−∞≤x≤∞
−∞ ≤ y ≤ ∞
−∞ ≤ z ≤ ∞ (3.1)
^z
z
y^
(x,y,z)
x^
y
x
3.1. These unit vectors are every where mutually orthogonal. The “del”
operator in rectangular coordinates is simply:
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ . (3.2)
∂x ∂y ∂z
The Laplacian operator in rectangular coordinates is :
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 = + + . (3.3)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Coordinate Systems 19
0≤r≤∞
0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
−∞ ≤ z ≤ ∞ (3.4)
^z
^
θ
z
(r,θ,z) ^r
y
r
x θ
rized as follows:
√
x = r cos θ r = + x2 + y 2
y = r sin θ θ = arctan (y/x)
z=z z=z
^r
z (r,θ,φ) ^φ
θ
^
θ
y
φ
x