Original citation: Ling, T.-C., Poon, C.-S. (2013) Stress-strain behaviour of fire exposed self-compacting glass concrete.

Fire and Materials; 37(4): 297-310. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fam.2131/full

Stress-strain behaviour of fire exposed self-compacting glass concrete

Tung-Chai Ling1,2, and Chi-Sun Poon1,* 1 Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong. 2 School of Civil Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom Abstract Concrete normally suffers from low stiffness and poor strain capacity after exposure to high temperatures. This study focused on evaluating the effect of recycled glass (RG) on the residual mechanical properties of self-compacting glass concrete (SCGC) after exposure to elevated temperatures. RG was used to replace fine aggregate at ratios of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% by weight. The residual properties were evaluated according to compressive strength, elastic modulus, stress-strain behaviour, and strain at pre-load and peak stress. A comparative assessment of different curing conditions on the SCGC was also conducted. The results showed that there were significant decreases in compressive strength, elastic modulus and concrete stiffness of the concrete with increasing temperature. The use of RG had little influence on the elastic modulus at ambient temperature; however after exposure to 800C, the mechanical properties of the concrete were greatly enhanced by incorporating RG. Keywords: Self-compacting concrete; recycled glass; elevated temperatures; stress-strain behaviour; elastic modulus 1. Introduction When concrete is exposed to fire, physical changes and chemical reactions in the cementitious system begin to take place, including evaporation of water from capillaries and voids, dehydration of cement paste and decomposition of aggregates [1-5]. These processes will be accompanied by significant strength degradation as well as loss of concrete stiffness [6, 7]. The loss of stiffness capacity at elevated temperature may be represented in terms of residual elastic modulus [8]. The major factors influencing the elastic modulus of concrete at elevated temperatures include the type, volume fraction and size of aggregates used (the stiffer and finer the aggregate, the higher the residual elastic modulus), as well as the test (hot and cold) conditions [9, 10]. However, the duration of high temperature exposure, cement type, water-to-cement ratio and sealing (prevention of moisture loss) have less influence on the residual elastic modulus [11]. The original concrete strength and age test apparently also do not greatly affect the residual elastic modulus [12]. First author: t.ling.1@bham.ac.uk; tcling611@yahoo.com Page 1

In the last decade, the use of various types of recycled aggregates as replacements for natural aggregates in concrete has received much research interest [13-18]. This has been suggested to be an effective way to reduce the need to dispose of waste glass as well as to conserve natural sand and stones resources. Most of the previous studies of glassmodified concrete focused on studying the effect of glass replacement levels on the mechanical properties such as compressive strength. They found that the use of recycled glass in concrete had a negative effect on concrete strength and might to deleterious to concrete due to alkali-silica reaction (ASR) [17-19]. To overcome the limitation, some studies [20-22] recommended grinding the glass aggregate to very fine glass powder which induces pozzolanic reactivity to the glass powder and suppresses the potential of ASR. By nature, crushed glass cullets are largely impermeable which would decrease the drying shrinkage and the water absorption when it is used in concrete [23, 24]. Furthermore, the aesthetic pleasing properties of glass cullet have also promoted its use in concrete for building and architectural applications [25, 26]. Up to date, there have only been limited studies on the elastic modulus of glass-modified concrete [17, 26]. No information is available on the elastic modulus and stress-strain curves of glass-modified concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures. This information is a key parameter for determining the integrity of fire-damaged concrete and help make decisions about serviceability and safety of structural members. Also, due to the wider use of self-compacting concrete in building construction [27, 28], the risk of exposing it to fire could be assessed. This study is a further development of our previous work [13] to explore the stress-strain behaviour of self-compacting glass concrete (SCGC) under high temperatures. SCGC containing 0% to 100% recycled glass (RG) for replacing natural fine aggregate were prepared. The SCGC was cured in water and air for 60 days before being exposed to elevated temperatures of up to 800C. The influence of glass content, curing conditions, and exposure temperature on the residual mechanical properties including cylinder compressive strength, elastic modulus, pre-strain, peak strain, and stress-strain curve of SCGC were investigated. 2. Experimental details 2.1. Materials The materials used to prepare the SCGC mixtures were coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, ordinary Portland cement and fly ash. The total content of SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 of fly ash is more than 70%, which represent a typical composition of class F fly ash based on ASTM C 618 [29]. Two different sizes (20/10 mm and 10/5 mm) of crushed granite with a specific gravity of 2.62 were used as the coarse aggregates. Crushed fine stone with a nominal maximum size of 5 mm and a specific gravity of 2.62 was used as the natural fine aggregate. The crushed fine stone has a water absorption capacity of 0.87. Crushed recycled glass (with a particle gradation close to that of the crushed fine stone) obtained locally from a waste glass recycler was used as the fine aggregate replacement (see Fig. 1). The recycled glass has a specific gravity of 2.49 and almost zero water absorption capacity. The gradation curves of the coarse and fine aggregates are shown in Fig. 2. ASTM Type I ordinary Portland cement and fly ash complying with ASTM class First author: t.ling.1@bham.ac.uk; tcling611@yahoo.com Page 2

F ash were used as binder materials in the study. The physical properties and chemical compositions of the cement and fly ash are presented in Table 1. A superplasticizer ADVA 109 with a specific gravity of 1.045, containing no added chloride, was used to achieve the desired workability in the SCGC mixtures.

Fig. 1. Photograph of recycled crushed glass aggregate with particle size less than 5 mm.
100
Recy cled g las s

90
Cru s h ed fin e s to n e

80 C u m ulative P assing (% ) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 20 10 5 2.36 1.18 0.6 Sie ve Size (mm)

<10mm A ag g reg ate >10mm ag g reg ate M ixin g ratio o f co ars e ag g reg ates an d cru s h ed fin e ag g reg ate M ixin g ratio s o f co ars e ag g reg ates with recy cled g las s

0.3

0.15

Fig. 2. Sieve analysis of coarse and fine aggregates.

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Table 1: Chemical compositions and physical properties of cement and fly ash. Chemical composition (%) Cement Fly ash ASTM C618 limit (Class F) Calcium oxide CaO Silicon dioxide (SiO2) Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 Magnesium oxide (MgO) Sodium oxide (Na2O) Potassium (K2O) Sulfur trioxide (SO3) Loss on ignition Physical properties Specific gravity Blaine fineness (cm2/g) 63.15 19.61 7.33 3.32 2.54 0.13 0.39 2.13 2.97 3.16 3519 <3 56.79 28.21 5.31 90.31 5.21 0.45 1.34 0.68 3.90 2.31 3960

<70.0

< 5.0 <6.0

2.2. Mix proportions The mix proportions of the prepared SCGC are given in Table 2. All the SCGC mixtures were designed to have a constant binder content of 623.3 kg/m3, a water-to-cement ratio of 0.35 and a total aggregate-to-binder ratio of 2.5. Five different SCGC mixtures were prepared by using crushed recycled glass (RG) to replace crushed fine stone (CFS) at levels of 0%, 25% 50%, 75% and 100%. The replacement by weight method was adopted due to the relatively similar specific gravities between the two types of aggregates. The dosage of superplasticizer (SP) was varied from 4.2 to 6.6 kg/m3 in order to achieve a 750 50mm targeted slump flow diameter required for a self-compacting concrete mixture. Table 2: Mix proportions (kg/m3). Notation RG0 RG25 RG50 RG75 RG100 Cement Fly ash 467.5 467.5 467.5 467.5 467.5 155.8 155.8 155.8 155.8 155.8 Coarse aggregate 20mm 249.4 249.4 249.4 249.4 249.4 10mm 498.7 498.7 498.7 498.7 498.7 Fine aggregate CFS 810.4 709.1 405.2 101.3 0 RG 0 101.3 405.2 709.1 810.4 Water amount 218.2 218.2 218.2 218.2 218.2 w/c 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 SP 6.6 6.4 6.1 5.9 4.2

2.3. Samples preparation and fresh properties All the SCGC mixes were mixed using a laboratory concrete mixer for approximately 5 min until the mixtures achieved a consistency of self-compatibility. All the properties of the fresh SCGC mixes were tested according to the EFNARC standard [30]. A lower SP dosage was required as the content of RG increased in the SCGC mixtures. This was First author: t.ling.1@bham.ac.uk; tcling611@yahoo.com Page 4

attributed to the impermeable property of RG which improved the workability of the mixtures. The fresh properties results summarized in Table 3 show that the slump flow, blocking ratio and segregation ratio of all the SCGC mixtures tested in this study met the EFNARC [30] requirements. Table 3: Results on fresh SCGC properties. Notation Slump flow diameter (mm) RG0 RG25 RG50 RG75 RG100 EFNARC Limit 740 750 775 740 770 650-800

Blocking ratio 0.81 0.80 0.94 0.86 0.89 0.80-1.0

Segregation ratio (%) 5.03 11.32 13.38 11.38 16.08 0-15

2.4. Curing condition After the fresh properties testing, the fresh concrete mixtures were used to cast 30 100200 mm cylinder samples without any external vibration. After 4 h of casting, the samples were covered with a thin plastic sheet in the laboratory at room temperature (233C). One day later, the samples were demoulded, 15 cylinders were stored in a water tank (water curing) at an average temperature of 253C, and 15 other cylinders were kept in air (air curing) at room temperature of 233C and 755% relative humidity. 2.5. Heating regimes and spalling After 60 days of curing, the samples were conveyed to an electrical furnace and heated at a constant rate of 5C per min from room temperature to 300C, 500C, 600C and 800C separately. A peak temperature of 800C was chosen to evaluate the effect of thermal damage and transition of glass aggregate on the stress-strain behaviour of the concrete. Once the electrical furnace reached the desired temperature, the maximum temperature was maintained for 4 h in order to ensure uniform heating throughout the concrete samples. After such heating treatment, the samples were allowed to cool naturally to room temperature before further mechanical testing. No spalling damage was observed for all the water and air cured samples containing RG. This is probably due to the lower (0.93 W m1 K1) thermal conductivity of RG [31] which decelerates the rate of temperature rise and reduces the risk of spalling. However, for the water cured samples prepared with no RG replacement, spalling damage was observed in the 600C and 800C heating treatments. 2.6. Test method Before and after the heating processes, the cylinder compressive strength and the elastic modulus (compressive mode) were performed conforming to ASTM C 469 [32]. Three samples were tested for each heating temperature and each curing condition.

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3. Results and discussion 3.1. Residual compressive strength Fig. 3 shows the residual compressive strength of the water and air cured samples after exposure to elevated temperatures. The relative residual strengths (ratio of residual strength after exposure to elevated temperatures to the initial strength at ambient temperature) of the SCGC samples are shown in Fig. 4.
R G0 R G25 R G 50 R G 75 R G 100

80 R esid u a l co m p ressiv e stren g th (M P a ) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 W a te r Air 20C W a te r Air 3 0 0 C W a te r Air 5 0 0 C W a te r Air 6 0 0 C W a te r Air

8 0 0 C

Fig. 3. Residual compressive strength of water and air cured SCGC samples after subjected to elevated temperatures.
R G0 R G 25 R G 50 R G 75 R G100

1 .0 0 .9 R ela tiv e resid u a l stren g th 0 .8 0 .7 0 .6 0 .5 0 .4 0 .3 0 .2 0 .1 0 .0 W a te r 3 0 0C Air W a ter 5 0 0 C Air W a te r Air W a te r Air

6 0 0 C

8 00 C

Fig. 4. Relative residual strength of water and air cured SCGC samples at elevated temperatures. First author: t.ling.1@bham.ac.uk; tcling611@yahoo.com Page 6

At ambient temperature, the initial compressive strength of the water and air cured SCGC prepared with different RG content ranged from 47.7-73.2 MPa and 39.1-58.4 MPa, respectively. The strength decreased with increasing RG content. It is believed that the reduction of strength is attributed to the weak bonding at the interface between the RG aggregates and the cement pastes [24, 25]. Interestingly, the influence of RG on the cylinder compressive strength in this paper was higher than on the cube strength reported in the literature [33] and this may be an indication of the sensitivity of the cylinder strength to aggregate mortar bond failure. The water cured samples had higher initial strength than that of the air cured samples for all RG replacement ratios. As expected, the strength decreased with increasing exposure temperature. The reduction in compressive strength with the use of RG was less significant at higher temperatures. The reduction in concrete strength with increasing temperature can be attributed to the following reasons. Upon first heating, substantial amounts of moisture are driven out from the pores close to the concrete surface. Up to 300C, dehydration of ettringite, C-SH and calcium carboaluminate hydrates takes place [1-2]. In the temperature range from 300C to 500C, there is dehydroxylation of calcium hydroxide [3]. From 500C to 600C, in conjunction with dehydroxylation, micro-cracks form in the specimen which further weaken the interfacial transition zone as well as bonding between the aggregate and the cement paste [4]. It is known that the rate of C-S-H decomposition is further enhanced when the temperature is further increased to 800C [3]. Therefore, at 800C, the main hydration products of hydrated cement paste and C-S-H are considerably decomposed and result in a significant drop in concrete strength. As can be seen in Fig. 4, at each heating temperature, the relative residual strength of the water cured samples was lower than that of the air cured samples. This means that the decrease in strength for the water cured samples was much higher than that of air cured samples, under the same heating condition. The enhancement effect of water curing on concrete strength also decreased with increasing temperature (see Fig. 5). Nevertheless, in general, the residual strength of the water cured samples remained higher than that of the air cured samples for all the tested temperatures.

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R G0

R G 25

R G50

R G75

R G100

Residual strengthwater/ Residual strengthair

1 .4 1 .3 1 .2 1 .1 1 .0 0 .9 0 .8 20 300 500 T e mpe ra ture (C ) 600 800

Fig. 5. Residual strength (water/air) ratio of SCGC samples at elevated temperatures. 3.2. Elastic modulus in compression 3.2.1. Initial elastic modulus Previous results on the effect of RG content on the elastic modulus of concrete at ambient temperatures were somewhat limited and tended to be inconsistent. Some data reported that the elastic modulus increased with increasing RG content [17], whereas others reported that it was difficult to identify the differences between the elastic modulus of concrete prepared with 50% and 100% RG [26]. They further noted that the elastic modulus of glass-modified concrete was more related to the quality of the materials (cement and coarse aggregate) used for concrete preparation. The dependence of E (elastic modulus) values on RG content and curing conditions at ambient temperatures are shown in Fig. 6. The results show that for both the water and air cured samples, the E values did not vary much with the increasing use of RG in the samples despite the fact that the compressive strength did show a decreasing trend (Fig 5). The results are consistent with those of the previously reported data [26]. This further demonstrated that the elastic modulus of aggregate rather than the bonding strength (between aggregate (RG) and cement paste) is the major factor in determining the E values of concrete. The relatively higher modulus of the glass aggregate (72 GPa) than the granite aggregate (54 GPa) [34] might contribute to the relatively small loss of modulus of the concrete. For a given RG content, the E values of the water cured samples were slightly higher than that of the air cured samples.

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W ate r curing

Air curing

35 30 E la stic m o d u lu s (G P a ) 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 25 50 75 100

N a tura l fine a g g re g a te re pla c e d by re c yc le d g la s s (% )

Fig. 6. Effect of recycled glass content on elastic modulus of water and air cured samples at ambient temperature. 3.2.2. Residual elastic modulus The residual and relative residual elastic modulus of the water and air cured SCGC samples after exposure to the high temperatures are shown in Figs. 7 and 8, respectively. They are consistent with the results obtained in the residual compressive strength test. The residual elastic modulus for both the water and air cured samples decreased with increasing exposure temperatures. Fig. 7 shows that as the heating temperature was increased from 20C to 300C, the elastic modulus dropped significantly (ranging from 15.9 to 19.2 GPa and 14.3 to 17.1 GPa, a reduction of about 39-50% and 45-52% for the water and air cured samples, respectively). At 500C, the elastic modulus was further reduced. A further slight reduction in residual elastic modulus was observed after the heating temperature was increased from 500C to 600C. At 600C, the elastic modulus of the water and air cured SCGC samples were only 4.0-4.6 GPa and 3.7-4.2 GPa, respectively. It can be noted that, except for the samples containing 100% RG, the residual elastic modulus of the other samples kept decreasing as the temperature was increased from 600C to 800C.

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R G0

R G25

R G50

R G75

R G100

40 R esid u a l ela stic m o d u lu s (G P a ) 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 W a te r Air 20C W a te r Air W a te r Air W a te r Air W a te r Air

3 0 0 C

5 0 0 C

6 0 0 C

8 0 0 C

Fig. 7. Residual elastic modulus of water and air cured SCGC samples at elevated temperatures.

RG0

R G25

R G 50

R G75

R G100

0 .7 R ela tiv e resid u a l ela stic m o d u lu s 0 .6 0 .5 0 .4 0 .3 0 .2 0 .1 0 .0 W a te r 3 0 0 C Air W a te r 5 0 0 C Air W a te r Air W a te r Air

6 0 0 C

8 0 0 C

Fig. 8. Relative residual elastic modulus of water and air cured SCGC samples at elevated temperatures.

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3.2.2.1. Effect of recycled glass content on residual elastic modulus From Figs. 7 and 8, two interesting effects of RG content on the residual elastic modulus can be observed. Firstly, it can be observed that in the heating range of 20C-600C, the higher the RG content, the higher the reduction in elastic modulus. Second, in the heating temperature range of 600C-800C, incorporating RG in the concrete significantly enhanced the residual elastic modulus. The enhancement was proportional to the RG content. This may be because in this temperature range, the RG exhibits a transition glass process of melting and re-solidification (after cooling), which could have a pore-filling effect to fill up micro-cracks and pores in the concrete matrix, thus increasing the elastic modulus. This is in agreement with the results in the literature [33], which indicated that concrete containing RG after exposure to 800C had a better resistance to water penetration, probably due to the transformation process of glass in the heated concrete which is able to provide a void filling effect and control the progression of cracking. 3.2.2.2. Effect of curing conditions on residual elastic modulus Fig. 9 shows the effect of curing conditions on the residual elastic modulus after exposure to the elevated temperatures. In contrast to residual concrete strength (see Fig. 5), the influence of water curing had less influence on the E values in the temperature range of 20C-600C. However, the enhancement effect of water curing became more dominant at 800C, particularly for the samples with higher RG content.

R G0

R G2 5

R G5 0

R G7 5

R G1 0 0

Residual elastic moduluswater/ Residual elastic modulusair

1 .6 1 .5 1 .4 1 .3 1 .2 1 .1 1 .0 0 .9 0 .8 20 300 500 T e mpe ra ture (C ) 600 800

Fig. 9. Residual elastic modulus (water/air) ratio of SCGC samples at elevated temperatures. 3.3. Relationship between elastic modulus and cylinder compressive strength The relationship between cylinder compressive strength and elastic modulus at ambient temperature and after exposure to the elevated temperatures are presented in Figs. 10 and First author: t.ling.1@bham.ac.uk; tcling611@yahoo.com Page 11

11, respectively. For ambient temperature (Fig. 10), the RG content and curing conditions had a larger influence on the initial compressive strength than on the initial elastic modulus. This shows that the bond strength and cement hydration are less important parameters in affecting the E values than is compressive strength.
80 70 In itia l co m p ressiv e stren g th (M P a ) 60 50 40 30 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 R e cycled g la ss c o nte nt (% )
Inital compre s s ive s tre ngth for wate r cure d S CG C Initial E value for air cure d SCGC Initial E value s for wate r cure d S CG C Inital compre s s ive s tre ngth for air cure d SCGC

80 70 In ita il E v a lu e (G P a ) 60 50 40 30 20

Fig. 10. Comparison of initial elastic modulus and compressive strength at different RG content and curing conditions. Fig. 11 shows a non-linear relationship between the residual compressive strength and residual E values. This is because as the temperature increased to the range of 300C600C, the influence of RG content on compressive strength reduced. Moreover, after 800C, the positive effect of the molten glass which acted as a filler became more significant. But this contributed more to the residual elastic modulus (change in the yaxis) than to the residual compressive strength (change in the x-axis).
(a)
20 18 R esid u a l ela stic m o d u lu s (G P a ) 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
W -R G0 W -R G2 5 W -R G5 0 W -R G7 5 W -R G1 00

(b)
300 C
R esid u a l ela stic m o d u lu s (G P a ) 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
A -R G0 A -R G25 A -R G50 A -R G75 A -R G10 0

300 C

800 C

500 C 600 C

500 C 800 C 600 C

R e s idua l c o mpre s s ive s tre ng th (M P a )

R e s idua l c o mpre s s ive s tre ng th (M P a )

Fig. 11. Relationship between residual elastic modulus and residual compressive strength obtained from (a) water and (b) air cured SCGC samples. First author: t.ling.1@bham.ac.uk; tcling611@yahoo.com Page 12

3.4. Pre-strain The pre-strain of the water and air cured SCGC samples are shown in Fig. 12. Pre-strain is defined as the strain corresponding to pre-load stress (at the start of the third loading and unloading cycle) [35]. As the temperature increased, the pre-strain increased. The pre-strain attained for the control water cured samples corresponding to 0.5 MPa stress at 300C, 500C, 600C and 800C were two, five, 15 and 25 times the pre-strain obtained at ambient temperature. The increase of pre-strain can be explained by the presence of pre-existing cracks due to heating and cooling. It is worth mentioning that the use of RG had a beneficial effect on the pre-strain attained, particularly at high temperatures. A significant decrease of pre-strain at high temperatures was probably due to the transformation of solid to viscous glass preventing the formation of serious cracks. As seen in Fig. 13, the control samples without RG experienced serious cracking around the edges of the samples after exposure to 800C. It can be seen that the degree of cracking on the concrete surface decreased consistently with increasing RG content. On the other hand, only minor micro-cracks were observed on the surface samples incorporated with 100% RG.

R G0

R G25

R G50

R G 75

R G100

Pre-strain at pre-loaded stress (m/mm)

3 .0 2 .5 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 W a te r Air 20 C W a te r Air W a te r Air W a te r Air W a te r Air

3 0 0 C

5 0 0 C

6 0 0 C

8 0 0 C

Fig. 12. Pre-strain of water and air cured SCGC samples at elevated temperatures.

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(a)

(b)

20 mm Magnificent 3

20 mm Magnificent 3

(c)

(d)

20 mm Magnificent 3

20 mm Magnificent 3

(e)

W800-RG100
Glass-cement paste interfaces

20 mm Magnificent 3

3mm

Fig. 13. The photograph of water cured samples containing (a) 0%, (b) 25%, (c) 50%, (d) 75% and (e) 100% of RG after exposure to 800C temperature. 3.6. Stress-strain curves The influence of RG content on the stress-strain curves of the samples at ambient and elevated temperatures are shown in Figs. 14-17. At the ambient temperature (see Fig. 14), the presence of RG had little influence on the linear part (between ~2% to 40% of its maximum stress) of the stress-strain curve. Beyond this, the curves (non-linear) became flatter with increasing RG content. This can be explained by the weak bonding between the RG and the cement paste in the concrete matrix and more micro-cracks developing at the glass-cement pastes interfaces. Also, a progressive debonding process occurred at the interfaces as the stress further increased causing a major increase in the strain capacity. It is notable that the peak strain of the water cured SCGC samples also varied with the RG content. The peak strain is defined as the strain attained at the peak stress. Similar to the pre-strain, the main factor that influenced the peak strain at ambient temperature was the aggregate type. The peak strain of the control unheated sample was the highest, which can be attributed to the lower elastic modulus value of the crushed fine stone than that of RG [36]. It can be noticed that the unheated specimens failed soon after they had reached their peak stresses. This phenomenon was more pronounced in the water cured samples without RG replacement. The peak strain decreased as the RG content increased. For the

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100% RG sample, the peak strain was reduced by 24% and 30% for the water and air cured samples, respectively.

RG0 Non-linear portion RG25 RG50 RG75 RG100 Linear portion

Fig. 14. Effect of RG content on stress-strain curves of water cured SCGC samples at ambient temperature
W 300-R G0 W 300-R G25 W 300-R G50 W 300-R G75 W 300-R G100

70 60 50 S tress (M P a ) 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 S tra in ( m/mm) 4 5

Fig. 15. Effect of RG content on stress-strain curves of water cured SCGC samples at temperature of 300C First author: t.ling.1@bham.ac.uk; tcling611@yahoo.com Page 15

W 600-R G 0

W 600-R G 25

W 600-R G50

W 600-R G 75

W 600-R G 100

30 25 20 S tress (M P a ) 15 10 5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

S tra in ( m/mm)

Fig. 16. Effect of RG content on stress-strain curves of water cured SCGC samples at temperature of 600C

RG10 0 RG75 RG50 RG25

RG0

Fig. 17. Effect of RG content on stress-strain curves of water cured SCGC samples at temperature of 800C. First author: t.ling.1@bham.ac.uk; tcling611@yahoo.com Page 16

For the concrete samples that were exposed to high temperatures, as expected, a significant gain in strain capacity (deformation) and loss in concrete stiffness was observed before fracture occurred. As can be seen in Figs 15 and 16, the peak strain increased with increased temperature. In the case of the control sample, the peak strain was increased by 150%, 248% and 386% with respect to that at the ambient temperature 300C, 600C and 800C, respectively. It can be noted that the positive influence of RG on peak strain was less significant for SCGC samples after exposure to 600C, probably because there were large volume changes in the coarse granite aggregates and crushed fine stone (due to thermal expansion) [37]. However, significant changes in stress-strain relationships were observed after exposure to 800C. Fig. 17 shows that the RG replacement percentages had a significant positive influence on the stress-strain curve. For the linear-portion, as the RG content increased, the slope of the curves increased, indicating that the transition change of the glass at high temperature had a positive influence on the stress-strain curves. The results also indicate that at any stress lower than 10MPa (the peak stress of RG100), the water cured RG100 sample suffered lower strain than the water cured RG0 sample. Also, the RG100 sample suffered lower strain than RG25, RG50 and RG75 at any stress level applied. 4. Conclusion Based on the experimental investigation, the following conclusions can be drawn: The compressive strength decreased with increasing recycled glass (RG) content and heating temperature. For the same exposure temperature, the residual strength of the water cured samples reduced more than for the air cured samples. The use of RG appeared to have no influence on the initial elastic modulus of concrete. As compared to the air cured samples, the water cured samples showed a higher initial elastic modulus. For the heated samples, two distinct effects of RG can be identified. In the temperature range of 20C-600C, the use of RG decreased the residual elastic modulus. However, at 800C, a beneficial effect of RG on residual elastic modulus was observed. This is because at this temperature, the transition of RG from solid to liquid fills the internal cracks, and thus enhances the pore structures and properties of the heated samples. The pre-strain and peak strain increased with increasing temperature. The use of RG greatly reduced the strain capacity especially after exposure to 800C. For 100% replacement of RG, the strain obtained at pre-load was reduced by 89.3% and 82.3% for the water and air cured samples, respectively. As for peak strain, at any stress level lower than 10MPa (the peak stress of RG100 at 800C), the water cured RG100 sample suffered a lower strain than that of the water cured RG0 sample. The use of RG had little influence on the linear ascending portion of the stress-strain curves of the unheated concrete samples. However, with increasing temperature, the shape of the stress-strain curves was significantly changed and a significant decrease in concrete stiffness was observed.

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