Glycobiology is the study of the structure, biosynthesis, and biology of saccharides (sugar chains or glycans) that are widely

distributed in nature. It is one of the more rapidly growing fields in the biomedical sciences, with relevance to basic research, biomedicine, and biotechnology. Indeed, several biotechnology, pharmaceutical, and laboratory supply companies have invested heavily in the area. The field ranges from the chemistry of carbohydrates and the enzymology of glycan-modifying proteins to the functions of glycans in complex biological systems, and their manipulation by a variety of techniques. Research in glycobiology requires a foundation not only in the nomenclature, biosynthesis, structure, chemical synthesis, and functions of complex glycans, but also in the general disciplines of molecular genetics, cellular biology, physiology, and protein chemistry. The specific term glycobiology was coined on 1 August 1988 in the Oxford English Dictionary by Prof. Raymond Dwek to recognize the coming together of the traditional disciplines of carbohydrate chemistry and biochemistry. This coming together was as a result of a much greater understanding of the cellular and molecular biology of glycans. However as early as the late nineteenth century pioneering efforts were being made by Emil Fisher to establish the structure of some basic sugar molecules. Many natural bioactive molecules are glycoconjugates, and the attached glycans can have dramatic effects on the biosynthesis, stability, action, and turnover of these molecules in intact organisms. For this reason alone, glycobiology and carbohydrate chemistry have become of increasing importance in modern biotechnology. In addition, many important biological interactions and functions mediated by glycans are potentially amenable to manipulation in vivo. Furthermore, several human disease states are characterized by changes in glycan biosynthesis that can be of diagnostic and/or therapeutic significance. The common monosaccharides found in higher animal oligosaccharides are listed below, along with their standard abbreviations.

Sialic Acids: Family of nine-carbon acidic sugars (generic abbreviation is Sia), of which the most common is N-acetyl neuraminic acid (Neu5Ac, also sometimes called NeuNAc, NeuAc, or NANA) Hexoses: Six-carbon neutral sugars, including glucose (Glc), galactose (Gal), mannose (Man). Hexosamines: Hexose with an amino group at the 2-position, which can be either free or, more commonly, N-acetylated: N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) and N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc). Deoxyhexoses: Six-carbon neutral sugar without the hydroxyl group at the 6position, fucose (Fuc). Pentoses: Five-carbon sugar, xylose (Xyl). Uronic Acids: Hexose with a negatively charged carboxylate at the 6-position, glucuronic acid (GlcA) and iduronic acid (IdA).

Essential sugars is a bit of a misnomer, but one that is widely used. Biologically active sugars or glyconutrients is a more appropriate term, because like essential fatty acids from fish oils, we can actually make these valuable nutrients in our bodies. Its just that our bodies would rather not go to the effort of making these nutrients because the process is laborious, inefficient, and sometimes lacking. Some people, such as the very young and old, the sick, and those with chronic health problems such as thyroid, adrenal, blood sugar, or hormonal problems, people with certain ancestries, or those whose bodies are under stress due to toxicity reactions or a lack of nutrients have difficulty making essential fatty acids, and the same seems to apply to essential sugars. Essential sugars are sugars that have specific biological functions within the body. Different types of sugars coat the surfaces of cells and help them to communicate with each other. These sugars are monosaccharides (made from one molecule) like glucose or fructose, not disaccharides like sucrose (which is a molecule of glucose and fructose joined together) or lactose (which is a molecule of glucose and galactose joined together. So far eight sugars which have specific biological functions in the body have been found. They are:

Fucose Galactose Glucose Mannose N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac), a form of sialic acid Xylose

All eight sugars are found in the myelin sheath that coats nerves and are important in correct nerve transmission inside and outside the brain. The sugars are woven together with amino acids to produce special protective proteins called glycoproteins. Low levels of glycoproteins have been connected to diseases like MS and schizophrenia. Salicylates are known to depress the ability of the body to produce essential sugars, particularly xylose, and weave sugars into glycoproteins , which is why they are relevant to failsafers. Essential sugars are found in high concentrations in the kidney tubules suggesting they are important in correct kidney function, as well as in the testes where they may play a role in reproduction. They also have an important part to play in immune system modulation and normalisation and are found in white blood cells, macrophages and T cells. They are also found in mucus and mucins (the excretions of the mucus membranes, both in the mouth and the intestines) which protect the body from invading pathogens and as such help the body to defend itself from infection. They may be relevant factors in

preventing GERD, stomach ulcers, intestinal infections and diseases like Crohns, coeliac, and ulcerative colitis. Fucose Fucose (not fructose, which has no biological function) is found in certain mushrooms, seaweeds including kelp, and beer yeast. As well as the above functions, Fucose also suppresses inflammatory reactions in the skin and can kill invading bacteria. Galactose Galactose is found in the lactose of dairy products, and as a monosaccharide in many fruits and vegetables. Galactose is known as the brain sugar, and is vital for the correct brain development of babies and children (part of the reason that genuine lactose intolerance is extremely rare in babies). Excess galactose can be stored as glycogen and converted easily to glucose, though it does not stimulate insulin release by itself. Glucose Glucose is found in or can be made from all carbohydrate foods, as well as from some amino acids and even the glycerine component of fats. Its primary role is in correct brain function and energy production associated with insulin release and glycogen storage. The bodys glucose storage capacity is limited and excess glucose is made into triglycerides (fats). Glucose also appears to have some body-building functions as it is present in the myelin sheath and the kidney tubules. Mannose Mannose is found in cranberries, blueberries, black and red currants, gooseberries, green beans, fenugreek, capsicum, cabbage, aubergine, tomatoes, turnips, shiitake mushrooms, kelp, and aloe vera. It is vital in preventing and curing urinary tract infections and stomach ulcers. E. coli and salmonella, common food-poisoning bugs, are vulnerable to mannose supplementation. Mannose is antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, and antiparasitic. Mannose also stimulates collagen production and therefore plays a role in preventing arthritis and heart disease. N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) Galactosamine is similar in structure to galactose. It is found in bovine and shark cartilages and is a constituent of chondroitin sulphate, one of the building blocks of collagen. It appears to play a role in preventing inflammation and in joint function and collagen formation and is a popular arthritis remedy. When taken together with glucosamine, the absorption of both is enhanced. N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) Glucosamine is found in bovine and shark cartilage and in shiitake mushrooms. It is the major component of the arthritis remedy glucosamine sulphate. It too plays a role in preventing inflammation, in joint function, and collagen formation and repair. It is also found in the thyroid gland, the sebaceous glands of the skin, and the retinal tissues of the eyes. Glucosamine has been shown to decrease insulin secretion. When taken together with galactosamine the absorption of both is enhanced.

N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac), a form of sialic acid Sialic acid is found in eggs and the whey component of dairy. Most animals produce a different form of sialic acid (Neu5Gc) which humans cannot use directly due to a mutation in our genetic makeup. Neu5Gc is particularly found in red meats and the whey component of dairy and may be a potential hapten-style allergen. Sialic acid is a particularly important immune modulator. High levels are found in the brain, kidneys, bronchial tubes and upper airways, skin and reproductive organs and it may play a role in protecting the lungs and skin from infection and disease, in intelligence, and in fertility. Xylose Xylose is found in guava, pears, blackberries, loganberries, raspberries, kelp, echinacea, boswellia, psyllium, broccoli, spinach, eggplant, peas, green beans, okra, cabbage, corn, and aloe vera. Xylose is antibacterial and antifungal. It is a team player, and is a key sugar in cellular communication, forming the outermost protective layer of many cells. Several of the essential sugars are found in aloe vera juice, which is used widely in the field of alternative health for preventing inflammation and easing digestive aliments such as stomach ulcers, and may have some use in Crohns, coeliac, and other inflammatory bowel diseases. Essential sugars work best as a team and most have overlapping functions in the body, so supplementation with essential sugars works best when they are taken in combination. In the Mexican menu are six of the essential sugars, just two dont have this menu: N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc): found in bovine and shark cartilage and in shiitake mushrooms. Xylose: is found in guava, pears, blackberries, loganberries, raspberries, kelp, echinacea, boswellia, psyllium, broccoli, spinach, eggplant, peas, green beans, okra, cabbage, corn, and aloe vera. That aliments is not common consumed, just broccoli, corn, pears and guava. 5 common aliments in the Mexican menu: Note: 1kcal = 1000 calories 1 ATP molecule = 144 calories Pozole the Pozole have 500kcal per portion, so, that have 500,000 calorias. 500,000 / 144 = 3472.2 molecules of ATP 120 grs carnitas 204 kcal per portion, 204,000 calorias, 204,000/144 = 1416.66 molecules of ATP Coca cola 600 ml 252 kcal, 252 000 calorias, 252,000/144 = 1750 molecules of ATP Tortilla de maiz 70 kcal, 70 000 calorias, 70,000/144 = 486.1 molecules of ATP Eggs (57gr) 84 kcal, 2 eggs = 1 portion, 168 kcal. 168,000 calories, 168,000/144 = 1166.6 molecules of ATP.

Cheeseburger ( 379 gr) 379 kcal, 379,000 calories, 379,000/144 = 2631.94 molecules of ATP

BIBLIOGRAPHY http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20744/ http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lecturesf04am/lect12.htm http://www.euroresidentes.com/Alimentos/calorias/tabla_calorias.htm