Light energy Electricity

It is generated due to principle of

photoelectric effect


Lets look at the process in some
further detail:
Photovoltaic energy is the direct
conversion of light into electricity at
the atomic level.


Some materials exhibit a
property known as the
photoelectric effect that causes
them to absorb photons of light
and release electrons.

When these free electrons are
captured, an electric current
results that can be used as
electricity.

Metal
Semi-
conductor
Deciding factor is capacity of material to excite electron
Option of materials
Electron is excited (by photon) from filled (valence band) to empty conduction
band and then it participate in electricity conduction

E
g
Metal Semiconductor Insulator
E
g
Metal
Bandgap is
overlapping
Electric field will
not be created in
metals
Semi-
conductor
Bandgap is
significant
Best material
and hence used
in manufacturing
n-type Si
E
c

E
v

E
g

E
d

T = 0K T > 50K
E
d

e
--

Si
Sb
Donation of electrons from donor level to the conduction band
Group V donor atom
eg, P, As or Sb) in the
covalent bonding model
of a Si crystal
p-type Si
E
c

E
v

E
g

E
a

T = 0K T ~ 50K
E
a

h
+
Si
Al
Group III acceptor atom (e.g. B or Al)
in the covalent bonding model of a Si
crystal
Acceptance of a valence band electrons by an acceptor level and the
resulting creation of holes
Elemental semiconductors: Si, Ge
Compound semiconductors: GaAs, InP
Ternary semiconductors: AlGaAs, HgCdTe
Quaternary semiconductors: InGaAsP, InGaAlP
Elemental IV
Compounds
Binary III-V Binary II-VI
Si SiGe AlP CdTe
Ge SiC GaAs CdS
As InP ZnS
GaP CdSe
Video
Green
photon
Blue photon
Valence band
Conduction band
Band gap, Eg
Red
photon
Wavelength ()

red

green
blue
<
Recollect energy
equation
/ hc E =
12/24/2012 IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki
Recombination is reverse
process of generation, it must
be avoided in solar cells
Recombination can occur through several mechanism, trap-
assisted recombination (recombination via defects and
impurities), is most common in solar cells.
represents loss of
generated carriers

After recombination
There are three main
processes which cause
recombination of excess
carriers, shown below
Band to band recombination
Auger recombination
Trap assisted recombination
Types of recombination
Trap-assisted recombination
(recombination via defects
and impurities), is most
common in solar cells.
Electric field
is created
Electrons are transferred
through external load
Solar cells are simply P-N junctions in which hole/electron
pairs are created from photons.
The holes/electrons diffuse into the junction, and are
immediately swept to the other side.
The net charge gain is seen outside the cell as current and
voltage, or power.

L
kT qV
total
I e I I = ) 1 (
/
0
Where I
L
is photo current
(constant)
I
L
= I
sc
Shows Current (I) and Voltage (V) relation
Graphical representation

Short-Circuit Current (I
sc
)

L
kT qV
total
I e I I = ) 1 (
/
0
At V=0 I
total
= -I
L
= I
sc
I
sc
when the solar
cell is short
circuited
V
sc
= 0
largest
current
which
may be
drawn
from the
solar cell
Open Circuit Voltage: V
oc

L
kT qV
total
I e I I = ) 1 (
/
0
by setting I
total
= 0
) 1 ln(
0
+ =
I
I
q
kT
V
L
oc
I
oc
=0

V
OC
when the solar cell
is open circuit
Maximum voltage that
may be obtained from
the solar cell
Maximum power: P
m
I
sc

V
m

I
m

P
m

X
V
oc
P
m
= I
m
x V
m
Remember we get DC power from a
solar cell !!
Fill Factor: FF
I
sc

I
V
m

I
m

V
oc
Ideal diode curve
P
m

Graphically, the FF is a measure of the "squareness" of the solar cell
sc oc
m m
I V
I V
cell ideal from power Max
cell real from power Max
FF = =
Efficiency:
in
m m
P
I V
Intensity light Incident
Power Cell Max
=
=
q
q
.
I
sc

I
V
m

I
m

P
m

X
V
oc
in
sc oc
P
FF I V
= q
Efficiency
Uses
To compare
solar cells
To estimate
actual output
Depends
on
Intensity
Temperature
Efficiency depends on material of PV
Highest achieved efficiency of solar cell is 43% !!!
Where is the
energy going?
Inherent Loses in
Photovoltaic Cells :
photovoltaic cell has an open circuit voltage of 0.6V
and a short circuit current of 250A/m2 at a cell
temperature of 40C. Calculate the voltage and
current density that maximizes the power of the cell.
What would be the maximum power output per unit
cell area ?

What would be the corresponding maximum power
output per unit cell area and the corresponding
conversion efficiency if the global solar radiation
incident on the cell is 850 W/m
2
? Calculate the cell
area required for an output of 36 W
Ans: 123 W/m
2
1
st
Generation
silicon wafer-
based
photovoltaic,

Single-crystalline
and multi-
crystalline wafers
2
nd
Generation
Thin-film deposits
of semiconductors

amorphous silicon,
cadmium telluride,
copper indium
gallium diselenide
or copper indium
sulfide
3
rd
Generation
Multi-junction solar
cells
Dyesensitized
nanocrystalline
Gratzel solar cells
Organic polymer-
based photovoltaic
Thermo
photovoltaic solar
cells.
Single-crystal wafer cells tend to be
expensive, and because they are cut
from cylindrical ingots, do not
completely cover a square solar cell
module without a substantial waste of
refined silicon.

Hence most c-Si panels have
uncovered gaps at the four corners of
the cells.

Dominates commercial market

Expensive due to high quality of
Silicon required
Polycrystalline thin-film cells are made of
many tiny crystalline grains of
semiconductor materials.

This means that they absorb slightly less
solar energy and produce slightly less
electricity per square metre.

On the plus side, the process of creating the
silicon for a polycrystalline cell is much
simpler, so these cells are generally cheaper
per square metre.

Light direction changes and be reflected,
and thus travels a greater distance within the
cell then the cell thickness.


The term amorphous commonly
applied to non-crystalline
materials prepared by deposition
from gases.

Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the
non-crystalline allotropic form
of silicon

Can be deposited on a wide range
of substrates, including flexible,
curved, and roll-away types


Copper Indium Diselenide consist of
CuInSe
2

Very good light absorber

Hetero-junction with cadmium sulfide
(CdS) has been found to be more stable
and efficient.
Research and
development going on
to improve efficiency
and utility of Solar Cells
Multi-junction solar cells or tandem
cells are solar cells containing
several p-n junctions

Each junction is tuned to a
different Wavelength of light, reducing
one of the largest inherent sources of
losses, and thereby increasing
efficiency.

Traditional multi-junction cells have a
maximum efficiency of 43% at lab
scale
A dye-sensitized solar cell is a low-
cost solar cell belonging to the group of
thin film solar cells.

It is based on a semiconductor formed
between a photo-sensitized anode and
an electrolyte, a photoelectrochemical
system.

it is simple to make using conventional
roll-printing techniques, is semi-flexible
and semi-transparent which offers a
variety of uses not applicable to glass-
based systems, and most of the
materials used are low-cost.

A polymer solar cell is a type of
flexible solar cell made with polymers, large
molecules with repeating structural units,
that produce electricity from sunlight by
the photovoltaic effect.

Polymer solar cells include organic solar
cells(also called "plastic solar cells").

They are one type of thin film solar cell,
others include the currently more stable
amorphous silicon solar cell.

Polymer solar cell technology is relatively
new and is currently being very actively
researched by universities, national
laboratories, and companies around the
world.
Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar
collectors, sometimes known
as hybrid PV/T systems or PVT, are
systems that convert solar
radiation into thermal and electrical
energy.

These systems combine
a photovoltaic cell, which
converts electromagnetic
radiation (photons) into electricity, with
a solar thermal collector, which
captures the remaining energy and
removes waste heat from the PV
module.
Solar cells are connected electrically in
series and/or parallel circuits to produce
higher voltages, currents and power levels.
A number of solar cells electrically
connected to each other and mounted in a
support structure or frame is called a
photovoltaic module.

Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV
modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-
installable unit.
0.00
0.40
0.80
1.20
1.60
2.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
0.00
0.40
0.80
1.20
1.60
2.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)

Series
connection
adds the
voltage,
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)

Parallel
connection
adds the
currents

1. Photovoltaic modules were designed for
charging batteries of 12 V
2. One PV module contains 36 c-Si solar cells
3. Commercial Si solar cells generally have an V
oc
= 0.55 V at 25
o
C.
4. 36 cells in series , 36* 0.55 = 20 V output.
5. V
oc
~ 1.1 V
m
The voltage at maximum power point
would be about 20/1.1=18 V.
I
sc

I
V
m

I
m

P
m

X
V
oc
6. Loss due to temperature rise
Voltage of a solar cell decreases by about 2.3 mV/
o
C rise in temperature
the module temperature under sunlight is in the range of 50 to 80
o
C
(for T ambient is 30 to 40
o
C)
7. Thus the voltage from each cell at 70
o
C and ambient temperature of 35
o
C would
drop by 0.08 V.
This will result in about 2.9 V drop in module voltage.
8. Thus at operating conditions the output voltage from a module would be in the
range of 14 to 16 V (~15 V)
9. Wattage of the modules depends on the current generating capacity & voltage
capacity of the module.
The current from a module is linearly proportional to its size (but voltage is
independent of size)
Current size of Si solar cells are of 12.5 x 12.5 cm
2
and 15 x 15 cm
2
.
These can be like 1. Pseudo square mono-crystalline cells
2. Truly square multi-crystalline cells.
Current generating capacity of Si cells is about 30 mA/cm
2
at 1000 W/m
2

A cell of 15x15 cm
2
will generate about 6.75 A current.
10. 36 solar cell module will produce power of about 15 x 6.75~100 W
p
.
p represents peak power output under standard test conditions (STC).
Commercially PV modules are available 100 - 300 W
p
power rating.
Wattage of modules
The cells should also be protected from dust, rain, mechanical shock etc. So the
PV modules should be package by using
1. Glass at the front side
- Low iron content, toughened and
textured Glass
- Higher transmitivity (over 90%)

2. Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
for encapsulation
- high electrical resistivity (10
14
-cm)
- very low water absorption ratio
- good optical transmission
6. Outer frame (Al)
Components of Si wafer based PV module.
5. Rear layer (Tedlar white colour)
- back reflection of light
3. Solar Cell
4. Lower encapsulate layer
Video
STC (Standard Test Conditions)
- Irradiation: 1000 W/m
2
,
- AM1.5G global solar radiation
- Cell or module temperature: 25
o
C
- Wind speed: 1 m/s.
PV modules are rated in terms of their peak power (W
p
) output under Standard
Test Conditions (STC).
SOC (Standard Operating Conditions )
- for more realistic figure for the
possible power output from a PV
module
NOC (Nominal Operating Conditions)
- Irradiation: 800 W/m
2
,
- Ambient temperature: 20
o
C
- Wind speed: 1 m/s
- Mounting: open back side

0
1
2
3
4
5
0 5 10 15 20 25
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
0
20
40
60
80
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
a
t
t
)
STC

SOC
NOC








Peak power
point

Effect of different test conditions on the
I-V curve and peak power of a PV module.
Cells electrical characteristics
Manufacturer specify Physical, Electrical, Environmental parameters
Nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT)
It is the temperature reached by a cell in open circuited module under NOC
conditions.
It is used to give more realistic cell temperature of the module under
operating conditions.
NOCT lies usually between 42 to 50
o
C
in amb
P
NOCT
T T *
8 . 0
20
mod
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
Module Temperature (T
mod
)
Where T
amb
- ambient temperature, P
in
is the solar irradiation in kW/m
2

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 5 10 15 20 25
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
0
20
40
60
80
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)
Current

Power

75 W



I-V curve of a 75 Wp module
The power output increase as
the module voltage increases

- it reaches to a peak
(called the peak power )

- and it drops as the
voltage approaches to the
open circuit voltage
The I-V and power curve of a 75 W
p
module
The output power of a solar PV modules also depends on the temperature at which
module is operating
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0 5 10 15 20 25
Voltage in volts
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

i
n

a
m
p
s
0
o
C
25
o
C
50
o
C
75
o
C
The effect of temperature on the I-V curve of
solar PV module.
The current increase with temperature due to decrease in the band gap of Si.
The increased cell
temperature results
decrease in the open
circuit voltage due to
increase in reverse
saturation current.
Peak power decreases
with increase in module
temperature
The current produced by a PV module is linear function of the radiation intensity
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 5 10 15 20 25
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
1000 W/m
2

800 W/m
2

600 W/m
2

400 W/m
2

200 W/m
2











75W

59.5W

44W

28.7W

13.5W

The power of a module decreases almost linearly with the decrease in
intensity of solar radiation
Solar irradiation available
throughout the day is varying.
Voltage of a module is
logarithmic function of the
radiation intensity, almost
constant.
Power output changes as
radiation changes
I-V curves and power variation of a 75 W
p
solar PV module
at 25
o
C as a function of variation in solar radiation intensity.
Dotted line shows the maximum power point line.
A photovoltaic system for supplying drinking water is installed in a
village in Rajasthan as a part of the National Drinking water Mission.
The water is pumped from a bore well, from depth of 48m. The solar
cells are made from single crystal silicon and the array consists of
24 modules having following specifications
Module Size 119.1 cm x 53.3 cm
Module weight 7.5 Kg
Cell Size 12.5 cm x 12.5 cm
Number of cells 36
Nominal Output 80 W
Nominal Voltage 12V
Maximum Voltage 17 V
Open Circuit Voltage 21.2 V
Short Circuit Current 4.9 A
Conversion Efficincy 12.5 %
It is given that the inverter efficiency is 85% and the
pump motor set efficiency is 45%. Calculate the water
discharge rate at noon when the global radiation incident
on the array is 945 W/m
2.

Answer
Power output from array = Incident flux x cell area x conversion
efficiency
= 945 x ( 24x0.125x0.125x36) x 0.125
= 1594.7
Power available for lifting water = 1594.6 x 0.85x0.45
= 610 W
Taking the density of water to be 996 kg/m
3
, the water discharge rate
= 610 /( 48 x 996x 9.81) = 0.0013005 m
3
/s = 4682 litres/ h
Photovoltaic effect

Working P-N junction

Types of solar cells

Characteristics of solar cells


ANY QUESTIONS