Edexcel AS ChemistryUnit 2

Bonding and intermolecular forces

Electron pair repulsion theory

Bond angles

Linear 180 Triganol Planar 120 Tetrahedral 109.5 Triganol Bipyramidal 90 and 120 Octahedral 90 Lone pairs of electrons count toward an area of electron density but as they repel to a much greater extent they reduce the bond angle by 2.5

Bond length the stronger the bond the shorter the length

Electronegativity The ability to attract the electrons in a covalent bond

Ionic property of covalent bonds

Same applies the other way around

Differences in electronegativity cause permanent dipoles Polar substances dissolve in water as they disrupt hydrogen bonding lattice

Non-polar substances will not dissolve in water

This is because there is not enough energy to make the non-polar substances break the bonds within the polar water molecules

Polar bonds break first in organic chemistry

Polar bonds are always heterolytic fission

Produces one electrophile and one nucleophile

London forces Exist between all atoms Weak force relative to size of electron cloud Random fluctuation will induce instantaneous dipoles

Hydrogen bonding Formed when hydrogen bonds to a highly electronegative atom with an unpaired electron Formed at 180 Strongest intermolecular bonds

Physical properties from bonding Allotropes of carbon

Diamond 4 bonds, giant covalent structure, requires high energy to break as there are numerous strong bonds. No conduction of electricity Graphite 3 bonds in flat sheets, makes it very slippery and useful as a lubricant. Weak bonds between flat layers are london forces. Delocalised electron so conducts electricity Fullerenes Ball shaped (Bucky ball) so strong due to distribution of bonds, conducts also Nanotubes Hollow tubes of carbon atoms, very strong due to rigid shape and conducts electricity

Organic chemistry

Longer chains have more electrons so greater london forces More branching reduces boiling points as chains cant get as close to each other so london forces are weaker

Inorganic Chemistry

Ionisation energies decrease down group 2

This is because the atomic radii increase and the shielding stays the same so the effective nuclear charge is the same but further away

Group 2 reactions:

Group 2 + Oxygen > Metal Oxide (solid) Group 2 + Water > Hydroxide + Hydrogen gas Group 2 + Chlorine > Metal Chloride (solid)

Group 2 Oxide reactions Oxide + Water > Hydroxide Oxide + Acid > Chloride/Nitrate + H2O

Group 2 Hydroxides will also do this, 2H2O results

Group 2 sulphates Solubility decreases down group Test for sulphates: add to Barium Chloride, will give white precipitate

Group 2 hydroxides become less soluble down the group Thermal stability of group 1 and 2 carbonates

Group 1 stable, they dont decompose from heating Group 2 carbonates + heat > Group 2 oxide + CO2

Stability of nitrates and carbonates increase down the group

This is because oxides are more stable, and the first elements are more polarising so they attract the oxygen away from the carbonate

Group 1 and 2 nitrates:

Group 1 decompose to nitrite and oxygen

Group 2 decompose to oxygen, nitrogen and oxide

Flame tests Caused by electron being excited to a higher energy level, when it decreases energy level the extra energy is released as a photon

(Physics!)

Halogens are oxidising agents; their strength decreases down the group Fluorine is the strongest oxidising agent as it has the strongest attraction from the nuclear charge where it is so small

Disproportionation with alkalis

Cold will lead to something like 2NaOH + Cl2 > NaCl + NaClO + H2O Hot forms the halate: 2NaOH + Cl2 > NaCl + NaClO3 + H2O

So for bromine: cold leads to bromide, but if its hot you get a bromate

Iodine thiosulphate titrations An oxidising agent will react with iodine ions These iodine ions will then react with thiosulphate Colour goes from yellow to colourless with just thiosulphate

Adding starch makes it go black as there are still iodine ions, as they react with thiosulphate it goes colourless

Test for halides

Add silver nitrate and colour of precipitate

White = Cl Cream = Br Yellow = I

Confirmation test using ammonia Cl will dissolve with dilute ammonia Br will dissolve with concentrated ammonia I will not dissolve

Reaction rates

Increased by increasing:

Concentration Pressure Surface Area Temperature Alternative reaction routes catalyst

All based on collision theory

Maxwell-boltzmann distribution curves

Total area under the graph must remain constant Increasing rate of reaction means that more particles will be past eA on the energy scale

Equilibria Dynamic state in a closed system due to reversible reactions Le Chatelliers principle says that if you change the environment, the position of equilibria will change to compensate for the environment

So increasing the pressure moves towards the less dense side etc etc.

Reactions of Alcohols

The more methyl groups the C in R-C-OH is bonded to, the more stable the molecule is Combustion Alcohols and sodium > H2 and white precipitate (sodium propanoxide) Substitution with a halogen produces halogenoalkanes

This is electrophilic substitution Iodo/bromoalkanes need acid catalyst

Oxidisation goes from orange to green Only primary and secondary Primary aldehyde and then carboxylic acid

Aldehyde + Benedicts > Red precipitate

Secondary ketone Ketone + Bradys reagent > Yellow/orange precipitate

Halogenoalkanes

The more reactive the halogen, the less reactive the halogenoalkane More methyl groups attached to the C in R-C-X make it more reactive

Electron density pulled away from the halogen

Strength of bond can be determined using aqueous silver nitrate solution (hot) Faster precipitate = weaker bond

Free radical substitution Green chemistry bit, with UV light

Reactions summarised: + Hot aqueous alkali > Alcohol (Nucleophilic substitution) + Concentrated alcoholic alkali (reflux and heat) > Alkene (Elimination) + Alcoholic ammonia (heat under pressure) > Amine