SOME STRAiN-HARDENING MEChaNISMS FOR POLYCRYSTALLINE MOLYBDENUM ALLOYS Io D. Gornaya, V. F. Moiseev, E. P. Pechkovskii, and V. i. Trefilov UDC 669.01:620.178:669.018.

Introduction. Hardening of metals and alloys during plastic deformation is caused, as is well known [i-3]: by a marked increase in dislocation density and redistribution throughout the volume to form different dislocation structures. Although currently there are relatively good studies of individual straln-hardening mechanisms connected with specific dlslocatiot~ structures [i, 3, 4], there are practically no comparative studies of the efficiency of different structural states (from a "forest" of dislocations to a disorientated lattice structure) for strain hardening of alloys in relation to composition, original structure, prior treatment, test conditions, etc. This is mainly due to research difficulties, since they are connected with the necessity for stepwise monicoring of dislocation structure by means of transmission electron microscopy. Since dislocation structures differ according to the effect of strain hardening [i, 4], it might be expected that their successive formation during deformation should lead to a change in loading curve path. The problem involves finding a method for treating curves which would make it possible to reveal these changes. This would greatly simplify setting up research into strain hardening, since it would become possible to determine the boundaries of individual structural states directly from the loading curve. Loading curves for polycrystalllnematerlals on true stress--~rue strain coordinates have the usual parabolic form and may be represented [5] by the relationship

~ = ~ o + K'E% (1) where eo is the yield point; K', strain-hardening coefficient; E, true strain; n, strain hardening index.
There are other variations for describing loading curves. proposed an expression ~-- K " E m, which is in good agreement with experimental data for the uniform strain section. (2) m is the strain-hardening index; K" is a certain constant. In Eqo For example, Holloman [6] (2 )

In order ~o describe strain-hardening curves, a system of two equations of the aforementioned type was used in [7], each of which describes a specific strain section (the socalled double-n method). Jaoul [8] used an expression for treating strain curves
In da/dE = In K'n + (n -- 1) In E, (3)

obtained by differentiating Eq. (i). With this treatment it is possible to determine all of the parameters, i.e., cot K'~ and n. Hollcman and Mann [9] anelyzed strain hardening by means of the equation
~ - - - - = % + - Z E -dg- '

1 (d~)

(4)

obtained from (i). In expression points on the hardening curve.

(4) de/dE is the strain-hardening rate determined at several

Of other loading curve treatments it is possible to mention the Ramani and Rodrlques method [i0] in which to find a strain-hardenlng index use is made of the value of work A expended in specimen deformation in a certain strain interval dE = Ea -- El: Institute of Physical Metallurgy, Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, Kiev. Translated from Problemy Prochnostl, No. 5, pp. 77-82, May, 1981. Origina! article submitted February 7, 1980.

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{a~E~--aiEi ]

(5)

Here ~ and ~a are true stresses relating to selected strain values E~ and E2. Work A is determined as the area under the curve of relationship ~--E. In cases of several hardening stages, the analysis is performed for each stage. The methods given above for evaluating loading curves make it possible to describe strain hardening by means of some empirical parameters, in particular coefficient K' and szrain-hardaning index n (or m), but they do not show the physical nature and specific mechanism of this hardening. In spite of differences in original models, physical strain-hardening theories [i, 3, 4, ii, 12, etc.] lead to a relationship in the f o r m

= ~o + =oGbV~,

(6)

where ao is a constant depending on the specific model; G, shear modulus; b, Burgers vector; p, overall dislocation density. The physical idea of expression (6) proposed by Bailey and Hirsh [!i] involves the fact that strain hardening is a result of accumulation in a volume of material of a certain dislocation density necessary to provide a given strain level. Hardening caused by interaction of dislocations with distant stress fields (including those due to groups of dislocations), crossover of forest dislocations, or dislocation jogging, and also a number of mechanisms not only represented by means of the same expression, but hardly differing in coefficient ao [13], makes it difficult to analyze strain-hardenlng critically in each ease and places a limit on the purely formal description of the process. Expression (6) cannot be used directly to analyze strain-hardening curves since it does not contain strain in a plain form, but by using ideas about the mean distance of free dislocation travel it is possible to establish a formal link between expressions (I) and (6) by means of a well-known relationship between strain and dislocation density:

E = =xbgL,

(7)

where ~ is an orientation factor (according to Conrad [14] ,i = 0.5); ~, mean distance of free dislocation ~ravel. Substituting p, found from Eq. (7) in expression (6), we obtain:
= +

Vbl V ,

<8)

w h e r e u= = ~ o / u l

= 1.41~o.

If we take ~ = const, then in fact we arrive at one of the Taylor strain hardening models [15] which gives a parabolic relationship between stress and strain. In this way n = 0.5, and strain hardening coefficient K' takes on an entirely specific physical sense:

K" =

<9 )

For analysis of hardening curves at different temperatures, expression (8) is written conveniently in the form

A~ 0
where
A(~----~--~o;

=KVL

(lO)

K-~-K'/G----I. 4 1 ~ o l / b - ~ .

(ll)

The relationship between stress and the level of strain in Eq. (I0) gives a formal description of the process and this is connected with the assumption that L = const. The validity of this crlterloncannot be verified directly, but in fact reconstruction of loading curves on coordinates u--Ex/a may serve to verify it, as a result of which loading curves are converted into straight lines or broken lines with straight sections. This verification has been successfully carried out by a number of workers for single crystals [13, 16], polycrystalline metals [16, 17], polycrystalline u-tltanium [18], and other alloys. The results do not in fact conform with the idea of the existence of a mean dislocation travel path; it is most likely that fulfillment of condition ~ = const is explained by nonsteady mechanisms controlling the overall number of dislocations and their mobility in relation to material structure and test conditions. 629

~,~gflm m 2-

/ / y

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Fig. I. Three stages of strain hardening in true stress--true strain curves replotted on coordinates o--E*/~ for two-phase molybdenum alloy MTA (i) and single-phase alloy (4) at 400~ (In order to study dislocation structure in the first and second hardening sections, two single-phase alloy specimens were additionally extended to give strain levels (2, 3).) Fig. 2. Dislocation on structure of molybdenum alloys in different hardening sections: I, II) slngle-phase alloy (a~ b); II) two-phase alloy (c); III) slngle-phase alloy (d). The aim of the present work is to find a relationship between structural changes occurring in molybdenum alloys during deformation at different temperatures and the path of The hardening curve replotted on coordinates u--E*/~. Material and Procedure. Strain-hardening mechanisms were studied for vacuum-arc melted pure molybdenum containing 0.003 wt.% (throughout the volume) of carbon, and approximately the same of nitrogen and oxygen, and also two-phase molybdenum alloy MTA [19] with 3.5 vol.% of titanium nitride in the form of 0.1-0.5 ~m spherical particles. Before testing all specimens were given a recrystallizatlon anneal at 1500~ and the mean grain size was 100 and 15 ~m in one and two-phase material, respectively. Changes in alloy dislocation structures were monitored by means of transmission electron microscopy, and foils for this purpose were prepared directly from the gauge length of specimens extended by different amounts of strain at a rate of ~ = ~u sac . Results andDiscussion. Replotting loading curves for single-phase molybdenum and MTA alloy on coordinates o--Ez/a made it possible to reveal (Fig. i) in the uniform strain region three rectilinear sections at whose boundaries a change in strain hardening coefficient occurred. It may be assumed that these sections correspond to different strain hardening mechanisms. Electron-microscope studies of dislocation structure for molybdenum and alloy MTA in each of the strain-hardening sections showed that in the first of these there is relatively uniform distribution of dislocations (Fig. 2a), but in the second section dislocation interlacing and bundles start to form, and there are still whole areas of unclosed cell boundaries (Fig. 2b). In dispersion-hardened alloy MTA particles of a second phase located within the body of a grain (Fig. 2c) serve as interlacing centers in the second section. Finallyj in the third section with the same law value of strain-hardening coefficient, formation of a deformed cellular structure (Fig. 2d) is observed. Since the dislocation structures observed are connected with specific strain-hardening mechanisms [I, 4, 12], treatment of loading curves on coordinates o--E:/z or Ao/G--E~/2 provides a structural basis which differs in principle from treatment by Eqs. (I), (2), etc. 630

Analysis of replotted loading curves for MTA alloy (Fig. 3) makes it possible to establish some additional straln-hardening mechanisms. In particular, increasing test temperatures in the range 200-1520~ leads to a reduction in strain-hardenlng coefficient K: by a factor of more than three, In this case critical strain E~ decreases, during which there is a change in strain-hardenlng coefficient caused by a change from a relatively uniform dislocation density to pile-ups, i.e., a change from hardening by a forest of dislocations to hardening resulting from reaction of mobile dislocations with groups of dislocations, The ratio K ~ / E ~ in this range at all temperatures turns out to be a constant value:

By p l a c i n g or

expressions

(ll)

KJV = o.o72. and (7) in ( 1 2 ) , we o b t a i n :

2aopFJ/2ZF 1= O.072

(12)
(13 ) (i4)

Ll"-'28aop-u2,

where p: is overall dislocation density toward the end of the first stage; L~ is distance of free dislocation travel at this stage. Expression (14) reiterates the well-known theoretical relationship of Holt [20] who showed that a uniform dislocation distribution is unstable and it strives to rebuild itself by formln~ interlacing or a cellular structure with an averaged cell size (or distance between interlacings) proportional to p-~/2. As follows from (14), a reduction in dislocation density with increasing grain size [14], or test temperature [21] leads tO an increase in cell structure dimensions, which is in good agreement with known data for the dependence of cell size on pressing temperature and original grain size [3]. A reduction in dislocation density indicates that the contribution of each individual dislocation to the overall strain level increases. At elevated temperature this reduction may be explained by a reduction in the efficiency of barriers with a capacity to halt dislocations, or what amounts to the same, an increase in the capacity of the latter to overcome these barriers due to activation of transverse slip or unrestrained movement. The reduction in strain-hardenlng coefficient at 20 to 90~ nature and is connected with the difference in mobility of screw metals at temperatures below (0.1-0.15)Tm [22]. This difference the structure of screw dislocations in deformed metals which can from barriers by transverse slip. (Fig. 3) is of a different or edge dislocations in bcc leads to a predominance in comparatively easily depart

The density of dislocations participating in deformation in the first stage (up to E~) governs strain hardening not only at this stage, but in subsequent stages when interlacing and cellular structure dislocation boundaries arise. This follows from the fact that the ratios of strain hardening coefficients in the second and third stages, Ks and Ks, to coefficient K~ turn out to be constants of K~/K: = 0.43 and Ks/K, = 0.2 over the whole test temperature range (Fig. 4). The critical strain ratio Ea/E~ = 2.7 is also constant. As comparison of the straln-hardening coefficient with the yield point for alloy MTA has shown, the ratio K,/oo.s remains constant in the temperature range 200-800~ (Fig. 4) and it only diverges due to inclusion at high temperature of a dislocation creep mechanism [23], or as was pointed out above, due to the partlcular role of screw dislocations in lowtemperature deformation, Thus, by means of the ratios obtained between strain hardening coefficient and critical strain EL and Ea, it is possible to plot for any temperature a whole loading curve for a specimen of alloy MTA in the uniform strain region (up to the moment of specimen necking) if coefficient K~ is known or the rule for dislocation density changes due to deformation at a given temperature is known. Keduction in the straln-hardenlng coefficient in the second and third stages is explained by partial adjustments of the elastic stress field for individual dislocations with formation of interlacing or low-angle boundaries, which in fact occurs when the distance between dis ~ locations is several interatomic distances [24]. Takeuchi [25] showed that a reduction in straln-hardenlng coefficient is caused above all by nonuniform distribution of dislocations in a structure. The Takeuchl coefficient q, equal to the ratio of material flow stress with nonuniform and uniform dislocation distribution always appears to be less than unity. In

631

2oL

'~ /
0 s I I

~
9

'~

l~ll~r:I-

~:,l~z10. ~

~ I ~ ~ m r n Z / k g f

nl
Fig. 3

ZOO ~0 ~80 800 1008 I~0 T.~

J'

Fig. 4

Fig. 3. Effect of test temperature for alloy MTA on strain hardening curves on coordinates &~/G--EX/a: I) t = 20~ 2) 90~ 3) 200~ 4) 400~ 5) 600~ 6) 8100C; 7) 1000~ 8) 13000C; 9) 1520~ Fig. 4. Temperature dependence of the ratios K=/K: (I), K3/K~ (2), E~/E: (3) and K,/~o.= (4) for alloy MTA. fact, coefficient n calculated for alloy MTA varies from 1 at E~ to 0~775 at Ea, and with further deformation it decreases according to the expression

= 0.2 + 1.19

(15)

Thus, treatment of loading curves on coordinate 5~/G--E~/= makes it possible, as was shown in this study, to reveal the boundaries of different structural states and correspondingly stages in strain hardening directly from the load--strain diagram, and this markedly simplifies the study of strain hardening in relation to such factors as temperature, grain size, strain rate, dispersed particle content, etc. It was shown that the factors listed affect the efficiency of strain hardening primarily in the first stage. The whole straln-hardenlng process is described by one equation of type (10), although each stage has its strain-hardening coefficient, and at all temperatures above 0.15T m the ratio between strain-hardenlng coefficients in individual stages remains constant. The ratio between critical strains at which there is a change in strain-hardening mechanism is also constant in this temperature range. LITERATURE CITED I. 2. A. N. Orlov, "Strain-hardening mechanisms for bcc metals," in: Physics of Strain Hardening for Single Crystals [in Russian], Naukova Dumka, Kiev (1972), pp. 22-39. V. I. Trefilov, "Effect of cellular structure on the behavior of metals under load," in: Physics of Strain Hardening for Single-Crystals [in Russian], Naukova Dumka, Kiev (1972), pp. 191-201. V. I. Trefilov, Yu. V. Mil'man and S. A. Firstov. Physical Bases for the Strength of Refractory Metals [in Kusslan], Naukova Dumka, Kiev (1975). F. F. Lavrent'ev, "Effect of different dislocation reactions on deformation stress in metal qrystals," in: Elementary Processes of Plastic Deformation in Crystals [in Russian], Naukova Dumka, Kiev (1978), pp. 64-74. P. Ludwik, Elements der Technologischen Mechanlk, Sprlnger-Verlag, Berlin (1909). J. Ho Holloman, "Tensile deformation," Trans. AIME, 162, 268-290 (1945). Y. Bergstr~m and B. Aronsson, "The application of a dislocation model to the strain and temperature dependence of the strain-hardening exponent in the Ludwik--Holloman relation between stress and strain in mild steels," Met. Trans., ~, No. 7, 1951-1957 (1972); J. Iron Steel Inst., 204, 230-234 (1966). B. Jaoul, "Etude de la forme des courbes de deformation plastique," J. Mech. Phys. Solidi, ~, 95-114 (1957). M. Hollzmann and J. Mann, "Determination of friction stress in bcc polycrystals," J. Iron Steel Inst., 204, 230-234 (1966). S. V. Ramani and P. Rodriques, "The work-hardenlng parameters of polycrystalline materials," Sci. Met., ~, No. !0, 755-760 (1970).

3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

8. 9. I0.

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ii. 12. 13. 14.

15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

P. V~ Hirsh and G. E. Bailey, "The dislocation density flow stress and stored energy in cold-worked polycrystalline silver," Phil. Meg. t ~, No. 53, 485-497 (1960). A. L. Roltburd, "Physical models for strain hardening of crystals," in: Physics of Strain Hardening for Single Crystals [in Russian], Naukova Dumka, Kiev (1972), pp. 5-22. V. S. Ivanova and V. A. Ermishkin, Strength and Ductility of Refractory Metals and Single Crystals [in Russian], Metallurglya, Moscow (1976). H. Conrad, "Strain-hardening model for explaining the effect of grain size on flow stress in metals," in: The Superfine Grain in Metals [in Russian], Metallurglya, Moscow (1973), pp. 206-219. G. J. Teylor, "The mechanism of plastic deformation of crystals. Part I. Theoretlcal~" Proc. R. Soc., 145, Set. A, 362-387 (1934). F. R. N. Nabarro, Z. S. Bazinskii, and D~ B. Holt, Ductility of Pure Single Crystals [in Russian], Metallurgiya, Moscow (1967). S. N. Polyakov, A. S. Kidla~, L. M. Naugol'nlkova, and I. G. Necheporenko, "Procedure for plotting and analysis of true tensile diagrams," Zavod. Lab., No. 6, 741-744 (1966). R. Orova, G. Stone, and H. Conrad, "The effects of low temperature and strain rate on the yield and flow stresses of ~-tltanium," Trans. ASM,,59, 171-184 (1966). V. I. Trefilov, O. M. Barabash, V~ F. Molssev, et el., E-ffect of nitrogen and titanium on the structure and properties of cast molybdenum alloys," Fiz. Khlm. Mekh. Mater., No. 4, 109-111 (1976). D. L. Holt, "Dislocation cell formation in metals," J. Appl. Phys., 41, No. 8, 31973202 (1970). A. Lawley and H. Gaigher, "Deformation structures in zone melted molybdenum," Phil. Meg., 10, No. 103, 15-33 (1964). J. D. Gilman, "Microdynamic plasticity theory," in: Microplasticity [in Russian], Metallurgiya, Moscow (1972), pp. 18-37. M. F. Ashby, "A first report on deformation-mechanism maps," Acta Met., 20, No. 7, 887897 (1972). M. V. Grabskii, Structure of Grain Boundaries in Metals [in Russian], Metallurglya~ Moscow (1972). T. Takeuchi, "Theory of high-temperature type work-hardenlng of bcc metals," J. Phys, Soc. Jpn., 28, No. 4, 955-964 (1970).

INFLUENCE OF THE CRITICAL STAGE OF POLYGONIZATION ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DUCTILITY OF TUNGSTEN IN HIGH-TEMPERATURE MECHANICAL TESTS V. S. Kravchenko and V. K. Kharchenko UDC 548.53:539.219

In a number of cases, hlgh-temperature deformation of bcc metals and alloys is accompanied both by a reduction in ductility in short- and long-term tests and by separation at temperatures exceeding 0.bTmelt [i, 2]. In particular, such a behavior of chromium and molybdenum base alloys with a cellular structure formed in them was noted in [i]. Despite many investigations (see the review in [i, 2]), the reasons for the reduction of ductility in materials in hlgh-temperature deformation have not been clarified in a number of cases. The purpose of this work is a study of the embrittlement mechanism of V--PM tungsten in the area of high temperatures in short-term static loading. The characteristics of strength and ductility were determined on a VTU-2V high-temperature unit [3] in vacuum on standard samples with a gauge length diameter of 6.0 mm and a gauge length of 30 mm. The deformation rate in tension of samples in the 500 to 2500~ tem--3 --I perature range was about 1.10 sec . Short-term creep tests were made at 1500, 1750, and 2000~ with a constant load. The levels of applied stresses were about 50-80% of the cotInstitute of Strength Problems, Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, Kiev. institute of Metal Physics, Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, Kiev. Translated from Problemy Prochnostl, No. 5, pp. 82-88, May, 1981. Original article submitted August 8, 1980.

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