Expansion of Sugarcane Ethanol Production in Brazil: Environmental and Social Challenges Author(s): Luiz A.

Martinelli and Solange Filoso Source: Ecological Applications, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Jun., 2008), pp. 885-898 Published by: Ecological Society of America Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40062197 . Accessed: 30/05/2013 12:55
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Ecological Society of America is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Ecological Applications.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

18(4), 2008, pp. 885-898 EcologicalApplications, 2008 by the Ecological Societyof America

EXPANSION OF SUGARCANE ETHANOL PRODUCTION IN BRAZIL: ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL CHALLENGES

Luiz A. Martinelli1'3 and Solange Filoso2 lCENA-USP, Av. Centendrio 303, 13416-000, Piracicaba-SP,Brazil 2 Science, University of MarylandCenter for Environmental ChesapeakeBiologicalLaboratory, P.O. Box 38, Solomons, 20688 USA Maryland

environmental ethanol;humansocial cost; riparian degradation; Key words: biofuel;deforestation; forest;Saccharum;Sao Paulo, Brazil; sugarcane. Introduction

have Abstract. Several geopoliticalfactors, aggravatedby worriesof global warming, of renewable worldwide forthe past few the searchforand production been fueling energy is likely to benefit thesugarcane ethanolindustry in energy years.Such demandforrenewable balance and relatively ethanolhas a positive low Brazil,not onlybecause sugarcane energetic costs,but also because Brazilianethanolhas been successfully producedand used production and social impacts as biofuel in the countrysince the 1970s. However, environmental obstaclesto sustainable in Brazil can become important associatedwithethanolproduction biofuel production worldwide. Atmosphericpollution from burning of sugarcane for and the exploitation of cane cutters harvesting, degradationof soils and aquatic systems, fromthe Braziliangovernment and attention are among the issues that deserveimmediate cultivated for The expansionof sugarcane societies. international cropsto theareas presently an environmental threat,because it may increase deforestation soybeans also represent fromsoybeancrops in the Amazon region.In thispaper,we discussenvironmental pressure in Brazilforethanolproduction, and we and social issueslinkedto theexpansionof sugarcane establish new to help policymakersand theBraziliangovernment providerecommendations sustainable and thatis environmentally to producea code forethanolproduction initiatives risk economicallyfair. Recommendationsinclude proper planning and environmental assessmentsfor the expansion of sugarcane to new regions such as Central Brazil, of land use practicesto reduce soil erosion and nitrogen pollution,proper improvement and and riparianecosystems, of streams practices, banningof sugarcaneburning protection fair workingconditionsfor sugarcane cutters.We also support the creation of a more to promote and trade organizations stakeholders constructive approach for international suchas Brazil.Finally, in developing countries forbiofuel sustainable production development in orderto discourage valuesin thepriceofbiofuels ofenvironmental theinclusion we support of natural ecosystemssuch as forests,wetlands,and pasture by excessive replacement crops. bioenergy

In recent years, energy consumption and global carbon intensity (the ratio betweencarbon emissions and energy worldwide, reinvigsupplied)have increased oratingworriesabout potentialdepletionof fossilfuel reserves. Such increase, accompanied by growing in oil-producing regions,has instipoliticalinstability of forms to searchforalternative gatedmanycountries energy.However, concerns about risingatmospheric due to fossilfuel in the atmosphere CO2 concentration other and activities, aggravated anthropogenic burning of consequent evidence changdangerous bycompelling of theEarth(IPCC 2007), have es in theclimatic system energy imposedsome limitsto the typesof alternative is on how thisenergy thatcan be used, and conditions
30 October2007; accepted19 December received Manuscript Editor:A. R. Townsend. 2007. Corresponding 3 E-mail: martinelli@cena.usp.br

are limits and conditions obtained.The mostimportant environthat the new formsof energybe renewable, to the increasein and not contribute mentally friendly, in theatmosphere. CO2 concentration atmospheric because it is source of energy Biofuelis a promising where of the energy by process photosynthesis, generated intobiomass fromthe sun is capturedand transformed In mostcases, to produceenergy. thatcan be combusted this alternativesource is renewable,since the CO2 is recaptured intotheatmosphere emitted bythegrowing is sugarcane cycle.Ethanolfrom cropin thenextgrowth because itsenergetic biofuels one of themostpromising balance is generally meaningthatthe growing positive, whenthe thanis emitted more carbon absorbs sugarcane as fuel(Oliveiraet al. 2005). Moreover, ethanolis burned low. is relatively thepriceof production Brazil has severaladvantagesin thisnew scenarioof biofuel production due to its expansive territory, and geographicalposition,abundant water resources,

885

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

886

LUIZ A. MARTINELLI AND SOLANGE FILOSO

ECOlgiCav^8CNon4

Fig. 1. Increaseof plantedarea and productivity of sugar cane in Brazilfrom1960 to 2007 (FAOSTAT 2007).

solar radiation.Moreover,for >30 years,the country has investedin improving the productionof ethanol from an estimated 19 billionliters of sugarcane, reaching ethanol in 2007. This productionis similarto that of cornethanolin the USA. sustainDespite such advantages,the environmental of ethanolproduction in abilityand economicfairness Brazilare issuesthatstillneed to be carefully debatedin the scientific, before political,and civic communities ethanolcan be considered a "clean" fuel.For sugarcane one thing,unrestrained use of natural resourcesand excessive environmental related consequent degradation to theexpansionof sugarcanein Brazil mayjeopardize importantservices provided by natural ecosystems, which are already experiencinga large degree of worldwide Assessdegradation (Millennium Ecosystem ment 2005); curbingsuch environmental degradation will also help to preventfurther (e.g., deforestation) accumulation ofCO2 in theatmosphere. In addition, the exploitationof cane workersfor the benefitof the ethanol industry, without any significant returnto Braziliansocietyin termsof investments in education, is also an issue. health,and infrastructure, The main objectivesof this studyare (1) to discuss environmental and social issueslinkedto theexpansion of sugarcane in Brazilforethanolproduction, and (2) to to helppolicymakersand the providerecommendations Braziliangovernment establishnew initiatives to produce a code forethanolproduction thatis environmenand economically fair. tallysustainable Patterns of Sugarcane Expansionin Brazil

From 1960to 2007,thearea plantedwithsugarcane in Brazilincreased from-1.4 millionto 7 millionha. The increase rateaveragedalmost120000 ha/yr (FAOSTAT 2007) (Fig. 1), exceptforthe periodbetween1985 and 1990, when the rate was slower.Accompaniedby the of expansionof sugarcaneland cover,the productivity EnvironmentalIssues from45 to 75 sugarcane also increaseddramatically Soil degradation in productivity, -600 kgha^yr"1, Mg/ha.Thisincrease was due to better agricultural techniques and an Among the major problems linked to sugarcane is soil degradationcaused by erosion and important geneticbreedingprogrampromotedby the cultivation

in the 1970s and Brazilian Government, particularly 1980s. land use data forBrazil, to themostrecent According -264 million ha of Brazil's land mass in 2005 was the area coveredby sugarcane Therefore, agricultural. -2.5% of thetotal.Comparedwiththe only represented area plantedwithsoybeans(23 millionha), sugarcane to the confined land coveris relatively small,and mostly in thenortheast southeast (64%), and along thecoastline (19%). In the southeastregion,the state of Sao Paulo has land cover.In thepast >50% of thecountry's sugarcane 15 years this is where most of the expansion of occurred by replacing pastureby sugarcaneplantations of thestate(Sao in thewestern region sugarcane, mostly et Paulo SugarcaneAgroindustry Union 2003, Rudorff al. 2004), as shownin Fig. 2. Since 1990,theexpansion The of sugarcanein Sao Paulo averaged-85000 ha/yr. Turvo River basin (area 11000 km2) is a typicalcase, increased from 7% to wheretheland coverof sugarcane 26% between1997 and 2007, whilethe area of pasture decreasedfrom53% to 32% (Silva et al. 2007). Presently, only -8% and 9% of the sugarcaneland coverin Brazil is locatedin the South and Center-West regions,respectively (Fig. 3). In the North, which is Amazon rain forest,the area planted with mostly sugarcaneis stillonly -0.4% (-21 000 ha) of thetotal. by physiologExpansionto theNorthwillbe restricted of sugarcaneplanted ical characteristics of thevarieties in Brazil.Sugarcanetypically needsa periodof drought and such itsgrowing sugars, during phase to concentrate a drought perioddoes not occur in the Amazon region has to do with a new (Fig. 2). Another restriction Brazilianlaw beingdevelopedthatprohibits sugarcane in ecologically sensitive areas,liketheAmazon planting and Pantanal regions. In contrast,the Center-West regionof thecountry (Fig. 2), wherehalfof thesoybean and in Braziloccurs,providesideal climatic production topographicconditionsfor sugarcane. Depending on in theCenterWestcan land and market prices, soybeans be replaced by sugarcane. This pressures soybean farmers to move farther north toward the Amazon. Indirectly, sugarcane expansioncould lead to additional deforestation in thatregion.Yet the area plantedwith West region(10 millionha) is soybeansin the Center-20 timeslargerthan thatof sugarcane;thisscenario, is unlikely to occurin the near future. therefore, thatsugarcane is notcausing Despitethefact expansion of natural decline in the land cover any significant vegetation,there are other importantenvironmental in of sugarcane associatedwiththecultivation problems Brazilthatneedto be addressed to avoid theperpetuation of theseproblems as theethanolindustry expands.

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

June2008

BRAZIL'S ETHANOL PRODUCTION CHALLENGES

887

Fig. 2. Area cultivated Instituto Brasileiro de withsugarcane in themain regions of Brazilfrom1990to 2005. Data are from e Estatistica Geografia (IBGE; (www.ibge.org.br)).

compaction.Soil erosiontendsto be highin sugarcane fields (Fiorio et al. 2000, Politano and Pissarra2005) in to pastures and forests because of extensive comparison areas of bare soil that are associated with the management practicesused. Bare soils are exposed to intense rainand winds, bothduring theinitial processof land use conversion whengrassesare killedto prepare forthe planting of sugarcane,thenagain in the period between and regrowth. Whensugarcane crop harvesting

stalksare replacedwithnew ones every5-6 years,soils remainbare forseveralmonths. of Soil compactionresultsfromthe constanttraffic with cultivation associated machinery heavyagricultural and harvestingoperations in sugarcane fields. The such as compaction destroyssoil physicalproperties water which in turn decreases and density, porosity infiltration and further enhancessoil erosion(Cerriet al. 1991,Oliveiraet al. 1995,Silva and Ribeiro 1997,Silva

Fig. 3. Map of Braziland politicaldivisionsin fivemain regions. The enlargement is a map of the stateof Sao Paulo with borders. et Shaded areas werecultivated withsugarcane in 2003 (Sao Paulo SugarcaneAgroindustry Union 2003, Rudorff county al. 2004).

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

888

LUIZ A. MARTINELLI

AND SOLANGE

FILOSO

EcologicalApplications Vol. 18,No. 4

et al. 1998,Ceddia et al. 1999,Fiorio et al. 2000, Prado and Centurion 2001). erosionrates Sparovekand Schnug(2001) estimated in Sao forsugarcane fields up to 30 Mg of soil-ha^-yr"1 and pastures Paulo state(Fig. 2), whileratesin forests In one particular did not exceed2 Mg-ha^-yr"1. region and extensively of Sao Paulo, whichhas beenintensively with sugarcanefor many decades, Politano cultivated and Pissarra (2005) found that erosion varied from severe. severeto extremely

Deterioration of aquaticsystems effects of accelerated soil erosioninclude The negative not only soil degradationand subsequentpoor crop of aquatic systems. but also deterioration development, downhill across are transported sediments As colluvium the landscapefromsugarcanefields, theyare deposited onto wetlands,small streams,rivers,and reservoirs. water ecosystem biodiversity quality, Depositionimpacts functions. and Pissarra 2005), and ecosystem (Politano the problemof sedimenAn examplethatillustrates cultivation linkedto sugarcane tationin aquatic systems was described by Fiorio et al. (2000) for a small watershedin Piracicaba County, state of Sao Paulo had 25% sugarcaneland cover (Fig. 2). This watershed was builtto supplywaterfora in 1978whena reservoir About 20 yearslater,almost70% of smalltownnearby. was coveredby sugarcanecrops,and the thewatershed could no longer be used as a water supply reservoir and loss of 50% of its waterbecause of sedimentation mostof likeBrazil,where capacity.In a country holding the watersupplyforcitiesand ruralareas and mostof are fromdammedrivers the electrical powergenerated of aquatic systemscan sedimentation and reservoirs, have seriousconsequences. is The severityof the problem of sedimentation of contamithe further even transport by aggravated nants such as pesticidesand heavy metals used in For instance, to aquatic systems. sugarcanecultivation organochlorides were found in sediment and fish samplescollectedin the Piracicaba Riverbasin in 1997 (Silva et al., inpress),despitethefactthattheuse of this product was forbiddenin Brazil in 1985. Similarly, in 2003 werefoundin samplescollected organochlorides thatdraina sugarcane' in streams regionin the central portionof Sao Paulo state (Corbi et al. 2006). This that thesecompoundsare stillbeing used by suggests in have a shorthalf-life because the pesticides farmers the environment. (Silva et al., inpress). Othercontaminantssuch as atrazine,a herbicideused in sugarcane crops,and heavymetalssuch as copper(Cu), werealso found in water samples and stream bed sediments collectedin rivers draining regionsthat have extensive cultivation (Carvalho et al. 1999,Azevedo et sugarcane al. 2004, Corbi et al. 2006). Nitrogen pollution forproduction of sugarcane The industrial processing annual Like most of ethanoland sugaris yetanothersourceof pollution crops, sugarcane requires the to support an economically fertilizer of and of amounts as foraquatic systems, large application byproducts

waste are generated in the mills. The two most are wastewater fromthe washing important generated of sugarcanestemsbefore themill,and theygo through the vinasse produced during the distillation process. Both of thesewasteproducts are richin organicmatter, and therefore increasethe BOD (biochemicaloxygen of waters these effluents. Elevated demand) receiving BOD promotesdepletionof dissolved oxygenin the water and oftencauses anoxia (Ballesteret al. 1999). in these effluents concentrations also High nutrient contribute to the problemby enhancingalgal blooms and promoting of surfacewaters(Mateutrophication sumura-Tundisi and Tundisi2005). For each liter of ethanol that is produced from With sugarcane,12-13 litersof vinasse are generated. the boom of ethanolproduction in Brazil in the early 1980s, new legislationwas created to ban the direct dischargeof vinasse onto surfacewaters. Since then, nutrient and carbon-rich vinasse is mixedwithwastewaterfromwashingsugarcaneand is recycled back to fields as organicfertilizer (Gunkelet al. 2007). sugarcane This solutionhas helpedto protect to a aquatic systems certainextent.However,it is not uncommonforsmall mills to discharge vinasse into streams and rivers because theylack the means of transport and application.Also, accidentsor mishandling during storageand of vinasse are not uncommon, even in mills transport withadequate infrastructure. In a monitoring studyconductedon a small stream adjacent to a sugarcane mill in Piracicaba County, Ometto et al. (2000) reportedsignificant changes in of a water quality along a 1.8-kmreach downstream in water mill Clear increases 4). (Fig. sugarcane dissolved organic electricalconductivity, temperature, carbon (DOC), and dissolvedinorganic (DIN) nitrogen fromthe mill. Moreover, were observeddownstream of dissolved oxygenwere significantly concentrations while dissolved inorganiccarbon lower downstream, similar Gunkelet al. (2007) reported (DIC) was higher. changes along a reach of the Ipojuca River in the northeastern regionof Brazil. Martinelli et al. (1999a) used stableisotopetechniques to determinethe origin of organic matterin rivers coveredby thatwerepredominantly watersheds draining in the and found that, samples collected, sugarcane fromsugarcane.Sugarcane is a C4 carbon originated fromC3 plants plant,whichcan be easilydistinguished isotopic signature (e.g., trees) because of a distinctive these resultssuggested (expressedas 813C). Therefore, that either the discharge of vinasse into streamsis erosionin in the region,or thataccelerated substantial sugarcane fields transportsorganic materials to the of et al. 1999a, 2004). A combination water(Martinelli both scenariosis likely.

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

June2008

BRAZIL'S ETHANOL PRODUCTION CHALLENGES

889

and downstream from a sugarcane milllocatedin thestateof Fig. 4. Alteration ofwaterparameters along a stream upstream DOC = dissolvedorganic Sao Paulo (Omettoet al. 2000). DIC = dissolvedinorganic carbon;DIN = dissolvedinorganic nitrogen; Errorbars represent issues:Deterioration SE. carbon.(See Environmental of aquaticsystems.)

In contrastto developedcountries, and ~3.13 milliontons of fertilizers to sugarcanefields viable production. much of thisboost in the and consequentlosses of excessnutri- in Brazil in 2006. Therefore, over-fertilization in Brazil is attributed to the expansion ents to aquatic systems have not been a major use of fertilizer of in Brazil. the recent and intensification environmental However, sugarcaneproduction. problem in thecountry coincideswitha As more fertilizer is used in sugarcanecrops,excess expansionof agriculture of fertilizer nutrients are likelyto accumulatein the environment. (ANDA rapid increasein the consumption of N, muchof theexcessis 2006). The single largest annual crop in Brazil is Because of thehighmobility ~23 millionha of the 64 millionha transportedto aquatic systems.Excess nitrogenin covering soybeans, Maize and sugarcaneare agricultural fields has increased the export of N in of arable land in thecountry. While streamsand riversworldwideand is one of the main grown on 13 and 7 million ha, respectively. of coastal watersand estuaries soybeans do not require application of N fertilizer, causes of eutrophication of dams and ~3.25 million tons of fertilizers (includingnitrogen, (Howarth2005). In Brazil,eutrophication are also related to increased were to cornfields reservoirs and inputsof reactive applied potassium) phosphorus,

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

890

LUIZ A. MARTINELLIAND SOLANGE FILOSO

EcologicalApplications Vol. 18,No. 4

occurnotonly fields N to landscapes (Matsumura-Tundisiand Tundisi sugarcane LargelossesofN from of N fertilizer low use of the because efficiency relatively 2005). is applied to sugarcanecrops in by theplant,but also via ammoniavolatilization during Nitrogenfertilizer Brazilat a rateof 80-100 kg-ha^'yr"1.Whencompared plant senescencedue to the high evapotranspiration of C4 plants to average amounts applied to annual crops in ratesof sugarcane,whichis characteristic Gava et al. 2005). et al. et al. Costa countries like the United States 2003, 2002, (140-160 kg (Trivelin developed fortheemissionof -80 kg of is responsible (300 kg N-ha-'-yr1), Senescence N-ha-'-yr1) and The Netherlands soils from et al. 2002),whilevolatilization and also in comparisonto other important crops in N/ha(Trivelin with N amount to 30-40% of the fertilizer Brazil like coffeeand citrus,applicationin sugarcane fertilized fields is not considered excessive. Yet significant applied, or 30-40 kg of N/ha, assuming a fertilizer totalgaseous rateof 100kgN/ha.Therefore, amounts of N from fertilizer can be lost to the application in moisttropicaland subtropicalregions losses from volatilizationin sugarcane crops are an environment ifapplicationis poorlytimed(Harmandet al. 2007). In estimated 110 kg (80 + 30 kg) to 120 kg (80 + 40 kg) of in Brazil is applied in N/ha annually. Although the soil organic matter addition,mostof the N fertilizer theform of urea (CO(NH2)2) (Cantarella1998),and can reservoir is an additionalsourceof reactive N, biological N. amountof reactive volatilization of ammonia(NH3) fixation easilybe lost through maysupplyan important are able to fixN or duringnitrification. of sugarcane Volatilization fromsoils occurs In Brazil,severalvarieties when urea is transformed into ammoniumcarbonate biologically in symbiosis with endophytic bacteria the action of an enzymethatcatalyzes located in roots and foliage tissues (Boddey et al. urease, through urea hydrolysis. fixation Underspecific conditions conditions, (hightemper- 2001). Dependingon environmental atures and high pH), ammoniumcarbonate is trans- by Braziliansugarcanevarieties is a maximumof 150 formed into NH3 and emitted to the atmosphere. kg-ha^-yr"1, 30 and between within situratesaveraging Emission of N2O occurs when NH3 is oxidized into 50 kg-ha^yr"1 (S. Urquiaga,personalcommunication). intoNO2~ and NO3~. to the atmoAmmoniaemitted NH4+, whichis thennitrified duringvolatilization Severalstudieshave shownthatthe use efficiency in the regionin dry of sphereis likelyto be redeposited fertilizer N by sugarcanecrops in Brazil is ratherlow. atmospheric and ammonium (NH4) deposdeposition, On average, only -20-40% of the N applied to itedregionally in wetdeposition (Holland et al. 1999).In is assimilated in planttissues, absorbed by roots, addition,most of the N fromfertilizer sugarcane including millsis et al. sugarcane and transported to ethanolproduction stalk,leaves,and tip (Oliveiraet al. 2000,Trivelin while to be recycled back intothefields. 2002, Basanta et al. 2003, Gava et al. 2005). Therefore, likely Therefore, for every 100 kg N/ha applied to sugarcane fields, the addition of fertilizer N to sugarcane crops is between 60 and 80 kg N/hastaysin thesoil. Depending relatively low in comparison to thatof othercrops,very on soil and climate different fractions of this little is likely to be exported from regions where conditions, N in the soil are lost via volatilization, denitrification,sugarcane is cultivated. Hence, it is possible that waterrunoff, in Brazil may lead to an excess or assimilated later sugarcanecultivation erosion,and surficial rates to by sugarcaneratoonsthatwill sproutin the nextcrop of N in soils, and subsequenthigherdelivery season (Trivelin et al. 1995,1996,2002,Cantarella1998, aquatic systems.High rates of N export into rivers Oliveira et al. 2000,Gava et al. 2001,2005,Basantaet al. draining in withsugarcane watersheds cultivated heavily also occurs,and ranges Brazil, such as the Piracicaba and Mogi riverbasins, 2003). Leachingto groundwater from 5 to 15 kg N-ha^-yr"1, depending on soil have been reported (Filoso et al. 2003). characteristics Besideshigher ratesto aquatic systems, (Oliveiraet al. 2002). delivery high Tracer experiments used to determine the the fate of inputsof reactive N to thelandscapecan accelerate fertilizer 15Nwithin revealed that10% or 20% N cycle in sugarcane regions, and consequently, sugarcane of thetotalfertilizer N appliedto cropsis assimilated in emissionsof nitrousoxide (N2O) associated with the thestalks, which is thepartactually Nitrous used in theindustry, processes of nitrification and denitrification. whileanother10-20% ends up in otheraerial parts of oxide is a potentgreenhouse gas whichis -300 times the plant such as the tips and straw,whichare either stronger emissionsof N2O by than CO2. Therefore, burnedor decomposedin thefield(Oliveiraet al. 2000, sugarcanefieldsis an important in the global trade-off Gava et al. 2001, 2005, Basanta et al. 2003). Based on warming and mustbe takenintoaccountin the scenario, thesevalues,an estimated 10-20 kg N/haof thefertilizer whole balance of the sugarcanecrop as renewable fuel N applied to crops is transported to the mills in the (Crutzenet al. 2007). sugarcanestalksfor productionof ethanol and sugar, Destruction of riparian ecosystems whiletheremainder or is emitted to the staysin thefield The movement of solutesand eroded soils fromthe atmosphere. Eventually, even the relatively small amountof N transported to the millsis recycled back uplandsto surface waterscan be controlled by riparian into the fields,because byproductsfrom sugarcane forests thatusuallyoccupya narrowbeltof land along and streams and rivers. When riparianforests are removed, processingsuch as vinasse are used to fertilize the detrimental and irrigate crops. impacts of sugarcanecultivation

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

June2008

BRAZIL'S ETHANOL PRODUCTION CHALLENGES

891

on aquatic systems are exacerbated whichhas been reported ethanolproduction as thecause of sevendeathsin waterquality, and the region. biodiversity, by degrading decreasing sedimentation (Corbi et al. 2006; see Plate 1). increasing Environmental consequences ofsugarcane burning the riparianvegetaAccordingto Brazilianlegislation, tion on both marginsof a streamor rivermust be Sugarcane burningis a common crop management at a width thatis relative to thechannelwidth, practice in Brazil, as it is used to facilitatemanual preserved witha minimum of 10 m forstreams, and a maximum of harvesting by burningmost of the straw and leaves. 500 m for rivers.However, assuming a generalized Generally, sugarcane is burned during the night, 2.5 million width of 30 m forbothstreams and rivers, Silva et between buffer Apriland December.An estimated or 70% of the sugarcanearea, was burnedin thatonly25% (500 km2)of riparian hectares, al. (2007) reported water- 2006 in the stateof Sao Paulo (Folha de Sao Paulo, 11 forestsremainin the seven major agricultural If we assume sheds in the state of Sao Paulo. The other75% (4500 August2007,page A21 [availableonline]).4 area forothersugarcane in to sugarcane thissame percentage regions km2)of the riparianzone was converted a totalof -4.9 million hectares were and pasture. Brazil,we estimate In the two major watershedsthat had the largest burnedin Brazil because of sugarcane. decover of sugarcanein 1997 (Piracicaba and Sugarcane burningincreases soil temperature, percentage Mogi), only 13-18% of the riparian vegetationwas creases soil water content and bulk density and, leads to soil compaction,highersurface cost for consequently, (Silva et al. 2007). The approximate preserved and soil erosion (Dourado-Neto et al. in theregion was estimated water runoff, forest restoration of riparian Oliveira et al. 2000, Tominaga et al. 2002). communica1999, at US$3500/ha(R. R. Rodrigues, personal Pereira-Netto et al. (2004) detectedhigh tion). Hence, restoringriparian vegetationin these Additionally, of polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons basins would cost betweenUS$200 and 250 millionfor concentrations both basins. Althoughcostly,the price forrestoration (PAH) in soils located near sugarcaneburningareas. with these compounds,which are to only6% and 8% of thegrossdomestic Soils contaminated was equivalent often a risk for human health and indusfrom carcinogenic, represent agricultural products product(GDP) triesin thePiracicabaand Mogi basins,respectively. whenleachedto waterbodies. In one of themostimportant of the sugarcane regions Riparian forests are complex ecological systems (Southeastregion),PAHs were localized at the land-water ecotone that performa stateof Rio de Janeiro in recently sediments in lakes(Gomes deposited comparedto detected disparatenumberof ecological functions most upland habitats (Naiman et al. 2005). These and Azevedo 2003). Because PAHs werealso foundin maintain highlevelsof biodiversity the atmospherein this region (Azevedo et al. 2002, ecosystems typically was determined theecological Santos et al. 2002), sugarcaneburning and Decamps 1997). Therefore, (Naiman of PAHs in soils and sediments. as the most source likely forests include to of alterations riparian consequences but Atmospheric PAHs were found in the region of not only obvious changesin the plant community, Araraquara, one of the important sugarcaneareas of also in theanimalcommunity. et al. 1997,Godoi et of Sao Paulo the state (Zamperlini effects of In sugarcane areas in Brazil, reported al. 2004), and one of the compounds,benzo[a]pyrene, communities on animal forests of degradation riparian was found in properties, of fishspecies(Gerhard which has high carcinogenic rangefromincreasednumbers in than the of large concentrations atmosphere 2005) to decreased small-mammalspecies richness higher cities. 2006, Barros (Dotta 2005, Gerhard2005, Gheler-Costa as one of the has been recognized Biomass burning ofgeneralist increase Ferrazet al. 2007). The widespread main sources of pollution from aerosol particles, in different to live the have many ability species(which in tropicalregionsof theworld(Crutzenand a wide range of environmental especially places while tolerating Aerosolparticles are not onlyimportant Andreae 1990). conditions)thatare typicalof degradedareas (Ghelerof the in the radiative atmosphere (Oglesbyet al. budget as such Costa 2006), hydrocapybaras (Hydrochoerus et al. 2001), but Ramanathanet al. 2001, Streets 1999, and thous as rodents such small and Cerdocyon chaeris), of cloud condensation also affectthe concentration (Dotta 2005),is common.Moreover,18 Lepuseuropaeus albedo and rain droplet which affect cloud nuclei, mammalstypicalof species of medium-to large-sized et al. formation 2001). (Roberts of the forested and larger more preserved fragments aerosol of totalsuspended The averageconcentration forest stateof Sao Paulo could not be foundin riparian in collected <10 matter um) watersheds(Dotta particles (particulate of sugarcane-dominated fragments season Piracicabacountyduringthe sugarcaneburning 2005). than the averagein (91 ug/m3) higher the was significantly Besides the alterationin community structure, season the (Lara et al. 2005). (34 ug/m3) nonburning of generalist occurrence speciesofanimalsin widespread et al. 2005) and (Lara Principalcomponentanalysis sugarcaneareas has been associatedwithpublic health problems.For instance,the increaseof the capybara 4 (http://wwwl. folha. uol.com.br/folha/ciencia/ populationin thePiracicabaRiverbasin has lead to the (Labruna et al. 2004), ult306u319319.shtml) spreadof Brazilianspottedfever

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

892

LUIZ A. MARTINELLI AND SOLANGE FILOSO

Applications Ecological Vol.18,No.4

of this type and impoverishment acidification stablecarbon isotopiccomposition of aerosol particles further The end al. Krusche et et al. of soil et al. revealed that 1999, 2003). (Martinelli (Matson 2002) sugarcaneburning of H+ by Al+3,which, was the main source of particlesduringthe burning of thisprocessis thereplacement is toxicto plants(Schulze 1989). werethemain sourceduring in highconcentrations, season,whilesoil particles the nonburning season. The annual average for susPublic Health and Social Issues established pendedaerosol particles by Brazilianlaw is diseases and respiratory 70 ug/m3, but concentrations found in the Piracicaba Sugarcaneburning season. Similar regionwere higherduringthe burning In addition to the negativeenvironmental effects, concentrations werereported forthecity (70-90 ug/m3) thehealthofpeopleliving also affects burning sugarcane of Sao Paulo duringthe winter (Castanho and Artaxo in areas whereburningis intense(Arbex et al. 2000, 2001), and for the state of Rondonia, in the Amazon 2007). Epidemiological studiesconductedin two counwhereextensive areas of forest are burnedevery ties in the state of Sao Paulo region, (Araraquara and foundin year(Artaxo et al. 2002). The concentrations Piracicaba),whichare surrounded by sugarcanefields, the Piracicaba regionwere also similarto those found show that increasedsignificantly morbidity respiratory during the burning season in Araraquara, another with the concentration of aerosol particles from sugarcaneregionof Sao Paulo. In both regions,peak sugarcaneburning(Arbex et al. 2000, 2007, Cancado concentrations reached 240 ug/m3 duringthe burning et al. 2006). During the sugarcaneburningseason of season (Allen et al. 2004). Black carbon concentrations 1995 in Araraquara, a study found a significant werealso significantly theburning season, correlation higher during betweenthe daily numberof patientswho and days with burnings had higher black carbon visited hospitalsin the regionforinhalationtreatment concentration than days withoutburnings (Lara et al. for respiratorydiseases, and the mass of particle 2005). aerosols (Arbex et al. 2000, 2007). In a second study, Gas emissions to theatmosphere are another aspectof conducted in the Piracicaba region, Cancado et al. atmospheric pollutionassociated withsugarcaneburn- (2006) found a significant correlationbetweenPM2.5 of CO and O3 (paniculate matter<2.5um), PM10 (particulate ing. In sugarcaneareas, concentrations matter are commonly et al. 1991),whilenitrogen <10 um), and black carbon concentrations, high(Kirchoff and the oxides (NOx) emissionsreached 25 kg N/ha (Oppen- numberof childrenand elderlypatientsadmittedto heimer et al. 2004). Partof theN lostto theatmosphere hospitals. Accordingto theirresults,increasesof 10 of sugarcane fields returns to theEarth's ug/m3 during burning lead to an increaseof of thePM2.5concentration surface via wet and dry deposition. Rates of wet -20% in the number of hospitaladmissions. atmospheric depositionin the Piracicaba River basin Arbex (2003) concluded that sugarcane burningis were5 and 6 kgN-ha^-yr"1(Lara et al. 2001),whichare responsible thehealthofpeopleproneto foraggravating similar to thosefoundin a regionof intense forest fires respiratorydiseases, which, in turn, increases the in the Amazon, and also in areas of the northeastern demand and expenditure in the public health system. United States where emissionsof nitrogenfrom the Thus theburning of of sugarcaneaffects severalsectors combustion of fossilfuelsby vehiclesand frompower society, and has negative impactseven forpeople living plants are consideredhigh. In comparisonto pristine outsideof sugarcane-ethanol areas. Yet sugarindustry areas of Sao Paulo state and the Amazon region,N cane burning continues to be a widely used land depositionrates in the Piracicaba basin are 3-4 times management by state practicein Brazil,despiteefforts oxides react with and federal higher(Almeida 2006). As nitrogen to eradicateit. governments water to formnitricacid (HNO3), acid rain becomes For instance, Law 11,241,established by the stateof anotherproblemassociatedwithburning of sugarcane. Sao Paulo in September thatby2006 only 2002,requires In thePiracicababasinwhere emissions are low, 30% of areas with slope lower than 12%, could be sulphur the average annual pH of rain varies between4.5 and burnedfor sugarcaneharvesting. The same law states 4.8. Therefore, most of the acidityfound in the rain thatby 2011 halfof thearea in sugarcane farms mustbe comesfrom theformation ofnitric acid (HNO3) (Lara et protected fromburning, would be entirely and burning al. 2001). outlawedby 2021. The Sao Paulo state government is Acidification of surfacewatershas been one of the trying to convincesugarcanegrowers to stop sugarcane most prominent in 2014. problemsassociatedwithemissionsof burnings suchas NOx to theatmosphere in acidifying compounds Exploitation of cane cutters thetemperate zone. In contrast, highbuffer capacityof streams and rivers of Sao Paulo, especially where the from Africa was Sugarcanebrought by Portuguese untreated domestic are high(Ballester one of the firstcrops cultivated in Brazil. In the sewagedischarges et al. 1999,Martinelli et al. 19996,Kruscheet al. 2003), beginning, thePortuguese triedforcibly to make Native have protected these systems fromacidification. How- Brazilianswork in the sugarcanefieldsand mills,but ever,as the alreadybasic cation-poortropicalsoils in afterfailing,they startedbringing Africanpeople to Brazilreceive continuous acid rain,H+ may replacethe workas slaves.Although was abolishedin Brazil slavery few remainingcations in the clay surface, causing in 1888, most of the sugarcanein Brazil today is still

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

June2008

BRAZIL'S ETHANOL PRODUCTION CHALLENGES Table 1. Name,age, date,and cause ofdeathforsugarcane cutters in counties within thestateof Sao Paulo, Brazil,since2004. Name Galvao, J. E. Santos,M. A. Pina, M. N. Pinto,L. R. Santos,I. V. Lima, V. P. Sales, J. N. G. Diniz, D. Souza, V. A. Gomes, J. M. Lopes, A. R. Santana,J. Borges,M. N. Goncalves,C. Almeida,O. J. P. Martins, Souza, L. P. Souza, J. D. Age 38 33 34 27 33 38 50 55 43 45 55 37 54 41 48 51 20 33 Date of death April2004 April2004 May 2004 March 2005 June2005 2005 July August2005 Sept. 2005 Oct. 2005 Oct. 2005 Nov. 2005 June2006 2006 July 2006 July Sept. 2006 March 2007 April2007 June2007 Cause cardiac arrest cardiac arrest cardiac arrest arrest respiratory acute pancreatitis cerebrovascular accident arrest respiratory unknown unknown unknown edema pulmonary unknown unknown unknown unknown cardiac arrest unknown unknown County Macatuba Valparaiso Catanduva Terra Roxa Pradopolis RibeiraoPreto Batatais Borborema Valparaiso Rio das Pedras Guariba Jaborandi Monte Alto Taiacu Itapira Guariba Colina Ipaussu

893

Source: Ines Fascioli and Garcia Peres, 14 May 2007 (see footnote 5).

harvestedmanually,and the conditionsfor laborers have not improvedmuch from over a centuryago (Rodrigues2006). The workday consistsof 8 to 12 hoursof cutting and whileinhaling dustand smoke stalks, carrying sugarcane from the burnedresidue(Rodrigues2006). In addition, conditions such as clean water,restrooms, and working are usually absent in sugarcane food storagefacilities fields.These poor workingconditionsoften resultin lawsuitsagainst sugarcaneemployers by the Brazilian of Labor (Luze de Azevedo, "Forca tarefa Ministry 19 July autua usinasna regiaode Prudente," 2007; Davi 4 "Juiza Venturino, garantecondigoespara boia-fria," As manycane cutters are August2007;availableonline).5 fromotherregionsof Brazil,they short-term migrants but to residein inadequatelodging have no alternative cane harvest (Costa and das Neves 2005) (Luze during Azevedo, "Alojamentos na mira do Ministerio do Trabalho,"3 August2007; see footnote 5). in Brazil includesfirst Manual sugarcaneharvesting the burning of dryleaves and otherplantresiduessuch and thenthecutting as the tipsto facilitate harvesting, of stalksas close to thegroundas possible.Once cut,the to a depository, and the stalksare transported manually laboreris paid by the mass of sugarcanecut per day. Accordingto Alves (2006), a cutterin 1950 cut an per day, while30 years averageof 3000 kg of sugarcane later the average was -6000 kg/d. More recently, have increasedto almost 12000 kg/d,but in numbers in Sao cultivated themostintensively sugarcaneregions 7000 and 8000 between the Paulo, kg/d averageranges (EPTV, "Pesquisa constataaumentono cortede cana," 18 May 2007 (see footnote5). Alves (2006) estimated thatforevery6000 kg of stalkscut,a cutter swingshis machete-70000 timesand walks a distanceof 4.5 km 5 (www.pastoraldomigrante.org.br)

to transport15 kg of stalks at a time to a distance from1.5 to 3 m. varying Althoughthe cane cuttersare paid by the mass of sugarcanestalks cut per day, the mass is an estimate based on thelineardistancethata cutter coveredin one day. Employersconvert the linear distance into an estimated area bymultiplying thedistance by a swathof 6 m. For instance, forevery1000m coveredby thecane thecalculatedarea is 6000 m2.This area is then cutter, converted intosugarcane mass bytheindustry according to numbers obtained from randomlyselected areas wherethesugarcane was actually cut and weighed in the field. The problemwith this methodis that the mass of sugarcane can vary widely temporallyand spatially dependingon local conditions.The weighingis also done bytheindustry, and does notincludeanyoversight The resultis thatcane cutters are by the fieldworkers. for usuallyunderpaid (Alveset al. 2006). To compensate low wages, cuttersoften try to maximizetheirdaily earningsby workinglong hours,even under inappropriate conditions. Consequently,between 2004 and in sugarcanefields 2007, severaldeaths of cane cutters werereported in thestateof Sao Paulo (Table 1). All of thedeathswereofpeopleyounger than55 yearsold, and mostof them(67%) wereyounger than45. Although the reportedcause of death was unknownin half of the cases (Table 1), forthe otherhalf,cause of deathcould be linked to high workingloads and poor working conditions (Scopinho et al. 1999). The averagepricepaid for1000kg of sugarcane stalks cut is equivalent to -US$1. 2. Therefore, foran average thecane cutter earnsUS$12. On a yieldof 10000 kg/d, 24 workdays a basis,and assuming monthly permonth, cutter makes -US$300 (Jose Maria Tomazela, "Canavieiroe o piro servic.o do mundo,"31 March 2007; (see footnote5). Considering that the total cost of produc-

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

894

LUIZ A. MARTINELLI AND SOLANGE FILOSO

Applications Ecological Vol.18,No. 4

Fig. 5. Diagramshowing themainenvironmental For a listofwaterquality and social impactof thesugarcane agro-industry. see Fig. 4; BOD = biochemical acronyms, oxygendemand;DO = dissolvedoxygen.

tion of ethanolin Brazil was -US$1. 10 per gallon (1 the2005 cropyear,withvariable gallon= 3.78 L) during costs of US$0.89 per gallon and fixedcosts of US$0.21 per gallon, and that in early2006, the wholesaleprice ethanolwas US$2.05 per paid to themillsforanhydrous et al. values were gallon (Martines-Filho 2006), revenue in theorderof 50% of thecosts.However, it is clearthat such high returnrates are not being reflected in the conditions of cane cutters. salaryand working The typicalsugarcaneworkerin Brazil is a migrant froma poor area of the northeastern region of the who moves to the Southeastto work for 6-8 country months as a sugarcane cutter. These migrantsare to sugarcaneplantations usuallyhiredand transported by people knownin Brazil as "gatos." The cane cutters are hired under false promisesof a good salary and decentliving conditions (Costa and das Neves 2005). In such situations,Brazilian labor legislationis entirely disregarded. However, increasingpressure from authoritiesin Braziland from theinternational is making community theethanolindustry thatit is not possibleto recognize claim thatethanolis a clean or sustainablefuel,when laborersare stillworking in extremely poor conditions, are severelyunderpaid,and worst yet, often die of exhaustionin the fieldsduring sugarcane harvesting (Scopinho et al. 1999). Recently,one of the major

in the sugarcanebusiness,Cosan, signedan industries underthe BrazilianLaw called "adjustment agreement cutters better ofconduct," working sugarcane promising and living conditions. In addition, this agreement and hiringof sugarcane assures the proper recruiting cutters to eliminate the work of "gatos" and the problems associated with them. As real employees, sugarcanecutterswill also have the same rightsand in theindustry. benefits as othercategories of workers Concluding Remarksand Recommendations - and city - love to romanticize Poets agriculfolks it as some sort of idyllicstate of ture,portraying between humankind and nature.How far harmony - or most thisisfromthetruth! man Since Neolithic woman domesticated the majorcropand probably animalspeciessome10-12 millennia ago, agriculture has been a struggle betweentheforces of natural and the need to producefood under biodiversity intensive increasingly production systems. - NormanBolaug These words, writtenby the fatherof the Green Revolution(Borlaug 2002), eloquently say thatagriculture is in constantconflict withthe environment. Yet whenitcomesto whyis thisconflict usuallydownplayed in Brazil,whileit is sugarcaneand ethanolproduction debatedforother areas cultures thatalso coverextensive

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

June2008

BRAZIL'S ETHANOL PRODUCTION CHALLENGES

895

Plate 1. Aerialphoto of a sugarcane plantation of riparian and a small waterbody withhighly remains forest, fragmented Brazil.Photo credit:Geraldo Arruda,Jr.

in Brazil,suchas maize(13 million ha) and soybeans(23 millionha)? One of the reasons is that the sugarcane ethanol in Brazil has been considered, program by most Brazilsolutionto the 1970soil crisis, and for ians,a successful theproblem of thecountry's on foreign past dependence oil. More recently, ethanolproduction in Brazil started being seen as a potentialsolution to global warming problems, which would also benefit the Brazilian new international trade opportueconomyby creating nities. the Therefore, generally speaking, loss of natural resourcesassociated with the expansion of sugarcane and increase of ethanol production in Brazil is commonlyseen as necessaryand justifiable.Still, the OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2007-2016 (2007) estimated that in 2016 Brazil will produce -44 billion litersof ethanol,an increaseof 145% relativeto 2006. thatone hectareof sugarcaneis necessary to Assuming produce 6000 litersof ethanol, Brazil would have to double the present land cover of sugarcane in the from7 to 14 millionhectares.Approximately country, 60% of thistotalarea would be utilizedforethanoland 40% forsugar.Furthermore, 44 billionliters of ethanol

ofvinasse, alongwithall the produces-500 billionliters other environmental problems discussed above, and in Fig. 5. summarized in Brazilhas enjoyedsupport The sugarcaneindustry and protection from politicians and lobbyists for centuries.Consequently,the industryhas created a and social laws in forenvironmental legacyof disregard thecountry. Bold examplesincludetheseveraloccasions or banningsugarthatenforcement of laws regulating cane burning have been postponed,and civil practices suits regardingpoor living conditions of sugarcane cuttershave been ignored by the judicial systemin Brazil. However, it is obvious that this templateof mustgo environmental and social injustice degradation if the industry sugarcane-ethanol through majorchanges in a marketwhere in Brazil is to be truly competitive biofuelproduction and use are expectedto be sustainable and sociallycorrect. Such changesshould include: riskassessments and environmental (1) properplanning forthe expansionof sugarcaneto new regionssuch as to of land use practices CentralBrazil,(2) improvement reducesoil erosionand nitrogen (3) protection pollution, of streams and riparian ecosystems,(4) banning of

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

896

LUIZ A. MARTINELLI AND SOLANGE FILOSO

Ecological Applications
Vol. 18,No. 4

and (5) fairworking conditions for sugarcaneburning, cutters. It is important to recognize, neversugarcane of external thata number in additionto theless, factors, internalones, contributeto the difficulties faced by Brazil and other developingcountriesin overcoming environmental and social issues associated with agrobusiness(Almeida et al. 2004). Hence, we supportthe thancreating morebarriers idea thatrather to thetrade from ofagricultural Brazil,a moreconstructive products stakeholders approachshouldbe takenby international and even theWorldTrade Organization (Almeidaet al. in countries 2004) to promotesustainabledevelopment and biofuel are where agricultural expansion production in the next few years. In likelyto grow substantially values be addition, we propose that environmental included in the price of biofuels from Brazil and in orderto discouragethe excessivereplaceelsewhere such as forests, mentof naturalecosystems wetlands, and pastureby bio-energy crops. and social problems linked If thesame environmental with the sugarcaneindustry persistin Brazil into the will caused bytheseproblems mostof theburden future, be experienced by the whole society,especiallythose withlower incomes.On the otherhand, the economic sinceBrazilhas one willbe enjoyedbyonlya few, profits of the largest economic inequalities in the world (CEPAL 2007).

Artaxo,P., J. W. Martins,M. A. Yamasoe, A. S. Procopio, T. M. Pauliquevis, M. O. Andrea,P. Guyon,L. V. Gatti,and A. M. C. Leal. 2002. Physicaland chemicalproperties of aerosolsin thewet and dryseason in Rondonia,Amazonia. Journal of GeophysicalResearch107:8081. and E. O. Reis. 2004. Monitoring Azevedo,D. A., E. Gerchon, of pesticides and polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons in water fromParaiba do Sul River,Brazil. Journal of the Brazilian ChemicalSociety15:292-299. Azevedo, D. A., C. Y. M. Santos, and F. R. Aquino Neto. 2002. Identification and seasonal variationof atmospheric organic pollutants in Campos Dos Goytacazes Brazil. Environment 36:2383-2395. Atmospheric Ballester,M. V., L. A. Martinelli,A. V. Krusche, R. L. M. Bernardes, and P. B. de Camargo. 1999.Effects Victoria, of increasing organicmatter O2, free loadingon thedissolved dissolvedCO2 and respiration ratesin the Piracicaba River Basin, SoutheastBrazil.WaterResearch33:2119-2129. BarrosFerraz,K. M. P. M., S. F. BarrosFerraz,J.R. Moreira, H. T. Z. Couto, and L. M. Verdade. 2007. Capybara in agroecosystems: distribution {Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) a crossscalehabitat analysis.Journalof Biogeography 34: 223-230. Basanta, M. V., D. Dourado-Neto, K. Reichardt,O. O. S. P. C. O. Trivelin, L. C. Timm, T. T. Bacchi,J.C. M. Oliveira, F. A. M. Cassaro, L. F. Pires,and Tominaga,V. Correchel, J. R. de Macedo. 2003. Managementeffects on nitrogen in a sugarcane in Brazil.Geoderma116: recovery cropgrown 235-248. Boddey,R. M., J.C. Polidoro,A. S. Resende,J. R. Alves,and S. Urquiaga. 2001. Use of the 15N natural abundance of the contribution of N2 techniquefor the quantification fixation to sugarcane and othergrasses.Australian Journal of Plant Physiology 28:889-895. Literature Cited Borlaug,N. E. 2002. Feedinga worldof 10 billionpeople: the miracle ahead. In VitroCellularand Development Biology Allen,A. G., A. A. Cardoso, and G. O. Rocha. 2004. Influence Plant 38:221-228. in on aerosol solubleion composition of sugarcane burning J. P. H. N. L. A. A. Saldiva Pereira,L. B. L. S. 38:5025- Cancado, E., SoutheasternBrazil. AtmosphericEnvironment Lara, P. Artaxo, L. A. Martinelli, M. A. Arbex, A. 5038. Zanobetti,and A. L. F. Braga. 2006. The impactof sugar and S. L. M. Ansanelli.2004. Almeida,L. T., M. F. Presser, emissions on therespiratory of children cane-burning system the Brazilianexperiand development: Trade, environment and theelderly. Environmental HealthPerspectives 114:725the Environment and on ence,Working Group Development 729. in the Americas. (http://ase.tufts.edu/gdae/Pubs/rp/ H. 1998.Adubacao nitrogenada em sistema de cana Cantarella, DP01TogeiroJuly04.pdf) crua. STAB-Acucar,Alcool, e Subprodutos16:21-22. e uso Almeida,V. P. S. 2006. Acidez organicana precipitacao Carvalho, C. E. V., A. R. C. Ovalle, C. E. Rezende,M. M. do solo no Estado de Sao Paulo: variabilidadeespacial e Molisani,M. B. Salomao, and L. D. Lacerda. 1999.Seasonal temporal. Tese apresentada para obtencao do titulo de variation ofparticulate heavymetalsin theLowerParaiba do Doutor em Ciencias. Area de concentra?ao:Quimica na Sul River,RJ,Brazil. Environmental Geology37:297-302. e no Ambiente.Universidadede Sao Paulo, Castanho, A. D., and P. Artaxo. 2001. Wintertime Agricultura and USP, Brazil. summertime Sao Paulo aerosol sourceapportionment study. os Cortadoresde Cana? Alves,F. J. C. 2006. Por que morrem Environment 35:4889^902. Atmospheric Saude e Sociedade 15:90-98. Ceddia, M. B., L. H. C. dos Anjos, E. Lima, A. Ravelh Neto, ANDA. 2006. Associacao Nacional para Difusao de Adubos. and L. A. da Silva. 1999. Sistemasde colheitada cana-deStatistics, org.br/estatisticas_2006.pdf) (http://www.anda. a9iicar e alteracoes Nas propriedadesfisicas de urn solo Arbex, M. A. 2003. Avaliacjio dos efeitos do material podzolico amarelo no Estado do EspiritoSanto. Pesquisa da queima da plantacjiode canaBrasileira 34:1467-1473. particuladoproveniente Agropecuaria na populacao de CEPAL (Comision Economica para America Latina y el de-acucarsobre a morbidaderespiratoria Araraquara (SP). Boletimde PneumologiaPaulista Orgao Caribe). 2007. Panorama social da AmericaLatina. CEPAL da Sppt,Sao Paulo-SP 20:06-06. Informativo and ONU, Brasilia,Brazil. Arbex, M. A., G. M. Bohm, P. H. N. Saldiva, G. M. S. Cerri,C. C, C. Feller,and A. Chauvel. 1991. Evolucao das de um Latossolo Vermelho-Escuro Conceicao,A. C. Pope, and A. L. F. Braga.2000. Assessment principaispropriedades of sugar cane plantationburningon daily of the effects anos com e cultivopor doze e cinqiienta apos desmatamento Journalof the Air and Waste countsof inhalation CahiersORSTOM SeriePedologie26:37-50. cana-de-acucar. therapy. Association50:1745-1749. A. Santos,and M. Del Grande.2006. Corbi,J.J.,S. T. Strixino, Management Arbex,M. A., L. C. Martins,R. C. Oliveira,A. Pereira,F.F. Diagnostico ambiental de metais e organoclorados em Arbex,J. E. Cancado, P. N. Saldiva, and A. L. F. Braga. corregosadjacentes a areas de cultivo de cana-de-acucar 2007. Air pollution from biomass burning and asthma (Estado de Sao Paulo, Brasil).Quimica Nova 29:61-65. do area in Brazil. Costa, C, and C. S. das Neves. 2005. Superexplorac.ao in a sugarcane plantation hospitaladmissions trabalho na lavoura de cana-de-acucar. Pages 81-87 in Health 61:395and Community Journalof Epidemiology 400 Relatoria Nacional oara o Direito Humano ao Trabalho.

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

June2008

BRAZIL'S ETHANOL PRODUCTION CHALLENGES

897

Comissao de Trabalho,de Administrate* e Servi90Publico, S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning,Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. B. Averyt, M. Tignor, and H. L. Miller, editors. Brasilia,Brazil. Reportof theIntergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange.Cambridge Costa, M. C. G., G. C. Vitti, and H. Cantarella. 2003. em canaUK. Press,Cambridge, Volatiliza9ao de N-NH3 de fontesnitrogenadas University colhida semdespalhae fogo. RevistaBrasileira de Kirchoff, V. W. J. H., E. V. Marinho,P. L. S. Dias, E. B. de-a9ucar Ciencia do Solo, Vi9osa 27:631-637. Pereira, R. Calheiros, R. Andre, and C. Volpe. 1991. P. J.,A. R. Mosier,K. A. Smith, and W. Winiwarter. Enhancements of CO and O3 fromburnings in sugar cane Crutzen, 2007. N2O release from agro-biofuelproductionnegates fields. Journal of Atmospheric 12:87-102. Chemistry L. by replacingfossilfuels.Atmo- Krusche,A., P. B. Camargo, C. E. Cerri,M. V. Ballester, global warmingreduction and PhysicsDiscussion7:11191-11205. 2003. Acid rain Lara, R. L. Victoria,and L. A. Martinelli. Chemistry spheric de medio e grande and nitrogen watershed Dotta, G. 2005. Diversidadede mamiferos depositionin a sub-tropical (PiraciPollution caba): ecosystemsconsequences. Environmental porte em fun9aoda paisagem na sub-bacia do rio Passa121:389-399. Cinco, Sao Paulo. Thesis. Ecology of Agroecosystems, de Sao Paulo, USP, Brazil. Universidade M. C. Horta, D. Bouyer,J. Labruna, M. B., T. Whitworth, Dourado-Neto,D., C. Timm,J. C. M. Oliveira,K. Reichardt, McBride,A. Pinter,V. Popov, S. M. Gennari,and D. H. Walker. 2004. Rickettsia species infectingAmblyomma O. O. S. Bacchi, T. T. Tominaga, and F. A. M. Cassaro. 1999. State-spaceapproach for the analysis of soil water cooperiticksfroman area in the stateof Sao Paulo, Brazil, in a sugarcane crop. Scientia content and temperature whereBrazilianspottedfever is endemic. Journal of Clinical 42(l):90-98. Microbiology Agricola56:1215-1221. FAOSTAT. 2007. Food and Agriculture R. L. Victoria, Organizationof the Lara, L. B. S. L., P. Artaxo,L. A. Martinelli, Databases, (http://apps.fao.org/) P. B. de Camargo,A. Krusche,G. P. Ayers, UnitedNations,Statistical E. S. B. Ferraz, M. R. Williams,L. B. Lara, A. and M. V. Ballester.2001. Chemical compositionof rain Filoso, S., L. A. Martinelli, R. L. Victoria, and P. B. Camargo. waterand anthropogenic M. V. Ballester, influences in the Piracicaba River Krusche, 2003. Land use and nitrogen Environment 35:4937basin,southeastBrazil.Atmospheric exportin the Piracicaba River 65:275-294. 4945. Basin, SoutheastBrazil. Biogeochemistry P. B. Camargo,R. L. Fiorio, P. R., J. A. M. Dematte, and G. Sparovek. 2000. Lara, L. L., P. Artaxo,L. A. Martinelli, Brasileira 35:671-679. of aerosols Victoria,and E. S. B. Ferraz. 2005. Properties Pesquisa Agropecuaria fromsugar-caneburning emissionsin Southeastern Brazil. Gava, G. J. C, P. C. O. Trivelin,and C. P. Penatti.2001. em cana-de-a9ucar Environment 39:4627-4637. e acumulo de nitrogenio Crescimento Atmospheric L. A., M. V. Ballester, A. Krusche,R. L. Victoria, cultivadaem solo cobertocom a palhada. Pesquisa Agro- Martinelli, P. B. de Camargo, M. Bernardes, and J. P. H. B. Ometto. 36:1347-1354. pecuariaBrasileira A. C. Vitti,and M. W. de 1999a. Land-cover of riverine Gava, G. J. C, P. C. O. Trivelin, changesand 513Ccomposition strawnitrogen balancein Oliveira.2005. Urea and sugarcane particulateorganic matterin the Piracicaba River Basin and Oceanography a soil-sugarcane (southeastregionof Brazil). Limnology Pesquisa AgropecuariaBrasicrop system. 44:1826-1833. leira40:689-695. de peixesde riachosem fun9ao Martinelli,L. A., P. B. Camargo, L. B. L. S. Lara, R. L. P. 2005. Comunidades Gerhard, da paisagemda Bacia do Rio Corumbatai,Estado de Sao Victoria,and P. Artaxo. 2002. Stable carbon and nitrogen of bulk aerosol particles in a C4 plant Escola SupePaulo. Dissertation. isotopiccomposition Ecology Agroecosystems, Brazil.Atmospheric Environment 36: Luiz de Queiroz,ESALQ, Brazil. riorde Agricultura landscapeof southeast 2427-2432. e abundanciade pequenos C. 2006. Distribui9ao Gheler-Costa, L. A., P. B. de Camargo, M. Bernardes, and J. P. da paisagem:a sub-bacia Martinelli, em rela9ao a estrutura mamiferos Ometto.2004. Carbon, nitrogen, and stablecarbon compodo Rio Passa-Cinco como Modelo. Dissertation.Ecology sitionand land use changesin rivers of Brazil. Bulletin du Escola Superior de AgriculturaLuiz de Agroecosystems. Reseau Erosion 22:399-419. Queiroz,ESALQ, Brazil. L. A., A. Krusche, R. L. Victoria, P. B. de Camargo, Godoi, A. F. L., K. Ravindra,R. H. M. Godoi, S. J.Andrade, Martinelli, E. S. Ferraz,J. M. Moraes, and M. V. M. C. Bernardes, L. V. Vaeck, and R. V. Grieken.2004. M. Santiago-Silva, Ballester.19996. Effects of sewage on the chemicalcompoof polycyclic aromatic determination Fast chromatographic sition of Piracicaba River, Brazil. Water, Air and Soil in aerosol samplesfromsugarcane burnings. hydrocarbons Pollution110:67-79. A 1027:49-53. Journal of Chromatography and C. E. F. Vian. 2006. J.,H. L. Burnquist, Gomes, A. O., and D. A. Azevedo. 2003. Aliphatic and Martines-Filho, and the riseof sugarcane-based ethanolin Brazil. aromatic hydrocarbonsin tropical recent sedimentsof Bioenergy Choices 21:91-96. Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil. Journalof Brazilian Matson, P. A., W. H. McDowell, A. Townsend,and P. M. Society14:358-368. Chemistry of N deposition: Vitousek.1999.The globalization ecosystem Gunkel,G., J. Kosmol, M. Sobral, H. Rohn, S. Montenegro, 46: as a source of and J. Aureliano.2007. Sugar cane industry Biogeochemistry consequencesin tropicalenvironments. - case study on the situation in Ipojuca 67-83. water pollution T., and J. G. Tundisi. 2005. Plankton River,Pernambuco,Brazil. Water,Air, and Soil Pollution Matsumura-Tundisi, richness in a eutrophic reservoir 180:261-269. SP, (Barra BonitaReservoir, 542:367-378. Brazil). Hydrobiologia Harmand, J. M., H. Avila, E. Dambrine, U. Skiba, S. de and J. Beer. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.2005. Ecosystemsand Miguel,R. V. Renderos,R. Oliver,F. Jimenez, human well-being:synthesis.Island Press, Washington, in a 2007. Nitrogendynamicsand soil nitrateretention DC, USA. systemin degluptaagroforestry Coffea arabica-Eucalyptus 85:125-139. Costa Rica. Biogeochemistry Southern Naiman, R. J., and H. Decamps. 1997. The ecology of interfaces: riparianzones. Annual Review of Ecology and Holland, E. A., F. J. Dentener,B. H. Braswell,and J. M. 28:621-658. Sulzman. 1999. Contemporaryand pre-industrial Systematics global 46:7-43. reactive Naiman,R. J.,N. Decamps,and M. E. McClain. 2005. Riparia: nitrogen budgets.Biogeochemistry of policyapproaches ecology, conservation, and management of streamside Howarth,R. W. 2005. The development Massacommunities. of theUSA. to coastal waters forreducing Press, Burlington, Elsevier/Academic nitrogen pollution USA. Sciencein China SeriesC- Life Sciences48:791-806. chusetts, Outlook 2007-2016.2007. OrganisaIPCC. 2007. ClimateChange 2007: the physicalsciencebasis. OECD-FAO Agricultural tion for Economic Co-operationand Development,Food ofWorking Contribution Group I to theFourthAssessment.

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

898

LUIZ A. MARTINELLI AND SOLANGE FILOSO

EcologicalApplications Vol. 18,No. 4

and Agriculture of the UnitedNations,Rome, Organization Italy. R. J.,S. Marshall,and J.A. Taylor. 1999.The climate Oglesby, effectsof biomass burning:investigations with a global climatemodel. Environmental Modellingand Software14: 253-259. O. O. S. Bacchi, L. C. Oliveira,J. C. M. de, K. Reichardt, T. T. Tominaga, Timm,D. Dourado-Neto,P. C. O. Trivelin, R. C. Navarro,M. C. Piccolo,and F. A. M. Cassaro. 2000. Nitrogendynamicsin a soil-sugarcane system.Scientia Agricola57:467^72. Oliveira,J. C. M. de, C. M. P. Vaz, and K. Reichardt.1995. Efeitodo cultivocontinuoda cana-de-acucarem propriedades fisicas de um latossolo vermelhoescuro. Scientia Agricola52:50-55. M. E. D., B. E. Vaughan,and E. J.J. Rykiel, Jr.2005. Oliveira, Ethanol as fuel: energy,carbon dioxide balances, and Bioscience55:593-602. ecologicalfootprint. M. W., P. C. O. Trivelin, A. E. Boaretto, T. Muraoka, Oliveira, and J. Mortatti.2002. Leaching of nitrogen, potassium, calcium and magnesiumin a sandy soil cultivatedwith Brasileira 37:861-868. sugarcane.Pesquisa Agropecuaria M. V. Ballester,A. Ometto,J. P. H. B., L. A. Martinelli, A. Krusche,R. L. Victoria, and M. Williams. 2000. Gessner, Effects of land use on water chemistry and macroinvertebrates in two streams of the Piracicaba River Basin, SoutheastBrazil. Freshwater Biology44:327-337. Oppenheimer,C, V. I. Tsanev, A. G. Allen, A. J. S. and C. McGonigle,A. A. Cardoso, A. Wiatr,W. Paterlini, de Mello Dias. 2004. NO2 emissions from agricultural Science and burningin Sao Paulo, Brazil. Environmental 38:4557-4561. Technology A. D., I. F. Cunha, and T. M. Krauss. 2004. Pereira-Netto, Persistence ofpolycyclic aromatic in thesoil of hydrocarbons a burnedarea foragricultural of purposesin Brazil.Bulletin Environmental Contamination Toxicology73:1072-1077. Politano, W., and T. C. T. Pissarra. 2005. Avaliacao por das areas de abrangenciados diferentes fotointerpretacao estadosda erosao aceleradado solo em canaviaise pomares de citros.Engenharia Agricola25:242-252. 2001. Alteracoes na cor e no Prado, R. M., and J.F. Centurion. sob grau de floculacaode um Latossolo Vermelho-Escuro cultivocontinuode cana-de-acucar. Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira 36:197-203. J. T. Kiel, and D. Rosenfeld. Ramanathan, V., P. J. Crutzen, 2001. Aerosols,climateand the hydrological cycle. Science 294:2119-2124. G. C, M. O. Andrea,K. Zhou, and P. Artaxo.2001. Roberts, Cloud condensation nucleiin the Amazon Basin: "Marine" conditionsover a continent? GeophysicalResearch Letters 28:2807-2810. - e morrem - os Rodrigues,A. 2006. O corte: como vivem nos canaviaisde Sao Paulo. Instituto migrantes Superiorde CienciasAplicadas,Limeira,Brazil. B. F. T., L. M. S. Berka,M. A. Moreira,V. Duarte, Rudorff, and V. G. C. Rosa. 2004. Estimativa de area plantada com cana-de-acucar em municipios do estado de Sao Paulo por meiode imagens de satelites e tecnicas de geoprocessamento: ano safra 2004/2005. INPE-11421-RPQ/762. Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Santos, C. Y. M., D. A. Azevedo, and F. R. Aquino Neto. 2002. Selected organic compounds frombiomass burning oversugarcane foundin theatmospheric paniculatematter Environment 36:3009-3019. areas. Atmospheric plantation Union. 2003. UNICA, Sao Paulo Sugarcane Agroindustry Statistics. (http://www.unica.com.br/i_pages/estatisticas. asp#) and forest declinein a spruce Schulze,E. D. 1989.Airpollution Science244:776-783. (Picea abies) forest. Scopinho,R. A., F. Eid, C. E. F. Vian, and P. R. C da Silva. health:mechanization 1999. New technologies and workers' of sugarcane harvesting. Cadernosde Saude Pubica 15:147161. Silva, A. J. N., and M. R. Ribeiro. 1997. Caracterizacaode Latossolo Amarelo sob cultivocontinuode cana-de-acucar e fisicos. no Estado de Alagoas: atributosmorfologicos RevistaBrasileira de Ciencia do Solo 21:677-684. A. R. Mermut, and M. B. Benke. Silva,A. J.N., M. R. Ribeiro, em 1998. Influencia do cultivocontinuoda cana-de-acucar latossoloamareloscoesos do Estado de Alagoas: propriedade RevistaBrasileira de Cienciado Solo 22: micromorfologicas. 515-525. Kronka,C. A. Silva,A. M., M. A. Nalon, F. J.do Nascimento Alvares, P. B. de Camargo, and L. A. Martinelli.2007. in different Historical land-cover/use slope and riparian buffer zones in watersheds of the stateof Sao Paulo, Brazil. ScientiaAgricola64:325-335. F. M. Silva, D. M. L., P. B. de Camargo, L. A. Martinelli, Lancas, J. S. S. Pinto, and W. E. P. Avelar. In press. in the Piracicabariver basin (Sao Organochlorine pesticides Paulo-Brazil): a survey of sediment,bivalves, and fish. Quimica Nova, (http://quimicanova.sbq.org.br/qn/ No%20Prelo/Artigos/AR06436.pdf) Sparovek,G., and E. Schnug.2001. Temporalerosion-induced soil degradationand yield loss. Soil Science Society of AmericaJournal 65:1479-1486. D. G., S. Gupta, S. T. Waldhoff, M. Q. Wang,T. C. Streets, in China. Bond, and B. Yiyun.2001. Black carbonemissions Environment 35:4281-4296. Atmospheric Tominaga, T. T., F. A. M. Cassaro, O. O. S. Bacchi, K. J. C. Oliveira,and L. C. Timm.2002. Variability Reichardt, of soil watercontentand bulk density in a sugarcanefield. Australian Journal of Soil Research40:605-614. P. C. O., M. W. Oliveira,A. C. Vitti, G. J. C. Gava, Trivelin, Brasileira and J.A. Bendassolli. 2002. Pesquisa Agropecuaria 37:193-201. P. C. O., J.C. S. Rodrigues, and R. L. Victoria.1996. Trivelin, Utilizacao por soqueirade cana-de-acucar de iniciode safra do nitrogenio da da aquamonia-15N e ureia-15N aplicado ao solo em complementoa vinhaca. Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira 31:89-99. P. C. O., R. L. Victoria, and J.C. S. Rodrigues.1995. Trivelin, de finalde Aproveitamenteo por soqueirade cana-de-acucar safrado nitrogenio e ureia-15N da aquamonia-15N aplicado ao solo em complemento a Vinhac^. Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira 30:1375-1385. G. C. M., M. R. S. Silva, and W. Vilegas. 1997. Zamperlini, Identification of polycyclic in sugar aromatichydrocarbons cane soot by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. 46:655-663. Chromatographia

This content downloaded from 199.73.44.216 on Thu, 30 May 2013 12:55:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions