2010-2011

Aircraft Design Project II

Business Jet Designing

Business Jet Designing

SRINIVASAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE

PERAMBALUR-621212 (AFFILIATED TO ANNA UNIVERSITY, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI)

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

AE1403 AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT II

. . SEVENTH SEMESTER

Business Jet Designing

SRINIVASANENGINEERINGCOLLEGE
PERAMBALUR-621212

(AFFILIATED TO ANNA UNIVERSITY, TIRUCHIRAPALLI)

Record Notebook AE1403 AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT II

Reg. N Subject Name Subject Code

Certified that this is the bona fide record of works done by Mr. for the above subject during 7th semester of B.E. Aeronautical Engineering in the academic year 2010-2011.

Staff in charge

Head of the Department

Submitted for the University Practical Examination held on

Internal Examiner

External Examiner

Business Jet Designing

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere thanks to the chairman of our college A. SRINIVASAN For giving us the inspiration and providing all facilities for the execution of this project We wish to convey, our heartiest thanks to principal of our college, DR. S.THAYUMANAVAN for having provided the necessary infrastructure for successful completion of our project. We extend our sincere thanks to head of the department M.JOSEPH FERNANDUS Who has given us constructive criticism and valuable suggestion for successful completion of this project We convey our heartiest thanks to our guide C.SURESH For his valuable guidance and advice to complete this project work easily and successfully. We also thank other staff members and our friends for all their contributions in making this project possible.

Business Jet Designing

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapters Abstract Introduction Load Factors Intercept Instantaneous Turn Rate Sustained Turn Rate Climb High Angle Of Attack Gust V-N DIAGRAM Wing Load Distribution Span Wise Distribution Of Various Loads Shear Force Diagram Bending Moment Diagram Fuselage Load Distribution Length Wise Distribution Of Various Loads Shear Force Diagram Bending Moment Diagram Static Margin Structure Design And Material Selection Theory Structure Design Conclusion Reference

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ABSTRACT

Information for the Aircraft Data section has been gather and submitted from a variety of internet and print sources. Reasonable attempts have been made to ensure accuracy and veracity of sources. When possible, attempts have been made to use data provided by the aircraft manufacturer. However, this information should not be used for flight planning or official purposes. The reason is that in many cases, optimizing one character degrades another. Aircraft design is a separate discipline of aeronautical engineering different from analytical disciplines such as aerodynamics, structures, controls, and propulsion. It is not just the actual layout, but also the analytical processes used to determine what should be designed and how the design should be modified to better meet the requirements. Aircraft design can be broken into three major parts conceptual design, preliminary design, and detail design. We here mainly concentrate on developing a conceptual design of a Business Jet. Business jet, private jet or, colloquially, bizjet is a term describing a jet aircraft, usually of smaller size, designed for transporting groups of business people or wealthy individuals. Business jets may be adapted for other roles, such as the evacuation of casualties or parcel deliveries, and a few may be used by public bodies, governments or the armed forces. The more formal terms of corporate jet, executive jet, VIP transport or business jet tend to be used by the firms that build, sell, buy and charter these aircraft. The starting point of any aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. With modern Business aircrafts, a proposal for a new design usually comes as the response to internal studies that aim to project future market needs.

Business Jet Designing

INTRODUCTION
Aircraft Design Project II
An airplane is a hybrid of various aspects of airplane design viz., airplane dynamics, propulsion, structures, stability and control. The airplane emerges as a compromise of several conditions directed by the specifications for which it is being designed. The project deals with the design of Business Class passenger airplane. The classical role of 100-seater passenger airplane is to fly at medium ranges. This aircraft design project-2 is basically a continuation of aircraft design project-1. In design project-1 the following were done Mission specifications Literature survey Weight estimation Engine selection Airfoil selection Landing gear selection Drag estimation Performance analysis

In aircraft design project-2 taking the values obtained in design project-1 as input, the load factors during various phases of flight is calculated and the V-n diagram is drawn, the load distribution on the wing and the fuselage is found and the shear force diagram and the bending moment diagram for the wing and the fuselage are drawn and the internal structure design is also done.

Business Jet Designing The following values are taken from the aircraft design project-1 and are used in the aircraft design project-2.

Wing loading Mach number Thrust to weight ratio Aspect ratio Altitude Lift coefficient Wing span Wing plan form area Fuel weight No. of engines Engine weight Gross weight Tail area

5987.5kg/m2 0.885 0.24 9.1 15500m 2.0 30.36m 119.2m2 10080N 2 10387.3N 36622.2Kg 20.3 m2

Business Jet Designing

LOAD FACTORS
In determining the structural loads, the main wing, horizontal and vertical stabilizers, and fuselage are considered separately. The loads on these are due to due to a combination of static and dynamic weights, and aerodynamic forces. It is defined as the ratio of lift to the weight, n=L/W. In level flight, the lift produced by the wings equals to the weight, so that n=1. However, during maneuvers such as climb to altitude, acceleration to high speed, sustained or instantaneous turn rate associated with the combat, significantly larger load factors may occur. Since they set the limit on the internal structure, it is very important that the maximum load factors be determined.

INTERCEPT
For an intercept flight phase, the load factor can be calculated using the following relation

Where, q =dynamic pressure q =( ) =3967.5 W/S = 5987.5 Kg/m2 (from ADP1) CDo = 0.01 (from ADP1) K = (1/Ae)=0.41 A,aspect ratio =8 (from ADP1) On substituting the above value we get n=1.2272

INSTANTANEOUS TURN RATE.

With instantaneous turn rate, the load factor was given by ( Where, , instantaneous turn rate = 2deg/s (assumption) On substituting the above values we get n=1.314 8 )

Business Jet Designing

SUSTAINED TURN RATE.

A sustained turn is one in which the speed and altitude are same so that thrust will be equals to drag. An expression for finding out the load factor during sustained turn rate is shown below ( Where, = instantaneous turn rate = 2deg/s (assumption); On substituting the above values we get n = 1.36 )

CLIMB.
In the analysis of wing loading effect on climb, it was assumed that n=1. However an expression can be derived, which relates the climb rate to the load factor. ( ) [( Where, G=sin =sin 10=0.17348; On substituting the above values we get n=0.234 and 4.85 ) ( )]

HIGH ANGLE OF ATTACK.

A high load factor can result from an instantaneous change in the angle of attack during level flight. The load factor in terms of the dynamic pressure and lift coefficient is, On substituting the values we get n=3.53

DIVE CONDITION.
The maximum dynamic pressure is produced in a dive. As a standard the dive velocity is taken as Vdive=1.5Vcruise .

Vdive =1.5*251.1
=376.66

m/s
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V-N DIAGRAM
A V-n diagram shows the flight load factors that are used for the structural design as a function of the air speed. These represent the maximum expected loads that the aircraft will experience. These load factors are called as limit load factors. V-n diagram for the conceptual cargo aircraft is shown in Figure 2.1. The curve from n=0 to point A represents the maximum component load produced by high angle-of-attack flight. The equation for this curve is given by

( ) The limit of point A corresponds to the horizontal line A-D. Point D occurs at highest flight velocity, which is the dive velocity. The point VC represents the cruise velocity. At cruise, n=1, which is shown as the dashed horizontal line. The intersection that line with the O-A curve corresponds to the stall velocity, VS, which is the minimum speed at which aircraft can maintain level flight. The line H-F represents the largest negative load factor for the aircraft, which are generally less than the maximum positive load factor. Point F corresponds to the intersection of the negative loading limit and the maximum design cruise velocity, VC. The negative load factor envelope is then closed by the line at point F to the n=0 point at the dive velocity, VD.

V-n Diagram (Schematic)

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V-N DIAGRAM GUST ENVELOPE.

Gust loads are unsteady aerodynamic loads that are produced by atmospheric turbulence. The effect of a turbulent gust is to produce a short time change in the effective angle of attack. This can be either positive or negative, thereby producing an increase or decrease in the wing lift and a change in the load factor .

V-N DIAGRAM
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 0 -2 -3 LOAD FACTOR n

LOAD FACTOR (+n) LOAD FACTOR (-n) 100 200 300 400

EAS (m/s)

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WING LOAD DISTRIBUTION

The loads on the wing are made up of aerodynamic lift and drag forces, as well as concentrated or distributed weight of wing mounted engines, stored fuels, weapons, structural elements, etc. This section will consider these as the first step in designing the internal structure for the wing.

SPAN WISE LIFT DISTRIBUTION:

As a result of the finite aspect ratio of the wing, the lift distributions vary along the span, from a maximum lift at the root, to a minimum lift at the tip. The span wise lift distribution should be proportional to the shape of the wing plan form. It can be readily calculated by vortex panel method. By assuming the wing plan form as elliptic, the analytic span wise lift distribution is given by, ( ) ( )

Where,

LE (Y) Y Span(b) Semi span(b/2)

= the total lift generated by the wing with the elliptical plan form. =span wise coordinate of the wing with y=0 to y= (b/2) =30.36m =15.18m

Weight of the wing(w) =14047.832N Lift(L) =378666N

By assuming the wing as trapezoidal, then the analytic span wise lift distribution is given by ( ) Where, LT(y) is the trapezoidal wing planform lift distribution =tapper ratio= Ct/Cr ( ) [ ( )]

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Business Jet Designing

BY SCHRENKS APPROXIMATION
[ ( ) ( )]

ADDED FLAP LOADS.

Leading-edge and trailing-edge flaps enhance the lift over span wise extent where they are placed. The lift force is assumed to be uniform in the region of the flaps and to add to the local span wise lift distribution that is derived from the unflapped wing.

CONCENTRATED AND DISTRIBUTED WING WEIHGTS.

Other loads on the wing, besides the aerodynamic loads, are due to concentrated weights, such as wingmounted engines, weapons, fuel tanks etc., and due to distributed loads such as wing structure. Since the structure is being designed at this step, it is difficult to know precisely what final weight will be. Therefore, historic weight trends for different aircraft are used to make estimate at this stage of the design.For drawing the shear force and bending moment diagram the wing semi span is divided into 20 equal parts and the shear force and bending moment at each section due to lift and various weights are calculated and they are summed up to get the total shear force and the total bending moment. The load distribution using the spread sheet is as shown.

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DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS DUE TO LIFT IN THE WING

y(m) 0 0.759 1.518 2.277 3.036 3.795 4.554 5.313 6.072 6.831 7.59 8.349 9.108 9.867 10.626 11.385 12.144 12.903 13.662 14.421 15.18

y/(b/2) 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1

Lt(y)elip 15880.48 15860.62 15800.88 15700.81 15559.63 15376.21 15149.01 14876.04 14554.7 14181.72 13752.9 13262.82 12704.38 12068.12 11340.93 10503.95 9528.288 8365.562 6922.141 4958.679 0

Lt(y)tr 19188.51 18516.91 17845.31 17173.71 16502.12 15830.52 15158.92 14487.32 13815.73 13144.13 12472.53 11800.93 11129.33 10457.74 9786.139 9114.541 8442.943 7771.345 7099.748 6428.15 5756.552

L bar 17534.49 17188.76 16823.1 16437.26 16030.87 15603.36 15153.97 14681.68 14185.21 13662.93 13112.71 12531.87 11916.86 11262.93 10563.54 9809.246 8985.616 8068.454 7010.944 5693.414 2878.276

V lift 259135.5 241601 224412.2 207589.1 191151.9 175121 159517.6 144363.7 129682 115496.8 101833.9 88721.15 76189.27 64272.41 53009.49 42445.95 32636.7 23651.09 15582.63 8571.69 2878.276

m lft 1787434 1590750 1407375 1237046 1079486 934401.4 801484.5 680410.6 570838.6 472410 384747.9 307456 240116.7 182289 133506.2 93272.04 61055.57 36284.31 18333.13 6505.913 0

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DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS DUE TO FLAPS IN WING

y(m) 0 0.759 1.518 2.277 3.036 3.795 4.554 5.313 6.072 6.831 7.59 8.349 9.108 9.867 10.626 11.385 12.144 12.903 13.662 14.421 15.18

y/(b/2) 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1

L flap 37866.6 37866.6 37866.6 37866.6 37866.6 37866.6 37866.6 37866.6 37866.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

V flap 340799.4 302932.8 265066.2 227199.6 189333 151466.4 113599.8 75733.2 37866.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

M flap 1293334 1034667 804741 603555.7 431111.2 287407.5 172444.5 86222.25 28740.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS DUE TO FUEL IN WING

y(m) 0 0.759 1.518 2.277 3.036 3.795 4.554 5.313 6.072 6.831 7.59 8.349 9.108 9.867 10.626 11.385 12.144 12.903 13.662 14.421 15.18

y/(b/2) 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1

W fuel -5493.6 -5493.6 -5493.6 -5493.6 -5493.6 -5493.6 -5493.6 -5493.6 -5493.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

V fuel -49442.4 -43948.8 -38455.2 -32961.6 -27468 -21974.4 -16480.8 -10987.2 -5493.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

M fuel -187634 -150107 -116750 -87562.5 -62544.6 -41696.4 -25017.9 -12508.9 -4169.64 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Business Jet Designing

DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS DUE TO WING STRUCTURE AND ENGINE:

y(m) 0 0.759 1.518 2.277 3.036 3.795 4.554 5.313 6.072 6.831 7.59 8.349 9.108 9.867 10.626 11.385 12.144 12.903 13.662 14.421 15.18

y/(b/2) 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1

W structure -206.81 -198.848 -190.886 -182.923 -174.961 -166.999 -159.037 -151.075 -143.113 -135.15 -127.188 -119.226 -111.264 -103.302 -95.3394 -87.3772 -79.415 -71.4529 -63.4907 -55.5285 -47.5663

V structure -2670.95 -2464.14 -2265.29 -2074.41 -1891.48 -1716.52 -1549.52 -1390.49 -1239.41 -1096.3 -961.149 -833.961 -714.735 -603.472 -500.17 -404.831 -317.453 -238.038 -166.585 -103.095 -47.5663

M structure -26155.8 -23151 -20378.8 -17830.3 -15496.6 -13368.7 -11437.6 -9694.41 -8130.11 -6735.78 -5502.44 -4421.15 -3482.94 -2678.86 -1999.96 -1437.26 -981.83 -624.695 -356.902 -169.494 -53.5121

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TOTAL SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT IN THE WING

y(m) 0 0.759 1.518 2.277 3.036 3.795 4.554 5.313 6.072 6.831 7.59 8.349 9.108 9.867 10.626 11.385 12.144 12.903 13.662 14.421 15.18

y/(b/2) 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1

total V 547821.5 498120.9 448757.9 399752.7 351125.4 302896.5 255087.1 207719.2 160815.6 114400.5 100872.7 87887.19 75474.54 63668.94 52509.32 42041.12 32319.25 23413.05 15416.05 8468.596 2830.71

total M 2866978 2452159 2074987 1735209 1432556 1166744 937473.6 744429.6 587279.6 465674.2 379245.5 303034.9 236633.7 179610.1 131506.3 91834.78 60073.74 35659.61 17976.23 6336.419 -53.5121

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LIFT DISTRIBUTION (ELIPTICAL WING)

Leliptical VS y/(b/2)
18000 16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 y/(b/2) 0.8 1 1.2 Lt(y)elip

Leliptical

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LIFT DISTRIBUTION (TRAPEZOIDAL)

Ltrapezoidal VS y/(b/2)
25000

20000

15000 Ltrapezoidal

Lt(y)tr 10000

5000

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 y/(b/2) 0.8 1 1.2

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AVERAGE OF ELLIPTICAL AND TRAPEZOIDAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION

20000

Lbar VS y/(b/2)

18000

16000

14000

12000 L bar

10000

L bar

8000

6000

4000

2000

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 y/(b/2) 0.8 1 1.2

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SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM

SF VS y/(b/2)
3500000

3000000

2500000

2000000

SF

1500000

total M

1000000

500000

0 0 -500000 5 10 15 20 25

y/(b/2)

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BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

BM VS y/(b/2)
600000

500000

400000

BM

300000 total V

200000

100000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 y/(b/2)

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INFERENCE

Thus the distributions of various loads on the wing are found and the shear force and bending moment of each section is calculated and the values are shown in the table. The bending moment and shear force diagram are drawn using the values of shear force and bending moment found from the table and the shear force diagram and the bending moment diagram are as shown in the figure.

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Business Jet Designing

FUSELAGE LOAD DISTRIBUTION

The fuselage can be considered to be supported at the location of the Centre of lift of the main wing. The loads on the fuselage structure are then due to the shear force and bending moment about that point. The loads come from a variety of components, for example, the weights of payload, fuel, wing structure, tail structures, engines, fuselage structure, and tail control lift force. There is obviously some leeway in setting the locations of many of the above items. Their placement affects the static stability as well as the performance of the aircraft. Placing the centre of gravity too far forward of the Centre of lift can make an aircraft too stable require a too large of a control force from the horizontal tail to maintain a level pitching altitude. In this process, the shear force and moment for the summation of all loads or separately for the individual loads, with the total shear and moment being the sum of the individual shear and moment distributions. In either approach, it is essential to include the concentrated reaction load that occurs at the point of support, x=xCL. The fuselage structure can be considered as a simply supported beam and balanced at xCL. As with the wing, we wish to determine the resulting shear force and bending moments along the length of the fuselage. The procedure for this is the same as for the wing, namely, to divide the fuselage into discrete elements along its length. It is useful if one of the elements is at the x-location of xCL.

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DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS DUE TO FUEL AND PAYLOAD IN FUSELAGE

x 0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9 10.5 12 13.5 15 16.5 18 19.5 21 22.5 24 25.5 27 28.5 30

x/l 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1

w fuel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1428.57 -1428.57 -1428.57 -1428.57 -1428.57 -1428.57 -1428.57 0 0 0 0 0 0

v fuel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1428.58 2857.15 4285.72 5714.29 -2857.14 -1428.57 0 0 0 0 0 0

m fuel 15000.05 15000.05 15000.05 15000.05 15000.05 15000.05 15000.05 15000.05 15000.05 15000.05 12857.18 8571.45 2142.87 -6428.57 -2142.86 0 0 0 0 0 0

w pay 0 0 -272.73 -272.73 -272.73 -272.73 -272.73 -272.73 -272.73 -272.73 -272.73 -272.73 -272.73 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

v pay -0.03 -0.03 -0.03 272.7 545.43 818.16 1090.89 1363.62 1636.35 1909.08 2181.81 2454.54 2727.27 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

m pay 22499.64 22499.69 22499.73 22499.78 22090.73 21272.58 20045.34 18409.01 16363.58 13909.05 11045.43 7772.715 4090.905 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS DUE TO FUSELAGE STRUCTURAL WEIGHT AND ENGINE

x x/l w engine v engine m engine W structure 0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9 10.5 12 13.5 15 16.5 18 19.5 21 22.5 24 25.5 27 28.5 30 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -6000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -6000 -6000 -6000 -6000 -6000 -6000 0 0 -54000 -54000 -54000 -54000 -54000 -54000 -54000 -54000 -54000 -54000 -54000 -54000 -54000 -54000 -45000 -36000 -27000 -18000 -9000 0 0 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 -272.6 0 272.6 545.2 817.8 1090.4 1363 1635.6 1908.2 2180.8 2453.4 2726 2998.6 3271.2 -2180.8 -1908.2 -1635.6 -1363 -1090.4 -817.8 -545.2 -272.6 17173.8 17173.8 16764.9 15947.1 14720.4 13084.8 11040.3 8586.9 5724.6 2453.4 -1226.7 -5315.7 -9813.6 -14720.4 -11449.2 -8586.9 -6133.5 -4089 -2453.4 -1226.7 -408.9 v structure m structure

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LOAD DISTRIBUTION DUE TO STRUCTURAL WEIGHT OF WING AND TAIL:

x 0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9 10.5 12 13.5 15 16.5 18 19.5 21 22.5 24 25.5 27 28.5 30 x/l 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 w wing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -687.63 -687.63 -687.63 -687.63 -687.63 -687.63 -687.63 -687.63 -687.63 0 0 0 0 v wing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 687.67 1375.3 2062.93 2750.56 -2750.52 -2062.89 -1375.26 -687.63 0 0 0 0 m wing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1925.03 -5775.87 -11552.1 -19253.6 -11552.2 -5776.09 -1925.36 0 0 0 0 w tail 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -255.32 -255.32 -255.32 -255.32 -255.32 v tail 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1276.6 -1276.6 -1276.6 -1276.6 -1021.28 -765.96 -510.64 -255.32 m tail -21446.9 -21446.9 -21446.9 -21446.9 -21446.9 -21446.9 -21446.9 -21446.9 -21446.9 -21446.9 -21446.9 -21446.9 -21446.9 -21446.9 -17872.4 -14297.9 -10723.4 -7148.96 -4289.38 -2144.69 -714.896

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LOAD DISTRIBUTION DUE TO TAIL LIFT

x 0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9 10.5 12 13.5 15 16.5 18 19.5 21 22.5 24 25.5 27 28.5 30 x/l 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 l tail 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2550 0 0 vl tail 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2550 -2550 -2550 -2550 -2550 -2550 0 0 ml tail -42840 -42840 -42840 -42840 -42840 -42840 -42840 -42840 -42840 -42840 -42840 -42840 -42840 -42840 -35700 -28560 -21420 -14280 -7140 0 0

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TOTAL SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

x 0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9 10.5 12 13.5 15 16.5 18 19.5 21 22.5 24 25.5 27 28.5 30 x/l 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 total v -0.03 272.57 545.17 1090.5 1635.83 2181.16 2726.49 3271.82 3817.15 6478.73 9140.26 11801.79 14463.32 -17615.1 -15226.3 -12837.5 -11877.2 -10661.7 -10133.8 -1055.84 -527.92 total m -63613.4 -63613.4 -64022.2 -64840 -66475.7 -68929.5 -72201.2 -76290.9 -81198.7 -86924.4 -97536 -113034 -133419 -158689 -123717 -93220.9 -67202.3 -43518 -22882.8 -3371.39 -1123.8

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SHEARFORCE DIAGRAM

SFD
20000

15000

10000

5000

0 0 0.25 0.85 0.1 0.15 0.3 0.75 0.2 0.6 0.65 0.8 0.9 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.05 0.95 0.45 0.35 0.55 1

total v

-5000

-10000

-15000

-20000

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BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

BMD
0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 -20000 -40000 -60000 -80000 total m -100000 -120000 -140000 -160000 -180000

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INFERENCE
Thus the distribution of various loads on the fuselage and the various loads at various sections in the fuselage are shown in the table and the shear force and bending moment at various sections in the fuselage are calculated and the shear force diagram and the bending moment diagram are drawn and they are as shown in the figures.

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STATIC MARGIN

The static margin gives a measure of the static stability of the aircraft. For finding static margin first the centre of gravity has to be calculated. The centre of gravity is calculated by taking moment about various forces acting on the fuselage about the nose of the aircraft. By taking the moment of various forces about the nose the centre of gravity position of the aircraft from the nose in terms of x/L is obtained as CG position = 0.3853 The static margin is given by

Hn = hn-h
Where

hn is the aerodynamic centre h is the centre of gravity position

Therefore on substituting the values we get Static margin = 0.2147/c Where c is the mean aerodynamic chord = 1.74005m Static margin = 0.1234

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Business Jet Designing

INFERENCE:
Thus from the load distribution on the fuselage the centre of gravity position is found out and using the formula of the static margin the static margin is also calculated and since the centre of gravity position is forward of the aerodynamic centre the aircraft is statically stable.

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STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
FUNCTION OF THE STRUCTURE:
The primary functions of an aircrafts structure can be basically broken down into the following: To transmit and resist applied loads. To provide and maintain aerodynamic shape. To protect its crew, passenger, payload, systems, etc. For the vast majority of aircraft, this leads to use of a semi-monocoque design (i.e. a thin, stressed outer shell with additional stiffening members) for the wing, fuselage & empennage. These notes will discuss the structural layout possibilities for each of these main areas, i.e. wing, fuselage & empennage.

WING STRUCTURE:
The specific structural roles of the wing are: To transmit: Wing lift to the root via the main spanwise beam. Inertial loads from the powerplants, undercarriage, etc. to the main beam. Aerodynamic load generated on the aerofoil, control surfaces & flaps to the main beam. To react against: Landing loads at attachment points. Loads from pylons/stores. Wing drag and thrust loads. To provide: Fuel tank space. Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and aeroelastic requirements. To fulfill these specific roles, a wing structural layout will conventionally comprise: Span wise members (known as spars or booms). Chord wise members (ribs). A covering skin. Stringers. 37

Business Jet Designing

TYPICAL WING STRUCTURAL LAYOUT:

Basic functions of wing structural members:
The functions of each of these members may be considered independently as. Spars Form the main span-wise beam. Transmit bending and torsional members. Produce a closed-cell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear & tension loads. o o Skin To form impermeable aerodynamic surface. Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs & stringers. Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs). React axial bending loads (with stringers). Webs- resist shear & torsional loads and help to stabilize the skin. Flanges- resist the compressive loads caused by wing loading.

Stringers
Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections. React axial bending loads. Ribs Maintain the aerodynamic shape. Act along with the skin to resist the disturbed aerodynamic pressure loads. Distribute concentrated loads into the structure & re-distribute around any discontinuities (e.g. undercarriage wells, access panels, fuel tanks, etc.). Increase the column buckling strength of the stringers through end restraint. Increase the skin panel buckling strength.

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SPARS
These usually comprise thin aluminium alloy webs and flanges, sometimes with separate vertical stiffeners riveted on to the webs.

Types of spars:
In the case of a two or three spar box beam layout, the front spar should be located as far forward as possible to maximize the wing box size, though this is subject to there being: Adequate wing depth for reacting vertical shear loads. Adequate nose space for LE devices, de-icing equipment, etc. This generally results in the front spar being located at 12% to 18% of the chord length. For a single spar D-nose layout, the spar will usually located at the maximum thickness position of the aerofoil section (typically between 30% & 40% along the chord length). For the standard box beam layout, the rear spar will be located as for aft as possible,once again to maximize the wing box size, but positioning will be limited by various space requirements for flaps , control surfaces , spoilers etc. This usually results in a location somewhere between about 55%and 70% of the chord length. If any intermediate spars are used, they would tend to be spaced uniformly unless there are specific pick-up point requirements.

RIBS
For a typical two spar layout, the ribs are usually formed in three parts from sheet metal by the use of presses &dies. Flanges are incorporated around the edges so that they can be riveted to the skin and the spar webs. Cut-out are necessary around the edges to allow for the stringers to pass through. Lightening holes are usually cut into the rib bodies to reduce the rib weight and also to allow for the passage of control runs, fuel, electrics, etc. Rib bulkheads do not include any lightening holes and are used at fuel tank ends, wing crank locations and attachment support areas. The rib should be ideally spaced to ensure adequate overall buckling support to spar flanges. In reality , however, their positioning is also influenced by: Facilitating attachment points for control surfaces, flaps, slats, spoiler hinges, power plants, stores, undercarriage attachment etc. 39

Business Jet Designing Positioning of fuel tank ends, requiring closing ribs. A structural need to avoid local shear or compression buckling; there are several different possibilities regarding the alignment of the ribs on swept-wing aircraft is a hybrid design in which one or more inner ribs are aligned with the main axis while the remainders are aligned perpendicularly to the rear spar and usually the preferred option but presents several structural problems in the root region also Gives good torsional stiffness characteristics but results in heavy ribs and complex connections.

SKIN
The skin tends to be riveted to the rib flanges and stringers, using countersunk rivets to reduce drag. It is usually pre-formed at the leading edges, where the curvature is large due to aerodynamic considerations.

FUSELAGE STRUCTURE
The fundamental purpose of the fuselage structure is to provide an envelope to support the payload, crew, equipment, systems and (possibly) the powerplant. Furthermore, it must react against the in-flight manoeuvre, pressurisation and gust loads; also the landing gear and possibily any powerplant loads. Finally, it must be able to transmit control and trimming loads from the stability and control surfaces throughout the rest of the structure. Fuselage Layout Concepts There are two main categories of layout concept in common use; mass boom and longeron layout semi-monocoque layout Mass Boom & Longeron layout This is fundamentally very similar to the mass-boom wing-box concept discussed in previous section. It is used when the overall structural loading is relatively low or when there are extensive cutouts in the shell. The concept comprises four or more continuous heavy booms (longeron), reacting against any direct stresses caused by applied vertical and lateral bending loads. Frames or solid section 40

Business Jet Designing bulkheads are used at positions where there are distinct direction changes and possibly elsewhere along the lengths of the longeron members. The outer shell helps to support the longerons against the applied compression loads and also helps to support the longerons against the applied compression loads and also helps in the shear carrying. Floors are needed where there are substantial cut-outs and the skin is stabilized against buckling by the use of frames and bulkheads. Semi Monocoque Layout This is the most common layout, especially for transport types of aircraft, with a relatively small number and size of cut-outs in use. The skin carries most of the loading with the skin thickness determined by pressurization, shear loading & fatigue considerations. Longitudinal stringers provide skin stabilisation and also contribute to the overall load carrying capacity. Increased stringer cross-section sizes and skin thicknesses are often used around edges of cut-outs. Less integral machining is possible than on an equivalent wing structure.

Frames are used to stabilize the resultant skin-stringer elements and also to transmit shear loads in the structure. They may also help to react against any pressurization loads present. They are usually manufactured as pressings with reinforced edges. Their spacing (pitch) is usually determined by damage tolerance considerations, I.e. crack-stopping requirements.

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TENSILE LOADING:
In the semi-monocoque design, the sheet metal covering is designed to withstand the tensile loads. With the fuselage, Supported at the centre of lift for a positive load factor, the tensile loads are on the top surface. For a negative load factor they would be on the bottom surface. In most cases, the positive load factor is the larger of the two, so that it will dictate the structural design. The tensile force acting on the fuselage skin is due to the moment at XCL. The tensile stress is then

Where R is the half height of the fuselage at XCL and I is the bending moment of inertia. In the case of a circular cross-section fuselage, R is the radius of the fuselage; I is ( )

Where r=R t; and t is the thickness of the sheet metal skin since t <<R, ( Therefore, )

The stress in the skin must be less than the ultimate tensile stress for the material divided by the design load factor, or

From this the minimum skin thickness is

In many cases, a more desirable cross section shape for the fuselage is fuselage is elliptic in order to give a higher ceiling height. For an elliptic cross section fuselage, where the major axis is the vertical height of the fuselage, the bending moment of inertia about the minor axis (due to MXCL) is ( ) 42

Business Jet Designing Where A is the major axis radius, B is the minor axis radius, and C= A-t and D=B t where again t is the fuselage skin thickness For t<<R, ( In this case the minimum skin thickness is ( ) )

In either case of a circular or elliptic cross section fuselage, Eq. [10.47 or 10.50] Provides values for the minimum skin thickness needed to withstand the tensile load produced by the maximum bending moment. The required thickness depends on the material property; values for materials typically used are resented in the next section.

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COMPRESSIVE LOADING
In the semi-monocoque design the longerons are designed to withstand the compressive loads. With the fuselage supported at the center of lift for a positive load factor, the compressive loads are on the lower side for negative load factor they are on the upper side .Again in most cases; the positive load factor is the larger of the two and dictates the structural design. Structural failure under compression for the longerons usually occurs due to buckling Therefore, this will set the structural design limit. The criterion for buckling comes from the Euler column formula, given as

Where F is the critical column load to produce buckling, L is the unsupported length and C is a factor that depends on how the column is fixed at its ends. For pinned ends C=1, whereas C=4, for fixed ends. The longerons are often supported by comparatively flexible ribs or bulkheads, which are free to twist or bend. Thus a value of C=1 is appropriate. If the bulkheads are rigid enough to provide restraint to the longerons, a value of C = 1.5 can be used Using this, the critical stress is ( ) Where the radius of gyration is given as

With I being the bending moment of inertia and A being the cross section area of the column In order to prevent a structural failure in the longerons the actual compressive stress must be less than the buckling stress divided by the design load factor, namely,

<

E/ndesign

The next step is then to determine the actual compressive stress in the longerons. This requires setting the configuration of longerons around the fuselage. An example arrangement of longerons around a circular cross section fuselage of radius, R is shown in Figure 10.13 these consist of a series of 44

Business Jet Designing circular cross-section fuselage of elements that are equal spaced in a symmetric pattern about the vertical centerline of the fuselage. The angular distance between longrons is 90 /N where N is the number of longerons in a 90 arc segment of the fuselage. In the example drawn in figure 10.13 the angular distance is 22.5 Corresponding to N=4 The longerons in the lower half Plan of the fuselage are under compression due to the bending moment, M for a positive load factor. For a positive load factor for the design, the maximum stress is MY MAX /I where Y MAX corresponds to the largest vertical distance of a longeron from the center of bending, which for this shape is the horizontal centreline of the fuselage.

Figure :Sample cross sectional view of longeron placement around fuselage perimeter. By definition the bending moment of inertia is For discrete longerons of equal cross section area I=At(y2) For the general arrangement shown in Figure 10.7 For N=4 and using symmetry I= 4AtR2 [COS2 (90o/4) + COS2 (2.90o/4) + COS2 (3.90o/4) + COS2 (4.90o/4) ]

Also , Ymax=Rcos(90o/4)=Rcos(22.5), so that the maximum stress in a longeron is =Mcos(22.5)/( 4AtR [ COS2 (22.5) + COS2 (45) + COS2 (67.5) + ])

In order that the longeron not buckle due to this stress 45

Business Jet Designing ndesign

2 Max<(C E)/(L/

)2

Substituting for from after evaluating the cosine terms and grouping the pre determined terms on the right- hand side, we obtain

Where I is the bending moment of inertia for the longerons cross section shape. Equation illustrates some of the design decisions that need to be made with regards to the longerons. Ultimately, the maximum unsupported length L, needs to be decided it depends on the material used for the longerons through the modulus of electricity cross section area and shape through, l t the cross section shape would be one that has large bending moment of inertia. Typical shapes are either hollow circular or rectangular tubes, or open S- Shaped beams. The material should be one that has a large strength to weight ratio. Example of these will be given in the next section The final value of L will become the spacing between bulkheads in the bulkheads in the fuselage. If the spacing of bulkheads were determined due to other design decisions, that value of L would be used and the cross section properties of the longerons that were needed to prevent buckling would then be determined.

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MATERIAL SELECTION
ALUMINIUM Aluminum is the most widely used material in aircraft structures. Modern commercial transports such as the Boeing 747 use aluminum for about 80% of the structure. Aluminum is readily formed and machined, has reasonable cost, is corrosion resistant, and has an excellent strength-to-weight ratio. In its pure aluminum are used, the most common being aluminium 2024, an alloy consisting of 93.5% aluminum, 4.4% copper, 1.5% manganese, and 0.6% magnesium. This alloy is also called duralumin. Density/Specific Gravity (g.cm-3 at 20C) 2.70 Melting Point (C) 660 Specific heat at 100 C, cal.g-1K-1 (Jkg-1K-1) 0.2241 (938) Latent heat of fusion, cal.g-1 (kJ.kg-1) 94.7 (397.0) Electrical conductivity at 20C (% of international annealed copper standard) 64.94 Thermal conductivity (cal.sec-1cm-1K-1) 0.5 Thermal emissivity at 100F (%) 3.0 Reflectivity for light, tungsten filament (%) 90.0 STEEL For a typical commercial transport, steel makes up to 17% of the structure. It is used in those areas requiring very high strength, such as wing attachment fittings, L/G, engine fittings and flap tracks. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon; typical steel alloys have about 1% carbon. Stainless steel is an alloy of steel & chromium that has good corrosion-resistant properties.

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Business Jet Designing TITANIUM Titanium has a better strength-to-weight ratio than aluminium and retains its strength at higher temperatures. However, it is hard to form and machine and is expensive, costing about 5 to 10 times more than aluminium. But some supersonic aircraft have to use titanium because of the high skin temperatures due to aerodynamic heating. The SR-71 aircraft is such a case. This airplane cruises at mach 3 and above; hence, it was the 1st airplane to make extensive use of titanium. Today, titanium is still a major consideration in the decision about the design mach number of a 2nd generation supersonic transport. HIGH TEMPERATURE NICKEL ALLOYS We note that hypersonic airplanes required advanced, high- temperature materials to withstand the high rates of aerodynamic heating at hypersonic speeds. Some nickel-based alloys are capable of withstanding the temperatures associated with moderate hypersonic speeds. The X-15, is such a case. This aircraft was designed to fly as fast as mach 7; hence, its structure made extensive use of inconel, a nickel based alloy.

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Business Jet Designing The criterion commonly used in the selection of structural materials for aircraft is that they have a minimum weight. Achieving this generally requires a synergy between the structural design and the martial selection. Other factors that can also enter that can also enter into the selection of materials are resistance to corrosion fatigue behaviour creep characteristics, and machining fabrication ability. The two types of loading that were analyzed with regards to the fuselage were pure tension (for the skin) and pure compression (for the longerons). In addition, the main wing spar will experience pure bending expressions that relate applied loads F, in these cases to the induced stress are
t=

(F/A),

c=

(2EI/AL2), (My/I),

b=

for the tensile, compressive, and bending stresses, respectively. The weight of a structural member can be expressed in terms of the density, and volume = Lbt. Therefore, substituting for the areas in the stress equations and solving for the respective weights, Wt = (FL )/
t

Wc = (L2b /) (12 c/E) (1/2) And Wb = L (12Mb/ b) (1/2) For the same applied loads, Eqs. allow comparisons to be made between the weights of materials with different ultimate stress limits. For example, for tensile loading, [W1/W2] t= ( For compressive loading, [W1/W2] c= ( 1/ 2)(E2/E1)(1/3) For bending,
1 ut1/ 2 ut2)

[W1/W2] b= ( 1/ 2)(

ut1/ ut2)

(1/2)

Table shows values of the weight ratios from Eqns, for different materials using as a reference (material subscript 2) the properties of aluminium alloy 2024-T3. The rows of the table are listed in the order of highest to lowest ultimate stress. Analyzing the materials in Table on the basis of minimizing weight, for 49

Business Jet Designing bending and compressive buckling, the lower density materials (bottom three) are better than the aluminium alloys. For tensile loading, there is not a significant difference between the materials listed. Therefore, for structures such as the fuselage skin, which are designed on the basis of tensile loading, the selection of the material can be made to include other aspects such as corrosion resistance, finish, cost, etc. For structural elements that are designed to resist buckling and bending, it would appear that a magnesium alloy would be preferable. However, again other considerations may be important, such as that magnesium has a greater tendency to corrode compared to an aluminium alloy. Although stainless steel has the highest ultimate stress and modulus of elasticity, in all aspects of loading, it has a significant weight penalty. However, in applications where elements are exposed to high temperatures, or where corrosion is a high concern, stainless steal may be the best material of choice. Fiber reinforced plastics consists of high strength fibers that are bonded together with resins and built up in layers to form an integral structure. Early examples consisted of glass fibers bonded with polyester resin. Currently, high modulus fibers such as boron, silicon carbide, graphite, and beryllium are used along with new resins such as cycloaliphatic epoxies and polymer resins. The new fibers and resins can be combined in unidirectional pre-impregnated form that allows the design of structures that are expressly tailored to specify load arrangements and applications. Another means of reducing the structure weight is through the use of honeycomb sandwich elements. In this case, a light thick weight core of honeycomb material is bonded between two thin facing layers of high tensile material. In such an arrangement, the resting bending moment is M=
f tf tc

where is the stress of facing layers, with thickness tf, and tc is the thickness of the core material, with tf << tc. This is a particularly good method of construction for the vertical and horizontal stabilizers because the internal volume is not needed for fuel storage.

To see the impact of the weight savings, if the facing material is 2024-T3 aluminium alloy from the table and the density of the facing material is approximately 10 times less than that, the weight fraction is

Wsandwich/Wsoild=0.37
In this case, the honeycomb sandwich structure is only 37 percent of the weight of the equivalent solid structure. 50

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CONCLUSION

By the above sub steps and the procedure the design of a cargo aircraft is carried over. The load factor calculations, V-n diagram, shear force calculations bending moment calculations, shear force diagram, bending moment diagram, cg calculation, static margin calculation and the internal structure design are done successfully. There may be some compromise in the design but they wont create much difference in the ideals. The V-n diagram shows the stall area and the critical and stalling velocity and various performance characteristics. The shear force diagram and bending moment diagram shows the variation of the shear force and bending moment on the wing and the fuselage. From the calculation of the centre of gravity position it is clear that the centre of gravity is a head of the aerodynamic centre which denotes that the aircraft is statically stable.

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REFERENCES

Aircraft Design : A Conceptual Approach , by Daniel P. Raymer Aircraft Design , by Thomas C. Corke www.wikipedia.com www.google.com

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