Therefore a cable stayed bridge system had to be created that could provide two separate curved traffic carriageways from a single tower. Two smaller, straight decked cable stayed bridges were considered during the design process see Ref [4], however this design was abandoned possibly because it looked awkward, and because it did not provide a smooth junction for traffic without requiring land space adjacent to the river for the curved sliproads. The solution was to form an X out of 2 towers, each dedicated predominantly to each of the decks, however gaining stability from a connection where they cross. Each tower is inclined away from the curved deck it is supporting. This ensures that forces in the tower and the decks are mostly axial with minimal bending. However due to eccentricities of the cable

Figure 4 confusing array of cables

resultant forces and the position of the deck (due to curvature) out of plane bending is felt in the deck. Sufficient longitudinal pre-stressed reinforcement is provided throughout the deck to cope with these extra tensile and compressive stresses as seen in figure 6 below. This reinforcement will also be responsible for ensuring stiffness and stability of the deck under centrifugal traffic loads on the curved carriageways. Extra reinforcement is also provided in the tower to cope with bending under uneven live loads.

4 Calculations The analysis of this bridge will be done in accordance with BS 5400. Five load types are considered; Dead, Superimposed dead, live traffic, wind and temperature effects. These nominal loads will be calculated, and the relevant partial factors applied. They can then be applied in onerous and suitable combinations to assess the bridge structurally by comparing the effects against the element strengths. 4.1 Dead Loads The volume of reinforced concrete in the deck has been calculated as 10.5m3 per metre length, based on deck sections from Ref [4]. Unit weight of reinforced concrete = 24kN/m3. Therefore the dead load (DL) per metre of deck = 10.5x24 = 252 kN/m. The dead load can be factored using equation 1 DLfactored= DL f1 f3 (1)

Figure 6 longitudinal reinforcement (light green) Cable stays (red and dark green) [4] This inspired the deck section to be as in figure 7. The two larger reinforced concrete sections at the edges, span between the cable supports and also produce a high second moment of area in the y-y plane of the deck to cope with the lateral bending. The thinner reinforced concrete slab predominantly spans between the two edge beams to support the traffic lanes, additionally it acts as a shear web for lateral stiffness and in some parts compression due to triangular arrangement of the cables.

Table 1 DL partial Factors for concrete for all load combinations see Ref [7]. SLS ULS f1 1 1.15 f3 1 1.1 ULS DLfactored = 252 x 1.15 x 1.1 = 318.7kN/m SLS DLfactored = 252 x 1 x 1 = 252kN/m 4.2 Super-imposed dead loads (SIDL) Super-imposed dead loading must be taken into account when assessing the dead weight of the deck. It is mainly made up from the steel barriers and asphalt surface coating on the floor slab, plus some service transmission lines, cables and lighting. The weight of the barriers and services are unknown, but can be assumed to add up to a UDL of 0.5kN/m2 covering the entire deck area. Density of Stone Matrix Asphalt is 2300kg/m3, thickness of the asphalt is 100mm, therefore weight/m2 = 23 x 0.1 = 2.3kN/m2, therefore total SIDL= 2.3 + 0.5 = 2.8kN/m2 Deck width =10.5m, so UDL/m along deck = 10.5 x 2.3 = 24.15kN/m. Table 3: partial factors for SIDL all combinations [7] SLS ULS f1 1.2 1.75 f3 1 1.1 ULS SI DLfactored = 24.15 x 1.75 x 1.1.= 46.5kN/m SLS SI DLfactored = 24.15 x 1.2 x 1 = 31.9kN/m 4.3 Imposed Traffic loading Each separate deck carries 2 marked lanes of traffic plus a hard shoulder. This amounts to 10.5m of carriageway width. In accordance with BS 5400 (Ref

Figure 7 Deck section through sagging region [4] The cables support the deck in a semi fan arrangement. They support each segment of the deck in pairs. This pairing means that the support for the deck is triangulated. This is a valuable advantage for cable stayed bridges designed in this way; lateral stability of the deck is dramatically increased, further allowing the deck to be slimmer in depth. The tower itself has built in triangulation in the lower region due to the interconnected inclined towers. This drastically improves lateral stability of the whole bridge under uneven live loading such as centrifugal traffic or extreme wind loads. This is important for reducing moments on the foundations in the weak strata beneath.

[8]), this corresponds to 3 notional lanes, which is used for derivation of the loads. Width of each notional lane is therefore 10.5/3 = 3.5m. HA loading is an imposed UDL acting over notional lanes plus a knife edge load (KEL). Assuming a loaded length of the entire span of the bridge (290m) for assessing the HA loading, according to BS5400, the Ha UDL per metre length of each notional lane can be found from equation 2.

for extreme loading. This has been taken into account by assuming a higher mean hourly wind speed. The load exerted on the bridge must then be calculated from equation 4. Pt = q A1 Cd Where q = 0.613vc2 = 2296 A1 = solid horizontal projected area Cd = drag coefficient as defined below d = dl = 2.5m For 1m length of deck, A1 = 2.5m b/d ratio = 16/2.5 = 6.4 Therefore BS5400 states Cd = 1.25 Pt = 8609N/m = 8.61kN/m Wind will also exert vertical loads on the bridge deck. This also is important and must be calculated from equation 5. Pv = q A3 Cl A3 = plan area per metre deck = 16m2 Cl is defined below For Cl, due to the curvature of the deck, it has a certain super elevation built in to the design. This is 2.7% which is between 1 and 5 degrees. Therefore BS5400 states Cl to be taken as 0.75. Pv = 27550N/m = 27.6kN/m Table 3 factors for wind for combination 2 [8] SLS ULS f1 1 1.1 f3 1 1.15 for a plastic analysis SLS Pt factored = 8.61 x 1 x 1 = 8.61kN/m SLS Pv factored = 27.6 x 1 x 1. = 27.6kN/m ULS Pt factored = 8.61 x 1.1 x 1.15 = 10.9kN/m ULS Pv factored = 27.6 x 1.1 x 1.15 = 34.9kN/m 4.7 Secondary live loads: Horizontal traffic loads The bridge is unusual in that it has two curved decks. Each of these decks can be treated separately for their analysis. Horizontal centrifugal traffic loads will occur as the traffic drive along the curved decks. For an extreme case, BS5400 states that a horizontal load of value given in equation 6 can be used, however this is only a point load and is not suitable for analysing the deck as a whole element under a UDL centrifugal load from HA traffic. (5) (4)

1 W = 36 L

0.1

(2)

L=loaded length=290m Therefore HA UDL=20.8kN/m along one notional lane. Dividing by the width of a notional lane gives the UDL per metre squared: 20.8/3.5 = 5.94kN/m2 According to BS5400, a KEL of 120KN is appropriate. 4.5 HB loading HB loading, is based upon an abnormal truck load. This load would rarely be exerted on the bridge, however it may be the most severe load experienced by the bridge in its life. The full 45 units will be applied, this equates to 450kN per axle. When testing the deck, the most severe effect may be caused by HB when the axles are approximately at mid-span of two consecutive deck spans between cable supports, causing a maximum hogging moment over the central support. This requires a central axle spacing of 6m corresponding to the deck span of 7.3m. 4.6 Wind loading Specific calculation of wind pressure on structures is a result of many different variables; wind tunnel testing is certainly required for a true analysis of this bridge due to the unique design. However it is beyond the scope of this report. In accordance with BS5400, the wind load can be derived based upon 120yr return values. The maximum wind gust speed can be calculated from equation 3. Vc = v K1 S1 S1 (3)

v = mean hourly wind speed = 40m/s K1 = wind coefficient from table S1 = unnelling factor, can be taken as 1 for this example S2 = gust factor vc = 40 x 1.43 x 1 x 1.07 = 61.2 m/s Although tornadoes are not common in Sao Paulo, they do happen, and must be taken into consideration

Fc =

30000 r + 150

(6)

r = the radius of the bend = 290m Fc = 68.1kN This is a single point load and is minimal compared with the extreme horizontal wind loading. 4.9 Temperature effects The bridge Octavio Frias has expansion joints at the ends of the deck on side of the spans. Teflon bearings are most likely provided over the support on the tower. However these joints may become blocked by debris at some point in the bridges life. This will build up longitudinal stresses in the deck that may contribute to failure of the section most likely by buckling in compression where there is already high compressive stresses, such as over the cable stay supports. Assuming the coefficient of thermal expansion () for reinforced concrete is 12/Co. Then the stresses built up can be calculated directly from equation 7. The bridge is in group 4 (concrete slab on concrete beams) Max. shade air temperature = 28 Ref [6] Min. shade air temperature = -4 Ref [6] Max. effective bridge temperature = 30 Ref [7] Min. effective bridge temperature = -2 Ref [7]

modelled as springs). Enough prestress will be put into the cables to ensure this effect is kept to a minimum when the deck is subject to imposed loadings plus any future creep effects.

Figure 10 Deck moment diagrams Maximum bending stresses are exerted in the deck under load condition 2. The most onerous loading case for vehicular imposed is taken as 2 notional lanes fully laden with HA, and all other lanes with 1/3 HA, with the KEL at central span. With maximum dead and superimposed dead loads included. Wind load is included. Table 4 Partial factors for Live vehicle loading, combination 2 SLS ULS f1 1 1.25 f3 1 1.1 HAFactored ULS = 20.8 x 1.25 x 1.1 = 28.6kN/m HAFactored SLS = 20.8 x 1 x 1 = 20.8kN/m KELFactored ULS = 120 x 1.25 x 1.1 = 165kN The span between each cable support is 7.3m, assuming moments to develop as if each deck section was fully fixed at both ends, the following free body diagram can be drawn for the deck. Maximum moments in the edge beams will occur in hogging over the cable supports in the end span. This moment can be found from equation 8.

= (T ) E
= 12/Co T=(30+2)Co
-6

(7)

E=30GPa for concrete

2

concrete =12x10 x (30+2) x 30000 = 11.52N/mm 4.10 Braking and accelerating forces

Braking and accelerating forces can cause stresses in the longitudinal direction of the bridge deck and therefore must be considered in design. BS 5400 states this can be taken as 8kN/m along a single notional lane plus a 200kN force. 5 Load effects 5.1 Bending To calculate the maximum bending moments exerted in the deck, the deck is appropriately considered as 2 continuous beams spanning between the cable supports and a separate deck simply supported between the beams. The beams are considered to sit upon rigid cable supports; the cables are assumed to have had the correct amount of prestress put in them for the deck to act in this way. This produces the first moment diagram in figure 10. However the second moment diagram in figure 10 shows an exaggerated but more realistic approach which takes into account the effect of the extension of the cables on the moment diagram (i.e. the supports are

Mhog = L=7.3m

wl 2 3Pl (for UDL) + (KEL) 8 16

P=165kN

(8)

w=29.6x2.33+46.5+318.7+3 4.9 =447kN/m

Mhog = 3203kNm. Assuming this is shared between the two edge beams in the ratios 3:2 due to offset loading, then Mhog =0.6x3203=1922kNm. The bending stress exerted in the reinforced concrete section can be calculated from equation 9.

=
M=1922kNm

My I
I=0.358m4 Calculated

(9)

y=0.71m

= 3812kN/m2=3.81N/mm2 (low stress)

5.2 Cable tension The maximum force in any cable is experienced under combination 2 loading in the end span where the inclination of the cable is at its greatest. HB loading will cause the most critical effects. HB loading will cover 2 notional lanes with 1/3 HA on the final notional lane. The vertical load (V) supported by a pair of cables is the total loads over one span calculated below. This is the sum of all DL, SIDL, HB, HA and vertical wind loading. The HB vehicle is assumed to sit with 2 axles at the point of support of the cables. SIDL=46.5 kN/m HA=0.333x29.6kN/m V=3892kN. The cables are at an angle of 37.8o to the horizontal. Therefore the tension in the cable pair is 3892/sin37.8 = 6350kN. Assuming loads are carried in the ratio 3:2 between the pair of cables due to the offset HB load, then the tension in the most critical cable is 0.6x6350=3810kN. The cables are assumed to be high yield steel. They are pretensioned to relieve excessive sagging of the deck under imposed loading. The required area of steel for the cable can be calculated using equation 10 DL=318.7kN/m Wind=34.9kN/m HB=450x2kN

compressive stress from this axial force can be calculated from equation 11.

P A

(11)

= 38526/10.5 = 3670kN/m2 = 3.67N/mm2

5.4 Lateral bending Lateral bending is experienced in the deck under wind loading and centrifugal vehicle loading. Furthermore, due to the curvature of the deck there is an eccentricity associated with horizontal components of the cable tensions which produces out of plane moments in the deck as well as the axial compression. These forces exert out of plane bending stresses in the deck section, the moment can be calculated from equation 12.

M=

2 Pl Fl t + c + eFcables n 8 4

(12)

Pt=10.9kN/m Fc=68.1 n=number of cables=36

e=eccentricity=2m Fcables L=140 =1070kN m

M=106000kNm. The stress in the concrete from this moment can be calculated from equation 6 above. M=106000kNm y=8m I=370m4

1.25P A= 0.8 yield

P=3.81x106kN x 1.25 for pretension

(10)

concrete=

2292kN/m2=2.3N/mm2 (low stress)

yield = 760N/mm2
x 0.8 for 80% of yield

6 Serviceability All bridges and structures will undergo some amount of deflection under loading. Ultimately, the amount of local deflection is related to the external imposed loads applied. However the amount of prestress in the cables that support the deck has a dramatic effect on the initial global deflections and long term creep deflections. BS5400 specifies that only load combination 1 should be taken into account for serviceability. A maximum of 25 units of HB loading are to be considered if this causes the most onerous effects. Assuming the cable supports are inflexible, the highest deflection will occur in the end span due to the end simply supported connection. For a UDL, the maximum initial deflection can be calculated for a fixed pinned system using equation 13.

A=7833mm2, This corresponds to a cable diameter of 98mm. The actual cables on the bridge are 100mm diameter. 5.3 Deck compression Due to the inclination of the supporting cables, they exert a compressive force in the deck. This force will be at a maximum near to the tower. It will exert a compressive stress into the section in this area that may cause failure when combined with bending in the deck. The maximum effect will be under load combination 2 with full HA loading, DL, SIDL, and wind. The vertical load supported by the cable is V=(2.333x29.6+318.7+46.5+34.9)x7.3=3425kN Therefore the average cable pair tension is 3425/sin58=4039kN . The compression in the deck at the tower is given by summing the horizontal components of all 18 pairs of cables on one side of one bridge deck. C=18x4039cos58=38526kN. The

wL4 = 185 EI
w=357kN/m SLS L=7.3m E=4x107 kN/m2

(13) I=0.358m4

= 0.00038m = 0.38mm (insignificant)

7 Creep Creep in concrete is a result of the continuing setting of the concrete as it dries. It happens under the effect of long term loads such as dead and super imposed dead loads. The long term creep deflection can be calculated for a loaded structural element of the bridge. However, the small spans between the supports of just 7.3m combined with the rigid beam elements are unlikely to produce large long term defections. Loss of prestress in the steel cables due to creep in the steel is much more likely to produce significant long term deflections over the length of the span. This can have the effect of increasing the sagging moments in the deck as shown in figure 10. 8 Natural Frequency Vibrations in bridges can greatly influence their design. It is important that the natural frequency of any bridge does not fall within a certain range. This range is between 5Hz and 75Hz. Above 75Hz can cause physiological discomfort, below 5Hz and the bridge could be excitable by cyclic wind or traffic loading, and collapse could result. The natural frequency can be below 5Hz, however some form of damping may be necessary to limit the acceleration of the element. The natural frequency of different elements of the bridge can be calculated simply via the Rayleigh-Ritz formula, equation 14.

EI F0 = wn = ( n l ) 4 ml
2

(14)

The values shown are natural frequencies for the deck, both fixed-fixed and fixed-pinned configurations are tested (assumed pinned at the end of the deck). Values : E = 3x10^10N/m^2 25200Kg/m l = 140m (span) configuration (Bnl)^2 value Fixed fixed 22.37 Fixed pinned 15.42 I = 370m^4 EI/ml^4 1.147 1.147 m= F0 value 23.96Hz 16.5Hz

and buildings alike. This is very much the case for the bridge Octavio Frias. The location of the bridge is adjacent to the Pinheiros river which is an affluent of the Tiete River (which originally fuelled Sao Paulos growth) which itself sits on a plateau in the Brazilian highlands. The river Pinheiros has been extremely polluted and as such has been canalised, now serving little use to the city except small goods transportation. However, adjacent strata to the river is still made up largely from alluvial desposites built up during the river Pinheiros life. It is on these deposites that the bridge sits. These deposits are poor at carrying any lateral loads or moments. It is common for suburban mediam span river bridges to be cable stayed due the nature of the way loads are carried and the common poor soil conditions. Most cable stayed bridges such as Octavio Frias de Oliveira work by keeping lateral loads within the structure by balancing the deck either side of the tower. Some fixity at the foundation of the tower is still required for stability under uneven loading. Other important factors that will influence the foundation and structure are hidden services and train lines. Running along side the river Pinheiros (10m away) is the biggest electricity transmission line in the country (345KV, shown in yellow in figure 11) [4], it supplies one third of the city and could not be disturbed under any circumstance. Also running along side the river are two train lines, these are positioned approximately 20m away from the river edge (shown in blue in figure 11). Furthermore there are four 1m diameter waste water delivery lines running perpendicularly into the river itself (red in figure 11). All of these would be extremely difficult and costly to disturb. It was therefore appropriate to come up with a design that used foundations that would avoid disturbing these services. The X tower shape solved most of these problems automatically.

Figure 11 Foundation layout, see Ref [4] As can be seen in green in figure 11, the foundations are spilt into 4 blocks. The two connected masts that form the X shaped tower meet the ground nicely either side of the water lines. Essentially the bottom of each mast is then split into two; avoiding the electricity transmission line. Each block is slim enough to not protrude into the river, or get too close to the train lines. The 12m lever arm between the support foundations either side of the transmission line is just enough to provide the necessary rotational fixity at the base of the mast to carry uneven deck loads. Each foundation block is similar. Each foundation consists of a pile raft containing 28, 1.3m diameter piles spread evenly over each raft in 3 rows at

5 < 23.96,16.5 < 75 As can be seen, both natural frequencies fall within the permissible limits. However, this is only a very simple preliminary analysis of the bridge using basic formula. There may be many more complicated vibration effects in this bridge such as coupling effects. These can only be analysed using sophisticated computer software, not within the scope of this paper. 9 Foundations and Geotechnics Ground conditions and considerations often have a dominant influence on the choice and design of bridges

approximately 2m spacing [4]. The depth of these piles is unknown but is expected to be approximately 2030m. Furthermore there are 10, 0.4m diameter piles on each block that are inclined outwards. These are expected to be around 15m in length and provide extra lateral stability adjacent to the river bank. 10 Construction

Figure 12 construction of tower and deck The details of construction of the bridge are derived mainly from photos during construction from Ref [4]. It was paramount that none of the service lines that run beneath the tower were disturbed, also the north bound Marginal Pinheiros avenue could not be closed down for construction as this would cause disastrous effects on vehicles wishing to travel north-south through the city. This left an available construction site with a maximum width of just 20m between the river Pinheiros and the north bound Marginal Pinheiros Avenue. Although slim, this was plenty; elements could be delivered to one end of the site and lifted in to position by the cranes. It was important to not disturb the train lines or the Pinheiros Avenue. Due to the close proximity of traffic and train lines, it was of great importance that there would be no falling debris from the construction works; a tempory cover was constructed to ensure debris did not fall on to the train lines, netting covered all scaffold and form work that was carried out over the roads for the duration of construction. The construction of the foundations were first to be completed. All of the 112 1.3m diameter vertical piles are assumed to be drilled, this was necessary due to the large diameter of the piles and also to prevent damage to the main water pipes whose construction would not be able to stand the forces exerted during driving. Casing would have been necessary during drilling due to the geological conditions. The foundations provided support for a slab to span between them. This provided an essential working area for the start of the tower construction. Before this point, no heavy machinery could be placed here due to the underground services. The next stage was to found cranes that would remain in the same position throughout the project. The position of these cranes was of great importance; the

tower when complete would be 140m tall, the cranes would gain lateral support through the tower they were constructing; no free standing cranes could reach such heights. These cranes would be responsible for all concrete pouring operations and lifting of elements for the tower and the deck, they would not however have to reach out along the 140m deck either side. Elements would be lifted on the bridge deck itself and then transported to the construction area at the end of the deck. A jib length of 35m was therefore deemed sufficient. The tower was constructed in 3m sections. Each cast in place using removable formwork. The bases of the legs (0 to 23m) were constructed first, straight off the foundations using formwork supported off the purpose built foundation slab. The span between the legs that support the centre deck area were also constructed in this way. The two legs of the tower (23m 81m) were constructed simultaneously. Before the middle crossover or support was reached, the legs had to withstand bending moments due to their self weight and construction loads arising from their inclination. These moments were transferred through compression and tension in the upper and lower deck supports respectively, rather than being transferred as moments to the foundations. These forces however increased as the towers increased in height, up to a point where a support was required between the top of the legs to hold them apart. This support also ensured that bending stresses in the outside of the legs were removed before casting the central crossover piece. This support was provided by scaffold, built centrally between the legs, sitting on trusses to transfer the loads to the legs bases, see figure 12. This tempory scaffold also provided the support for the formwork for the central crossover piece itself.

Figure 13 Deck construction As soon as 90m was reached in the tower, the first cables could be added and so construction of the first deck pieces could begin. The deck was constructed using the suspended cantilever method, see figure 13. This method of construction is very common for cable stayed bridges; the ability to use this type of construction makes cable stayed bridges an attractive choice in the first place because the towers used for it are part of the final structure. The basis of the technique is that the deck is cast incrementally; a section of the deck is cast, supported by cantilevered trussed formwork, when set, the cable tie support is

added to this section and pre-stressed. This allows support for the formwork to be moved forward and cantilevered out for casting of the next section, without creating extreme hogging moments in the deck. The beauty of this method for many cable stayed bridges is that this can be done symmetrically either side of the tower, ensuring minimal bending moments are transferred to the tower or foundations. Importantly it also does not require tempory support from underneath that would otherwise require the Marginal Pinheiros Avenue to be closed during construction. It was important to ensure that when the deck was completed, that it would be where it was supposed to be. This task was made more complicated due to the curvature of the deck. The deck was designed with a constant curvature with radius 290m. This simplified matters because it meant the same formwork could be used continuously throughout the deck as with a straight deck bridge. Accurate lasers and visual positioning stations were most likely used to ensure the formwork was correctly positioned to make sure the deck was cast along the desired path. 11 Durability The cable ties that support the deck are covered in a layer of HDPE. This is the primary barrier to shield the cables from radiation and corrosion. This covering is long lasting and should help the bridge live out its supposed life expectancy. Should the cables need to be replaced; redundancy designed into the structure can allow one cable at a time to be removed. De-icing salts used on reinforced bridges can cause staining or spalling of the concrete. Due to the climate in Brazil [6], this is almost never required, so the bridge will not suffer from this. The Stone Mastic Asphalt laid on the bridge deck, is designed to have a long life. As such, it is very thick, making up a large proportion of the deck dead load. 12 Vandalism The bridge is situated in an area of Sao Paulo called Brooklin. This area is Middle to Upper-class and consists of mainly residential buildings. However immediately surrounding Brooklin are other areas that are not so safe. To access the bridge from the pedestrian areas you must either cross the 4 lane carriageway plus the 2 train lines, or walk along the bridge itself of which there are no walkways available to civilians. These points make it very hard to vandalise the bridge in general; however if these hurdles were traversed, vandalising the bridge may be achievable. No vandalising by means of graffiti will last long however; the bridge is now an important landmark for Sao Paulo and its cleanliness is key.

13 Future changes The bridge was built essentially as a junction as well as a span over the river. It is unlikely going to receive a dramatic increase of traffic above that which it was designed for, unless there are significant infrastructure improvements elsewhere along the routes which influence the traffic it receives. The bridge is part of such changes itself in an attempt to reduce congestion in the city as described previously. There is no provision or allowance for more lanes. However, there is a lack of a pedestrian bridge here, the bridge Octavia has not been designed with one. There is a walkway for people, but for maintenance only. There is scope for this to be made public in the future. 14 Suggested improvements As suggested above, there is scope for a pedestrian route across the bridge. This may have been a worthwhile small investment to have designed this feature into the bridge, even if its main function was to allow tourists a closer look at the bridge, considering this is supposed to be Sao Paulos new landmark. Due to the complexity of the scheme, it may have been not that much harder to have increased the deck size slightly to leave scope for an extra lane. This may have been an easier way to prevent future congestion rather than more costly infrastructure alternatives. There are weaknesses in the detail design of the bridge. The connection between the tower and cables is cast into position as one piece within the edge. This makes replacing one of these pieces extremely difficult. 15 References [1] Britannica online encyclopedia. Sao Paulo. Anon. [2] Bruno Loturco, 2008 .Revista Techne. A revista do engenheiro civil. [3] LEDs magazine. Anon. 2008. Phillips LEDs, bridge Octavio Frias de Oliveira. [4] Ponte Estaiada Octavio Frias de Oliveira (Complexo Real Parque). Anon. Instituto de Engenharia. Pages 3-30 [5] Brazilmax.com. Anon. 2008. So Paulo Neighborhoods and Geography [6] Universidade Metodesta de Sao Paulo. Anon. Brazillian climate. [7] British Standards 5400 [8] Ibell T. 2008. Bridge Engineering 1 Lecture notes