How to Pass the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)

Christine Gapuz

FOLLOW Learn a few tips on how to pass the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET). Prepare for the LET with the help of these tips. Young or old, fresh graduate or teacher for many years, in order to be a licensed teacher, one needs to pass the board exam for teachers or the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET). To test-takers, the mere idea of taking a comprehensive exam is enough to make one shiver and sweat. All the more if the exam lasts an entire day! I took the LET in October 2009and PASSED! Read about my personal experience here. Here are some tips and tricks that can help you review, prepare and even pass!

Familiarize yourself with the LETs table of specifications and point system. The table of specifications, as every teacher should know, identifies the topics covered by a test and how much weight each topic is given. Every board exam has one. A copy of the LET coverage (updated November 2011) is included in the kit the PRC gave you after your application. The general distribution of items is: General Education, 150 items; Professional Education, 150 items; Major or Specialization, 150 items (as of April 2011, thanks to update from Jhay_Cee). Your score wont be based on the raw score but on this percentage distribution: General Education, 20%; Professional Education, 40%; Major or Specialization, 40%. The passing rate is 75%, but you also need to get 50% in all three areas. Given all those numbers, you can plan out your approach to achieving the passing rate! Identify your strengths and weaknesses. So you hate Math and love Literature. Knowing your strong points and waterloos will help you identify topics to prioritize and spend more time in during your review. Because of the rating system, its crucial you score high in all three areas. Even if you get a perfect score in your specialization, you still need to correctly answer Math and Statistics questions to pass the other two areas. Set a study schedule. Unless youre one of those people who perform better when cramming, and are sure they will pass the exam without much effort, then you need to set a study schedule. If youre already teaching or working, this will help you manage your time. Make a timetable with dates and time frames, and topics you plan to study. Some review centers start as early as four months before the exam. Assess your capacity and situation if you need more or less time than that. Keep a healthy body for a healthy mind. In order for your brain to be on tiptop shape, your body has to be in excellent shape. Eat lots of vegetables and fruits, especially berries, nuts and

cruciferous veggies like broccoli. Choose fish over pork. Always stay hydrated, too, and get ample sleep time. Exercise! Take a stroll every day, or do stretches while at work. Physical activity pumps oxygen-rich blood into the brain, firing up your neurons. Answer sample tests and reviewers. Lots of them. The LET is a board exam, and like all board exams, it has a test bank or inventory of questions. This means that more often than not, a lot of test items have already appeared in past examinations, and some appear in every examination. There are a lot of reviewers you can choose from, but I suggest picking those by Philippine Normal University (PNU) professors. (Theyre the ones who draft the test questions) Answering sample tests, complete with answer sheets, also serves as practice for you in testtaking especially in terms of managing your time and in shading circles. Ask for help. Maybe youre a fresh graduate, maybe youve been teaching for some years already. No matter, reviewing is always much easier and more fun when you have someone to help you. That someone could be a co-teacher, a department head, a former professor or an entire class of reviewees. The point is, if you come across a topic you cant put your finger on, or an interpretation you need to clarify, someones there to answer your questions. This will save you some research time, and earn you more tips and information, too. Make a cheat sheet. Im not talking about a cheater's sheet or kodigo, of course. With all the information you need to remember, and all the addenda you have written on your notebooks, sometimes the most basic can get lost. Write down all your mnemonics, definitions and formula on small-sized paper or index cards. Bring your cheat sheet along with you wherever you go, so you can easily take a peek for a quick review. Exercise your HOTS. With 600 questions, you might be tempted to think that the best way to go is through memorization. But the LET is also designed to test your HOTShigher order thinking skills. There are test questions that will require your powers of analysis. Practice analyzing quotations and short situational studies and drawing generalizations from your analysis. For Professional Education where majority of the questions are on learning theories, mnemonics wont be enough. To make analysis easier, choose one situation or object, and apply the theories on that. When you encounter a question on a theory, all youll have to do is think of that situation or object. Example: If a teacher saw a student sleeping in class, what would she do if she believes in (insert philosophy of education)? Rest before the big day. Prepare everything a week before the big day so youll have no worries and errands bothering you. Buy the things you need such as pencils and envelopes, and even the snacks you will bring along with you. Have the clothes you will wear ready and hanging in your closet already. The temptation to study right to the very last hour before the exam will be strongbut fight it! No more studying at least three days before exam day. Do recreational activities like watching a movie or taking a stroll in the park. On exam day itselfstay calm! Why is it that even graduates from reputable schools sometimes fail the LET? Maybe they panicked or they were overconfident. Moderation is the key, so feel confident about the things you studied and stay calm even if you dont know the answer to the very first question. Read the question carefully and look at all the options before

answering. Always check the time to make sure you have enough time to answer all questions. And also, check if youre shading the right circle under the right number. *photo by Arjun Kartha10 Tips for Passing the Licensure Exam for Teachers (LET) First published on March 11, 2009 | Updated on March 6, 2013 | Education | 338 comments

After reviewing for the Licensure Exam for Teachers and passing it, I decided to share my ten LET passing tips here on my blog. These tips are essentially helpful if you decide not to enroll in a review center and just review on your own to get a license for teaching. # 1 KNOW YOUR WEAK AND STRONG SUBJECTS/CLASSES. Allot a few hours each day or each week to review the lessons for classes you did well when you were still in college. Enjoy this review time so you can easily remember what you are re-learning. Allot more time, however, on classes you were weak in. Well, at least if you are weak in mathematics for example, make sure you dont miss reviewing the concepts that will be tested in the General Math part of the licensure exam. It will be easy to find out your areas of weakness. Check the grades in your transcript or assess yourself which among the classes you took you dont remember much about. See my pointers to review based on PRCs table of specification (TOS), which was available for download in first week of June 2011. Also read the coverage of the exam with schedule. # 2 UNDERSTAND THE MAJOR THEORIES, CONCEPTS AND TECHNIQUES IN PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION SUBJECTS. Understanding the theories and concepts by heart will allow you to answer questions that are written to confuse you. There are times that you have to choose which among the situations on the choices will be logical based on theories or concepts mentioned or implied in the question. I didnt have any teaching experience when I took the exam so I really based a lot of my answers on what I remembered from my college years. See some pointers for Professional Education subjects. # 3 STRIVE HARD TO IMPROVE YOUR ANALYTICAL SKILLS ON ANSWERING QUESTIONS. After you reviewed the theories and concepts, you should test your understanding by differentiating and explaining these in your own words. While reviewing, rephrase ideas and think of actual applications. For example, in methods of teaching, allow yourself to compare method 1 with method 2, then ask yourself why method 1 is preferred than the other on certain situations. Ask yourself questions like:

Why are you doing _________? Why is it similar to ______________? What if you will not _________, what will happen? Why the result is different? How can I apply this? Have I experienced this myself? What other examples can I think of? In other words, this is about ____________.

Just keep asking yourself regarding whatever youve just read on your review. Analyze and answer in your own words. If there are questions at the end of each chapter of your book, answer those questions. Enjoy this process so you will remember. #4 REVIEW GENERAL EDUCATION SUBJECTS. Remember that you have to pass all three sets of tests including General Education (for Secondary Education) and two sets of the tests (for Elementary Education). Dont assume that General Education is easy since you took the Gen Ed classes when you were in Elementary or High School. Remember that a lot of years had passed. So refresh your memory especially on common mathematical equations (e.g. Fractions, Volumes, Areas, Percentages, Ages, Distance and Time computations) and major science concepts (e.g. Matter, Gravity, Mass, Energy, Friction). Youll never know what will show up in your test. Solve problems listed on your review materials or old books. # 5 PREPARE EVERYTHING YOU NEED FOR THE EXAM. Make sure you have read the test guidelines, which included the things you need to bring for the exam. Also check if the calculator you plan to bring for the exam is in PRCs list of allowed calculators. If not, buy or borrow a calculator that has a model listed there (I bought mine). If you dont want to buy a new one, make sure you have a non-programmable calculator. But dont take my word on this because I wasnt sure if other proctors had allowed calculators not on the list. Although my friend said she didnt even check the list and just grabbed a basic calculator on the exam day. Proctors check each calculator before the exam starts. # 6 GET ENOUGH SLEEP BEFORE THE EXAM. Make sure you dont feel drowsy while taking the exam so you have enough time to answer all the test questions. You dont want to fail because you didnt have enough sleep the night before. # 7 AVOID ERASURES, OR MAKE THE ERASURE CLEAN AT LEAST. AND OF COURSE, SHADE IT PROPERLY!

In Centro Escolar University (CEU), where I attended college from 2003 to 2007, we used Scantron papers for our prelim, mid-term, and final exams. So, Im used to answering tests by shading boxes. I knew how erasures could make a bad score. So before you shade it, make sure you are shading the right answer, or at least it is your final answer. If you need to erase it, make sure it is clean. But I still dont think it is a good idea. So, before the exam day, try the eraser you plan to bring. On a white paper, or a semi-cardboard white paper, write something on it with the pencil you plan to bring and erase this writing with this eraser. If the eraser erases cleanly your writing, then you are good. I also make sure when I shade the box of my answer, I dont shade it beyond the box (huwag lumampas ang shading). Dont shade it heavily too (Baka masira mo ung papel). # 8 SKIP QUESTIONS YOU ARENT SURE AND GO BACK TO THEM LATER ON. There are some questions that no matter how well you prepared for the exam, you will have no idea what the answer is or it will take you a lot of time to answer it. If you come across to questions like these skip them first. Answer questions that you know as much as you can then go back to the questions you skipped. If you still cant figure out the right answer the second time you look at the skipped question, make an educated guess. Eliminate options that are obvious detractors and you will end up with two best possible answers. Make a very very educated guess at this point when you really cant figure the right one out. Or follow your instinct (See Tip #10). # 9 FOLLOW INSTRUCTIONS. Listen to what the proctor is telling you during the exam. If you are confused, ask the proctor directly not your seatmate. # 10 BRING WITH YOU YOUR COMMON SENSE. Most of the time, you havent reviewed whatever appears on the real exam. What will help you answer the exam are your basic understanding of the topics and your analytical skill. Dont overdo it though because you might miss the right answer.

My Story: I completed 18 credits in Education together with my degree in Mass Communications-Journalism. In 2008, a year after I graduated, I took the Licensure Exam for Teachers or LET held in September. The challenging exam made me think of enrolling in a review class, but at the end, I chose to study on my own. Not an easy choice but I was fortunate to have my friend enrolled in a review class that I photocopied her reviewers.

I started to self-review though just a month away before the exam, and took it more seriously just two weeks before the exam (define cramming!). If I had a bigger goal like to be one of the top 10 examinees, I would had taken the review more seriously and started the review months before or took an earlier initiative to enroll in a review center (excuses!). I just wanted to pass the exam and get a license. Im glad I did, with an overall score between 82-84%.

Related articles:

3 Great Tips on How to Get Better Scores in Exams More tips when taking the LET Free online educational resources that can be your reviewer for LET Exam Download Pointers to Review for LET (Gen. Educ. and Prof. Education) Online Resources for TLE Major Online Resources for English Major

History of education From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

School of Aristotle, fresco by Gustav Spangenberg. Educational research

Disciplines

Evaluation

Organization Psychology

Technology History

Philosophy International education School counseling School psychology Special education Teacher education

Curricular domains

Arts

Business Early childhood

Language Literacy

Mathematics Science

Social science Technology

Vocational

Methods

Case study Conversation analysis Discourse analysis Factor analysis Factorial experiment Focus group Meta-analysis Multivariate statistics Participant observation v

Presumably every generation, since the beginning of human existence, somehow passed on its stock of values, traditions, methods and skills to the next generation.[1] The passing on of culture is also known as enculturation and the learning of social values and behaviours issocialization. The history of the curricula of such education reflects history itself, the history of knowledge, beliefs, skills and cultures of humanity.[2][3] As the customs and knowledge of ancient civilizations became more complex, many skills were passed down from a person skilled at the job - for example in animal husbandry, farming, fishing, food preparation, construction, military skills. Oral traditions were central in societies without written texts.[4] Literacy in preindustrial societies was associated with civil administration, law, long distance trade or commerce, and religion.[5] A formal

schooling in literacy was provided to an elite group either at religious institutions or at the palaces of the rich and powerful. Providing literacy to most children has been a development of the last 150 or 200 years, or even last 50 years in some Third World countries. Schools for the young have historically been supplemented with advanced training, especially in Europe and China, for priests, bureaucrats and businessmen. For most craftsmen skills were learned during an apprenticeshipas for example most lawyers and physicians before the mid-19th century. Contents [hide]

1 Education in prehistory 2 Education in ancient civilization

o o o o

2.1 The Middle East 2.2 Indian Subcontinent 2.3 China 2.4 Greece and Rome

3 Formal education in the Middle Ages (500-1600 AD)

o o o o o o

3.1 Europe 3.2 Islamic world 3.3 China 3.4 India 3.5 Japan 3.6 Central and South American civilizations

3.6.1 Aztec 3.6.2 Inca

4 After the 15th century

o

4.1 Europe

4.1.1 Europe overview 4.1.2 France 4.1.3 United Kingdom

4.1.3.1 England 4.1.3.2 Scotland

4.2 Japan

4.2.1 Meiji reforms

o o o o o o

4.3 India 4.4 Norway 4.5 New Zealand 4.6 Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union 4.7 United States of America 4.8 Africa

5 Recent world-wide trends 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links

Education in prehistory [edit] Most of human history lies in pre-history, the period before the use of writing, and before written history. In pre-literate societies, education was achieved through demonstration and copying as the young learned from their elders. Rural communities had few resources to expend on education, and there was a lack of commercially available products for schools. At later stages they received instruction of a more structured and formal nature, imparted by people not necessarily related, in the context of initiation, religion or ritual.[6][7][8] Some forms of traditional knowledge were expressed through stories, legends, folklore, rituals, and songs, without the need for a writing system. Tools to aid this process include poetic devices such as rhyme andalliteration. These methods are illustrative of orality. The stories thus preserved are also referred to as part of an oral tradition.[citation needed] Before the development of writing, it is probable that there were already epic poems, hymns to gods and incantations (such as those later found written in the ancient library at Ninevah, and the Vedas), and other oral literature (for example, see ancient literature). In ancient India, the Vedas were learnt by repetition of various forms of recitation.[9] By means of memorization, they were passed down through many generations. Education in ancient civilization [edit]

The development of writing Starting in about 3500 BC, various writing systems developed in ancient civilizations around the world. In Egypt fully developed hieroglyphs were in use at Abydos as early as 3400 BC.[10] Later, the world's oldest known alphabet was developed in central Egypt around 2000 BC from a hieroglyphic prototype. One hieroglyphic script was used on stone monuments,[11] other cursive scripts were used for writing in ink on papyrus,[11] a flexible, paper-like material, made from the stems of reeds that grow in marshes and beside rivers such as the River Nile The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script in around the 11th century BC, which in turn borrowed ideas from Egyptian hieroglyphics. This script was adapted by the Greeks. A variant of the early Greek alphabet gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet, and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet. Other descendants from the Greek alphabetinclude the Cyrillic script, used to write Russian, among others. The Phoenician system was also adapted into the Aramaic script, from which the Hebrew script and also that of Arabic are descended. In China, the early oracle bone script has survived on tens of thousands of oracle bones dating from around 1400-1200 BC in the Shang Dynasty. Out of more than 2500 written characters in use in China in about 1200 BC, as many as 1400 are identifiable as the source of later standard Chinese characters.[12] Of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica, the one that appears to have been best developed, and the one to be deciphered the most, is the Maya script. The earliest inscriptions which are identifiably Maya date to the 3rd century BC, and writing was in continuous use until shortly after the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores in the 16th century. Other surfaces used for early writing include wax-covered writing boards (used, as well as clay tablets, by the Assyrians), sheets or strips of bark from trees (in Indonesia, Tibet and the Americas),[13] the thick palm-like leaves of a particular tree, the leaves then punctured with a hole and stacked together like the pages of a book (these writings in India and South east Asia include Buddhist scriptures and Sanskrit literature),[14] parchment, made of goatskin that had been soaked and scraped to remove hair, which was used from at least the 2nd century BC,vellum, made from calfskin, and wax tablets which could be wiped clean to provide a fresh surface (in Roman times). Ethiopia has its own ancient alphabet. According to the beliefs of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, Ethiopic or Geez is one of the ancient alphabets and languages. The first human to use the alphabet is believed to be Henoch of the Old Testament. Henoch supposedly wrote the Book of Henoch in Ethiopic around c. 3350 BC. In the Ethiopian Orthodox view, the Book of Enoch ( ) was written in Ethiopic by Enoch, considered the oldest book in any human language. The original forms of the letters themselves were said to have been invented by the even earlier ancestral figure, Henos. others claim that Ethiopic is a Sabean alphabet. still Others claim that the classic Ethiopic with its seven vowel expansions was in existence before 3000 BC. It is thought by some that it was during the Axumite Kingdom of around 340 AD that the alphabet gained the vowel forms and started to be written from left to right. The Middle East [edit] In what became Mesopotamia, the early logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus only a limited number of individuals were hired as scribes to be trained in its reading and

writing. Only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals such as scribes, physicians, and temple administrators, were schooled.[15] Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed to learn a trade.[16] Girls stayed at home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look after the younger children. Later, when asyllabic script became more widespread, more of the Mesopotamian population became literate. Later still in Babylonian times there were libraries in most towns and temples; an oldSumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn." There arose a whole social class of scribes, mostly employed in agriculture, but some as personal secretaries or lawyers.[17] Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated. The Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem from Ancient Mesopotamia is among the earliest known works of literary fiction. The earliest Sumerian versions of the epic date from as early as the Third Dynasty of Ur (2150-2000 BC) (Dalley 1989: 41-42). Ashurbanipal (685 c. 627 BC), a king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, was proud of his scribal education. His youthful scholarly pursuits included oil divination, mathematics, reading and writing as well as the usual horsemanship, hunting, chariotry, soldierliness, craftsmanship, and royal decorum. During his reign he collected cuneiform texts from all over Mesopotamia, and especially Babylonia, in the library in Nineveh, the first systematically organized library in the ancient Middle East,[18] which survives in part today. In ancient Egypt, literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes' status. The rate of literacy in Pharaonic Egypt during most periods from the third to first millennium BC has been estimated at not more than one percent,[19] or between one half of one percent and one percent.[20] In ancient Israel the Torah (the fundamental religious text) includes commands to read, learn, teach and write the Torah, thus requiring literacy and study. In 64 AD the high priest caused schools to be opened .[21] Emphasis was placed on developing good memory skills in addition to comprehension oral repetition. For details of the subjects taught, see History of education in ancient Israel and Judah. Although girls were not provided with formal education in the yeshivah, they were required to know a large part of the subject areas to prepare them to maintain the home after marriage, and to educate the children before the age of seven. Despite this schooling system, it would seem that many children did not learn to read and write, because it has been estimated that "at least ninety percent of the Jewish population of Roman Palestine [in the first centuries AD] could merely write their own name or not write and read at all",[22] or that the literacy rate was about 3 percent.[23] Indian Subcontinent [edit] In ancient India, during the Vedic period from about 1500 BC to 600 BC, most education was based on the Veda (hymns, formulas, and incantations, recited or chanted by priests of a pre-Hindu tradition) and later Hindu texts and scriptures.

Vedic education included: proper pronunciation and recitation of the Veda, the rules of sacrifice, grammar and derivation, composition, versification and meter, understanding of secrets of nature, reasoning including logic, the sciences, and the skills necessary for an occupation.[24] Some medical knowledge existed and was taught. There is mention in the Veda of herbal medicines for various conditions or diseases, including fever, cough, baldness, snake bite and others.[24] Education, at first freely available in Vedic society, became over time more discriminatory as the caste system, originally based on occupation, evolved, with the brahman (priests) being the most privileged of the castes.[24] The oldest of the Upanishads - another part of Hindu scriptures - date from around 500 BC. These texts encouraged an exploratory learning process where teachers and students were co-travellers in a search for truth. The teaching methods used reasoning and questioning. Nothing was labeled as the final answer.[24] The Gurukul system of education supported traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher's house or a monastery. Education was free, but students from well-to-do families paid "Gurudakshina," a voluntary contribution after the completion of their studies. At the Gurukuls, the teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scriptures, Philosophy, Literature, Warfare, Statecraft, Medicine, Astrology and History. The corpus of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as technical scientific, philosophical and generally Hindu religious texts, though many central texts of Buddhism and Jainism have also been composed in Sanskrit. Two epic poems formed part of ancient Indian education. The Mahabharata, part of which may date back to the 8th century BC,[25] discusses human goals (purpose, pleasure, duty, and liberation), attempting to explain the relationship of the individual to society and the world (the nature of the 'Self') and the workings of karma. The other epic poem, Ramayana, is shorter, although it has 24,000 verses. It is thought to have been compiled between about 400 BC and 200 AD. The epic explores themes of human existence and the concept of dharma.[25] 'An early center of learning in India dating back to the 5th century BC was Taxila (also known as Takshashila), which taught the three Vedas and the eighteen accomplishments.[26] It was an important Vedic/Hindu[27] and Buddhist[28] centre of learning from the 6th century BC[29] to the 5th century AD.[30][31]' China [edit] During the Zhou Dynasty (1045 BC to 256 BC), there were five national schools in the capital city, Pi Yong (an imperial school, located in a central location) and four other schools for the aristocrats and nobility, including Shang Xiang. The schools mainly taught the Six Arts: rites, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and mathematics. According to the Book of Rituals, at age twelve, boys learned arts related to ritual (i.e. music and dance) and when older, archery and chariot driving. Girls learned ritual, correct deportment, silk production and weaving.[32][33] It was during the Zhou Dynasty that the origins of native Chinese philosophy also developed. Confucius (551 BC 479 BC) founder of Confucianism, was a Chinese philosopher who made

a great impact on later generations of Chinese, and on the curriculum of the Chinese educational system for much of the following 2000 years. During the Han Dynasty (206 BC- 221 AD), boys were thought ready at age seven to start learning basic skills in reading, writing and calculation.[32] In 124 BC, the Emperor Wudi established the Imperial Academy, the curriculum of which was the Five Classics of Confucius. By the end of the Han Dynasty (220 AD) the Academy enrolled more than 30,000 students, boys between the ages of fourteen and seventeen years. However education through this period was a luxury.[33] Later, during the Ch'in dynasty (246-207 BC), a hierarchy of officials was set up to provide central control over the outlying areas of the empire. To enter this hierarchy, both literacy and knowledge of the increasing body of philosophy was required: "....the content of the educational process was designed not to engender functionally specific skills but rather to produce morally enlightened and cultivated generalists".[34] The Nine rank system was a civil service nomination system during the Three Kingdoms (220-280 AD) and the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589 AD) in China. Theoretically, local government authorities were given the task of selecting talented candidates, then categorizing them into nine grades depending on their abilities. In practice, however, only the rich and powerful would be selected. The Nine Rank System was eventually superseded by the Imperial examination system for the civil service in theSui Dynasty (581-618 AD) Greece and Rome [edit] In the city-states of ancient Greece, most education was private, except in Sparta. For example, in Athens, during the 5th and 4th century BC, aside from two years military training, the state played little part in schooling.[35][36] Anyone could open a school and decide the curriculum. Parents could choose a school offering the subjects they wanted their children to learn, at a monthly fee they could afford.[35] Most parents, even the poor, sent their sons to schools for at least a few years, and if they could afford it from around the age of seven until fourteen, learning gymnastics (including athletics, sport and wrestling), music (including poetry, drama and history) and literacy.[35][36] Girls rarely received formal education. At writing school, the youngest students learned the alphabet by song, then later by copying the shapes of letters with a stylus on a waxed wooden tablet. After some schooling, the sons of poor or middle-class families often learnt a trade by apprenticeship, whether with their father or another tradesman.[35] By around 350 BC, it was common for children at schools in Athens to also study various arts such as drawing, painting, and sculpture. The richest students continued their education by studying with sophists, from whom they could learn subjects such as rhetoric, mathematics, geography, natural history, politics, and logic.[35][36] Some of Athens' greatest schools of higher education included the Lyceum (the so-called Peripatetic school founded by Aristotle ofStageira) and the Platonic Academy (founded by Plato of Athens). The education system of the wealthy ancient Greeks is also called Paideia. In the subsequent Roman empire, Greek was the primary language of science. Advanced scientific research and teaching was mainly carried on in the Hellenistic side of the Roman empire, in Greek. The education system in the Greek city-state of Sparta was entirely different, designed to create warriors with complete obedience, courage, and physical perfection. At the age of seven, boys were taken away from their homes to live in school dormitories or military barracks. There they were taught

sports, endurance and fighting, and little else, with harsh discipline. Most of the population was illiterate.[35][36] The first schools in Ancient Rome arose by the middle of the 4th century BC.[37] These schools were concerned with the basic socialization and rudimentary education of young Roman children. The literacy rate in the 3rd century BC has been estimated as around one percent to two percent.[38] We have very few primary sources or accounts of Roman educational process until the 2nd century BC,[37] during which there was a proliferation of private schools in Rome.[38] At the height of the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire, the Roman educational system gradually found its final form. Formal schools were established, which served paying students (very little in the way of free public education as we know it can be found).[39] Normally, both boys and girls were educated, though not necessarily together.[39] In a system much like the one that predominates in the modern world, the Roman education system that developed arranged schools in tiers. The educator Quintilian recognized the importance of starting education as early as possible, noting that memory not only exists even in small children, but is specially retentive at that age.[40] A Roman student would progress through schools just as a student today might go from elementary school to middle school, then to high school, and finally college. Progression depended more on ability than age[39] with great emphasis being placed upon a students ingenium or inborn gift for learning,[41] and a more tacit emphasis on a students ability to afford high-level education. Only the Roman elite would expect a complete formal education. A tradesman or farmer would expect to pick up most of his vocational skills on the job. Higher education in Rome was more of a status symbol than a practical concern. It has been argued that literacy rates in the Greco-Roman world were seldom more than 20 percent; averaging perhaps not much above 10 percent in the Roman empire, though with wide regional variations, probably never rising above 5 percent in the western provinces,[42] and that the literate in classical Greece did not much exceed 5 percent of the population.[43] The argument for these claims is that ancient governments did not invest in public education. Formal education in the Middle Ages (500-1600 AD) [edit] Europe [edit] See also: Medieval university, List of medieval universities, and List of oldest universities in continuous operation

The Abbey of Cluny was one of the most influential During the Early Middle Ages, the monasteries of the Roman Catholic Church were the centres of education and literacy, preserving the Church's selection from Latin learning and maintaining the art of writing. Prior to their formal establishment, many medieval universities were run for hundreds of years as Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools (Scholae monasticae), in which monks taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the early 6th century.[44] The first medieval institutions generally considered to be universities were established in Italy, France, and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of arts, law, medicine, and theology.[1] These universities evolved from much older Christian cathedral schools and monastic schools, and it is difficult to define the date on which they became true universities, although the lists of studia generalia for higher education in Europe held by the Vatican are a useful guide. Ireland became known as the island of saints and scholars. Monasteries were built all over Ireland and these became centres of great learning (see Celtic Church). Northumbria was famed as a centre of religious learning and arts. Initially the kingdom was evangelized by monks from the Celtic Church, which led to a flowering of monastic life, and Northumbria played an important role in the formation of Insular art, a unique style combining AngloSaxon, Celtic, Byzantineand other elements. After the Synod of Whitby in 664 AD, Roman church practices officially replaced the Celtic ones but the influence of the Anglo-Celtic style continued, the most famous examples of this being the Lindisfarne Gospels. The Venerable Bede (673-735) wrote his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731) in a Northumbrian monastery, and much of it focuses on the kingdom.[45] During the reign of Charlemagne, King of the Franks from 768 814 AD, whose empire united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Romans, there was a flowering of literature, art, and architecture known as the Carolingian Renaissance. Brought into contact with the culture and learning of other countries through his vast conquests, Charlemagne greatly increased the provision of monastic schools and scriptoria (centres for book-copying) in Francia. Most of the surviving works of classical Latin were copied and preserved by Carolingian scholars. Charlemagne took a serious interest in scholarship, promoting the liberal arts at the court, ordering that his children and grandchildren be well-educated, and even studying himself under the tutelage of Paul the Deacon, from whom he learned grammar, Alcuin, with whom he studied rhetoric, dialect and astronomy (he was particularly interested in the movements of the stars), and Einhard, who assisted him in his studies of arithmetic. The English monk Alcuin was invited to Charlemagne's court at Aachen, and brought with him the precise classical Latin education that was available in the monasteries of Northumbria.[46] The return of this Latin proficiency to the kingdom of the Franks is regarded as an important step in the development of mediaeval Latin. Charlemagne's chancery made use of a type of script currently known as Carolingian minuscule, providing a common writing style that allowed for communication across most of Europe. After the decline of the Carolingian dynasty, the rise of the Saxon Dynasty in Germany was accompanied by the Ottonian Renaissance.

Cambridge and many other universities were founded at this time. Cathedral schools and monasteries remained important throughout the Middle Ages; at the Third Lateran Council of 1179 the Church mandated that priests provide the opportunity of a free education to their flocks, and the 12th and 13th century renascence known as the Scholastic Movement was spread through the monasteries. These however ceased to be the sole sources of education in the 11th century when universities, which grew out of the monasticism began to be established in major European cities. Literacy became available to a wider class of people, and there were major advances in art, sculpture, music and architecture.[47] Sculpture, paintings and stained glass windows were vital educational media through which Biblical themes and the lives of the saints were taught to illiterate viewers.[48] Islamic world [edit] Main article: Madrasah See also: Bimaristan, Ijazah, and Maktab During the 6th and 7th centuries, the Academy of Gundishapur, originally the intellectual center of the Sassanid empire and subsequently a Muslim centre of learning, offered training in medicine, philosophy, theology and science. The faculty were versed not only in the Zoroastrian and Persian traditions, but in Greek and Indian learning as well. The House of Wisdom in Bagdad was a library, translation and educational centre from the 9th to 13th centuries. Works on astrology,mathematics, agriculture, medicine, and philosophy were translated. Drawing on Persian, Indian and Greek textsincluding those of Pythagoras,Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Euclid, Plotinus, Galen, Sushruta, Charaka, Aryabhata and Br ahmaguptathe scholars accumulated a great collection of knowledge in the world, and built on it through their own discoveries. The House was an unrivalled centre for the study of humanitiesand

for sciences, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, chemistry, zoology and geography. Baghdad was known as the world's richest city and centre for intellectual development of the time, and had a population of over a million, the largest in its time.[49] The Islamic mosque school (Madrasah) taught the Quran in Arabic and did not at all resemble the medieval European universities.[50][51] In the 9th century, Bimaristan medical schools were formed in the medieval Islamic world, where medical diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be a practicing Doctor of Medicine.[52] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in 975, was a Jami'ah ("university" in Arabic) which offered a variety of post-graduate degrees, had a Madrasahand theological seminary, and taught Islamic law, Islamic jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, early Islamic philosophy and logic in Islamic philosophy.[52] Under the Ottoman Empire, the towns of Bursa and Edirne became major centers of learning.[citation needed] In the 15th and 16th centuries, the town of Timbuktu in the West African nation of Mali became an Islamic centre of learning with students coming from as far away as the Middle East. The town was home to the prestigious Sankore University and other madrasas. The primary focus of these schools was the teaching of the Qur'an, although broader instruction in fields such as logic, astronomy, and history also took place. Over time, there was a great accumulation of manuscripts in the area and an estimated 100,000 or more manuscripts, some of them dated from pre-Islamic times and 12th century, are kept by the great families from the town.[53] Their contents are didactic, especially in the subjects of astronomy, music, and botany. More than 18,000 manuscripts have been collected by the Ahmed Baba centre.[54] China [edit] Although there are more than 40,000 Chinese characters in written Chinese, many are rarely used. Studies have shown that full literacy in the Chinese language requires a knowledge of only between three and four thousand characters.[55] In China, three oral texts were used to teach children by rote memorization the written characters of their language and the basics of Confucian thought. The Thousand Character Classic, a Chinese poem originating in the 6th century, was used for more than a millennium as a primer for teaching Chinese characters to children. The poem is composed of 250 phrases of four characters each, thus containing exactly one thousand unique characters, and was sung in the same way that children learning the Latin alphabet may use the "alphabet song". Later, children also learn the Hundred Family Surnames, a rhyming poem in lines of eight characters composed in the early Song Dynasty[56] (i.e. in about the 11th century) which actually listed more than four hundred of the common surnames in ancient China. From around the 13th century until the latter part of the 19th century, the Three Character Classic, which is an embodiment of Confucian thought suitable for teaching to young children, served as a child's first formal education at home. The text is written in triplets of characters for easy memorization. With illiteracy common for most people at the time, the oral tradition of reciting the classic ensured its popularity and survival through the centuries. With the short and simple text arranged in three-

character verses, children learned many common characters, grammar structures, elements of Chinese history and the basis of Confucian morality. After learning Chinese characters, students wishing to ascend in the social hierarchy needed to study the Chinese classic texts. The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire. In 605 AD, during the Sui Dynasty, for the first time, an examination system was explicitly instituted for a category of local talents. The merit-based imperial examination system for evaluating and selecting officials gave rise to schools that taught the Chinese classic texts and continued in use for 1,300 years, until the end the Qing Dynasty, being abolished in 1911 in favour of Western education methods. The core of the curriculum for the imperial civil service examinations from the mid-12th century onwards was the Four Books, representing a foundational introduction to Confucianism. Theoretically, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a highranking government official by passing the imperial examination, although under some dynasties members of the merchant class were excluded. In reality, since the process of studying for the examination tended to be time-consuming and costly (if tutors were hired), most of the candidates came from the numerically small but relatively wealthy land-owning gentry. However, there are vast numbers of examples in Chinese history in which individuals moved from a low social status to political prominence through success in imperial examination. Under some dynasties the imperial examinations were abolished and official posts were simply sold, which increased corruption and reduced morale. In the period preceding 10401050 AD, prefectural schools had been neglected by the state and left to the devices of wealthy patrons who provided private finances.[57] The chancellor of China at that time, Fan Zhongyan, issued an edict that would have used a combination of government funding and private financing to restore and rebuild all prefectural schools that had fallen into disuse and abandoned.[57] He also attempted to restore all county-level schools in the same manner, but did not designate where funds for the effort would be formally acquired and the decree was not taken seriously until a later period.[57] Fan's trend of government funding for education set in motion the movement of public schools that eclipsed private academies, which would not be officially reversed until the mid-13th century.[57] India [edit] Main article: History of education in India The first millennium and the few centuries preceding it saw the flourishing of higher education at Nalanda, Takshashila University, Ujjain, & Vikramshila Universities. Amongst the subjects taught were Art, Architecture, Painting, Logic, mathematics, Grammar, Philosophy, Astronomy, Literature, Buddhism, Hinduism, Arthashastra (Economics & Politics), Law, and Medicine. Each university specialized in a particular field of study. Takshila specialized in the study of medicine, while Ujjain laid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda, being the biggest centre, handled all branches of knowledge, and housed up to 10,000 students at its peak.[58] Nalanda was a Buddhist center of learning founded in Bihar, India around the 5th century and conferred academic degree titles to its graduates, while also offering post-graduate courses. It has been called "one of the first great universities in recorded history."[59]

Vikramala University, another important center of Buddhist learning in India, was established by King Dharmapala (783 to 820) in response to a supposed decline in the quality of scholarship at Nland.[60] Indigenous education was widespread in India in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country.[61] The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The schools were attended by students representative of all classes of society. Japan [edit] Main article: History of education in Japan The history of education in Japan dates back at least to the 6th century, when Chinese learning was introduced at the Yamato court. Foreign civilizations have often provided new ideas for the development of Japan's own culture. Chinese teachings and ideas flowed into Japan from the sixth to the 9th century. Along with the introduction of Buddhism came the Chinese system of writing and its literary tradition, andConfucianism. By the 9th century, Heian-kyo (today's Kyoto), the imperial capital, had five institutions of higher learning, and during the remainder of the Heian period, other schools were established by the nobility and the imperial court. During the medieval period (1185-1600), Zen Buddhist monasteries were especially important centers of learning, and the Ashikaga School, Ashikaga Gakko, flourished in the 15th century as a center of higher learning. Central and South American civilizations [edit] Aztec [edit] Main article: Aztec Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political and military dominance over large parts of Mesoamerica in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, a period referred to as the Late post-Classic period in Mesoamerican chronology. Until the age of fourteen, the education of children was in the hands of their parents, but supervised by the authorities of their calplli. Part of this education involved learning a collection of sayings, called huhuetltolli ("sayings of the old"), that embodied the Aztecs' ideals. Judged by their language, most of the huhuetlatolli seemed to have evolved over several centuries, predating the Aztecs and most likely adopted from other Nahua cultures. At 15, all boys and girls went to school. The Mexica, one of the Aztec groups, were one of the first people in the world to have mandatory education for nearly all children, regardless of gender, rank, or station[citation needed]. There were two types of schools: the telpochcalli, for practical and military studies, and the calmecac, for advanced learning in writing, astronomy, statesmanship, theology, and other areas. The two institutions seem to be common to the Nahua people, leading some experts to suggest that they are older than the Aztec culture.

Aztec teachers (tlatimine) propounded a spartan regime of education with the purpose of forming a stoical people. Girls were educated in the crafts of home and child raising. They were not taught to read or write. All women were taught to be involved in religion; there are paintings of women presiding over religious ceremonies, but there are no references to female priests. Inca [edit] Main article: Inca education Inca education during the time of the Inca Empire in the 15th and 16th centuries was divided into two principal spheres: education for the upper classes and education for the general population. The royal classes and a few specially chosen individuals from the provinces of the Empire were formally educated by the Amautas (wise men), while the general population learned knowledge and skills from their immediate forbears. The Amautas constituted a special class of wise men similar to the bards of Great Britain. They included illustrious philosophers, poets, and priests who kept the oral histories of the Incas alive by imparting the knowledge of their culture, history, customs and traditions throughout the kingdom. Considered the most highly educated and respected men in the Empire, the Amautas were largely entrusted with educating those of royal blood, as well as other young members of conquered cultures specially chosen to administer the regions. Thus, education throughout the territories of the Incas was socially discriminatory, most people not receiving the formal education that royalty received. The official language of the empire was Quechua, although dozens if not hundreds of local languages were spoken. The Amautas did ensure that the general population learn Quechua as the language of the Empire, much in the same way the Romans promoted Latin throughout Europe; however, this was done more for political reasons than educational ones. After the 15th century [edit] Europe [edit] Europe overview [edit]

Primary School in "open air". Teacher with class, from the outskirts of Bucharest, around 1842. Modern systems of education in Europe derive their origins from the schools of the High Middle Ages. Most schools during this era were founded upon religious principles with the primary purpose of training the clergy. Many of the earliest universities, such as the University of Paris founded in 1160, had

a Christian basis. In addition to this, a number of secular universities existed, such as the University of Bologna, founded in 1088. Free education for the poor was officially mandated by the Church in 1179 when it decreed that every cathedral must assign a master to teach boys too poor to pay the regular fee;[62] parishes and monasteries also established free schools teaching at least basic literary skills. With few exceptions, priests and brothers taught locally, and their salaries were frequently subsidized by towns. Private, independent schools reappeared in medieval Europe during this time, but they, too, were religious in nature and mission.[63] The curriculum was usually based around the trivium and to a lesser extent quadrivium (the seven Artes Liberales or Liberal arts) and was conducted in Latin, the lingua franca of educated Western Europe throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance.[64] In northern Europe this clerical education was largely superseded by forms of elementary schooling following the Reformation. In Scotland, for instance, the national Church of Scotland set out a programme for spiritual reform in January 1561 setting the principle of a school teacher for every parish church and free education for the poor. This was provided for by an Act of the Parliament of Scotland, passed in 1633, which introduced a tax to pay for this programme. Although few countries of the period had such extensive systems of education, the period between the 16th and 18th centuries saw education become significantly more widespread. In Central Europe, the 17th century scientist and educator John Amos Comenius promulgated a reformed system of universal education that was widely used in Europe. This growth resulted in increased government interest in education. In the 1760s, for instance, Ivan Betskoy was appointed by the Russian Tsarina, Catherine II, as educational advisor. He proposed to educate young Russians of both sexes in state boarding schools, aimed at creating "a new race of men". Betskoy set forth a number of arguments for general education of children rather than specialized one: "in regenerating our subjects by an education founded on these principles, we will create... new citizens." Some of his ideas were implemented in theSmolny Institute that he established for noble girls in Saint Petersburg. Betskoy's work in Russia was soon followed by the Polish establishment in 1773 of a Commission of National Education (Polish: Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, Lithuanian: Nacionaline Edukacine Komisija). The commission functioned as the first government Ministry of Education in a European country. Meanwhile, there was an increasing academic interest in education and the first attempts to create what might be considered academic rationales for teaching methods. This led, in the 1770s, to the establishment of the first chair of pedagogy at the University of Halle in Germany. Contributions to the study of education elsewhere in Europe included the work of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi in Switzerland and Joseph Lancaster in Britain. Under the guidance of Wilhelm von Humboldt a new university was founded in Berlin in 1810 which became the model for many research universities. Herbart developed a system of pedagogy widely used in German-speaking areas. In the late 19th century, most of West, Central, and parts of East Europe began to provide elementary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic, partly because politicians believed that education was needed for orderly political behavior. As more people became literate, they realized that most

secondary education was only open to those who could afford it. Having created primary education, the major nations had to give further attention to secondary education by the time of World War 1.[65] In the 20th century, new directions in education included, in Italy, Maria Montessori's Montessori schools; and in Germany, Rudolf Steiner's development of Waldorf education. France [edit] Main article: Jules Ferry laws While the French trace the development of their educational system to Charlemagne, the modern era of French education begins at the end of the 19th century. Jules Ferry, a lawyer holding the office of Minister of Public Instruction in the 1880s, is widely credited for creating the modern Republican school (l'cole rpublicaine) by requiring all children under the age of 15boys and girlsto attend. He also made public instruction free of charge and secular (laque). United Kingdom [edit] England [edit] See History of education in England Scotland [edit] See History of education in Scotland Japan [edit] Main article: History of education in Japan Japan isolated itself from 1600 under the Tokugawa regime (16001867). In 1600 very few common people were literate. By the period's end, learning had become widespread. Tokugawa education left a valuable legacy: an increasingly literate populace, a meritocratic ideology, and an emphasis on discipline and competent performance. Traditional Samurai curricula for elites stressed morality and the martial arts. Confucian classics were memorized, and reading and recitation them were common methods of study. Arithmetic and calligraphy were also studied. Education of commoners was generally practically oriented, providing basic 3-Rs, calligraphy and use of the abacus. Much of this education was conducted in so-called temple schools (terakoya), derived from earlier Buddhist schools. These schools were no longer religious institutions, nor were they, by 1867, predominantly located in temples. By the end of the Tokugawa period, there were more than 11,000 such schools, attended by 750,000 students. Teaching techniques included reading from various textbooks, memorizing, abacus, and repeatedly copyingChinese characters and Japanese script. By the 1860s, 40-50% of Japanese boys, and 15% of the girls, had some schooling outside the home. These rates were comparable to major European nations at the time (apart from Germany, which had compulsory schooling).[66] Under subsequent Meiji leadership, this foundation would facilitate Japan's rapid transition from feudal society to modern nation which paid very close attention to Western science, technology and educational methods. . Meiji reforms [edit] See also: Education in the Empire of Japan

After 1868 reformers set Japan on a rapid course of modernization, with a public education system like that of Western Europe. Missions like the Iwakura mission were sent abroad to study the education systems of leading Western countries. They returned with the ideas of decentralization, local school boards, and teacher autonomy. Elementary school enrollments climbed from about 40 or 50 percent of the school-age population in the 1870s to more than 90 percent by 1900, despite strong public protest, especially against school fees. A modern concept of childhood emerged in Japan after 1850 as part of its engagement with the West. Meiji era leaders decided the nation-state had the primary role in mobilizing individuals - and children in service of the state. The Western-style school became the agent to reach that goal. By the 1890s, schools were generating new sensibilities regarding childhood.[67] After 1890 Japan had numerous reformers, child experts, magazine editors, and well-educated mothers who bought into the new sensibility. They taught the upper middle class a model of childhood that included children having their own space where they read children's books, played with educational toys and, especially, devoted enormous time to school homework. These ideas rapidly disseminated through all social classes[68][69] After 1870 school textbooks based on Confucianism were replaced by westernized texts. However by the 1890s, a reaction set in and a more authoritarian approach was imposed. Traditional Confucian and Shinto precepts were again stressed, especially those concerning the hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the new state, the pursuit of learning, and morality. These ideals, embodied in the 1890 Imperial Rescript on Education, along with highly centralized government control over education, largely guided Japanese education until 1945, when they were massively repudiated.[70] India [edit] Education was widespread for elite young men in the 18th century, with a schools in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The current system of education, with its western style and content, was introduced and founded by the British during the British Raj, following recommendations by Lord Macaulay. Traditional structures were not recognized by the British government and have been on the decline since. Public education expenditures in the late 19th and early 20th centuries varied dramatically across regions with the western and southern provinces spending three to four times as much as the eastern provinces. Much of the inter-regional differential was due to historical differences in land taxes, the major source of revenue.[71] Lord Curzon, the Viceroy 1899-1905, made mass education a high priority after finding that no more than 20% of India's children attended school. His reforms centered on literacy training and on restructuring of the university systems. They stressed ungraded curricula, modern textbooks, and new examination systems. Curzon's plans for technical education laid the foundations which were acted upon by later governments.[72] Norway [edit] Main article: Education in Norway

Organized education in Norway dates as far back as medieval times. Shortly after Norway became an archdiocese in 1152, cathedral schools were constructed to educate priests inTrondheim, Oslo, Bergen and Hamar. After the reformation of Norway in 1537, (Norway entered a personal union with Denmark in 1536) the cathedral schools were turned into Latin schools, and it was made mandatory for allmarket towns to have such a school. In 1736 training in reading was made compulsory for all children, but was not effective until some years later. In 1827, Norway introduced the folkeskole, a primary school which became mandatory for 7 years in 1889 and 9 years in 1969. In the 1970s and 1980s, the folkeskole was abolished, and the grunnskole was introduced. New Zealand [edit] Main article: History of Education in New Zealand Education began with provision made by the provincial government, the missionary Christian churches and private education. The first act of parliament for education was passed in 1877, and sought to establish a standard for primary education. It was compulsory for children to attend school until the age of 14 years. Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union [edit] Main article: Education in the Soviet Union

Mental Calculations. In the school of S.Rachinsky by Nikolay Bogdanov-Belsky. 1895. In Imperial Russia, according to the 1897 Population Census, literate people made up 28.4 percent of the population. During the 8th Party Congress of 1919, the creation of the new Socialist system of

education was proclaimed the major aim of the Soviet government. The abolition ofilliteracy became the primary task in the Russian SFSR. In accordance with the Sovnarkom decree of December 26, 1919, signed by its head Vladimir Lenin, the new policy of likbez, was introduced. The new system of universal compulsory education was established for children. Millions of illiterate adult people all over the country, including residents of small towns and villages, were enrolled in special literacy schools. Komsomol members and Young Pioneer detachments played an important role in the education of illiterate people in villages. The most active phase of likbez lasted until 1939. In 1926, the literacy rate was 56.6 percent of the population. By 1937, according to census data, the literacy rate was 86% for men and 65% for women, making a total literacy rate of 75%.[73] An important aspect of the early campaign for literacy and education was the policy of "indigenization" (korenizatsiya). This policy, which lasted essentially from the mid-1920s to the late 1930s, promoted the development and use of non-Russian languages in the government, the media, and education. Intended to counter the historical practices of Russification, it had as another practical goal assuring nativelanguage education as the quickest way to increase educational levels of future generations. A huge network of so-called "national schools" was established by the 1930s, and this network continued to grow in enrollments throughout the Soviet era. Language policy changed over time, perhaps marked first of all in the government's mandating in 1938 the teaching of Russian as a required subject of study in every non-Russian school, and then especially beginning in the latter 1950s a growing conversion of non-Russian schools to Russian as the main medium of instruction. United States of America [edit] Main article: History of Education in the United States Africa [edit] See also: Education in Africa, History of education in Angola, and History of education in Chad Until at least 1900 AD, in most African countries south of the Sahara, children received traditional informal education on matters such as artistic performances, ceremonies, rituals, games, festivals, dancing, singing, and drawing. Boys and girls were taught separately to help prepare each sex for their adult roles. Every member of the community had a hand in contributing to the educational upbringing of the child. The high point of the African educational experience was the ritual passage ceremony from childhood to adulthood. Nowadays, many sub-Saharan African countries have low rates of participation in formal education. Schools often lack basic facilities, and African universities may suffer from overcrowding and the difficulties of retaining staff attracted overseas by higher pay and better conditions. Africa has more than 40 million children. According to UNESCO's Regional overview on sub-Saharan Africa, in 2000 only 58% of children were enrolled in primary schools, the lowest enrollment rate of any region. The USAID Center reports as of 2005, forty percent of school-aged children in Africa do not attend primary school. Recent world-wide trends [edit]

World map indicating Education Index (2007/2008 Human Development Report) 0.950 and over 0.9000.949 0.8500.899 0.8000.849 0.7500.799 0.7000.749 0.6500.699 0.6000.649 0.5500.599 0.5000.549 0.4500.499 0.4000.449 0.3500.399 under 0.350 not available

Nowadays some kind of education is compulsory to all people in most countries. Due to population growth and the proliferation of compulsory education, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far.[74] Illiteracy and the percentage of populations without any schooling have decreased in the past several decades. For example, the percentage of population without any schooling decreased from 36% in 1960 to 25% in 2000. Among developing countries, illiteracy and percentages without schooling in 2000 stood at about half the 1970 figures. Among developed countries, figures about illiteracy rates differ widely. Often it is said that they decreased from 6% to 1%. Illiteracy rates in less economically developed countries (LEDCs) surpassed those of more economically developed countries (MEDCs) by a factor of 10 in 1970, and by a factor of about 20 in 2000. Illiteracy decreased greatly in LEDCs, and virtually disappeared in MEDCs. Percentages without any schooling showed similar patterns. Percentages of the population with no schooling varied greatly among LEDCs in 2000, from less than 10% to over 65%. MEDCs had much less variation, ranging from less than 2% to 17%. See also [edit]

History of childhood History of education in the United States

References [edit] 1. ^ Kendall D, Murray J, Linden R "Sociology In Our Times" Third Canadian Edition, 2004, Nelson Education Ltd.

2. ^ Hailman, W. N. "Twelve lectures on the history of pedagogy, delivered before the Cincinnati teachers' association", 1874, Wilson, Hinkle & Co., Cincinnati, at Chapter 1, page 12 "In its widest sense, the history of education would be the history of the development of the human race." 3. ^ Compayre, Gabriel; Payne, W. H., "History of Pedagogy (1899)", translated by W. H. Payne, 2003, Kessinger Publishing; ISBN 0-7661-5486-6; [originally published in French as "Histoire De La Pdagogie", by Gabriel Compayr; first published in English in 1885]; at Introduction, page ix."What would a complete history of education not include? It would embrace, in its vast developments, the entire record of the intellectual and moral culture of mankind at all periods and in all countries."[1] 4. ^ Walter J. Ong. Orality and Literacy, pp. 92-93. 5. ^ Foster, Philip; Purves, Alan: "Literacy and Society with particular reference to the non western world" in "Handbook of Reading Research" by Rebecca Barr, P. David Pearson, Michael L. Kamil, Peter Mosenthal 2002, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; see page 30. (Originally published: New York : Longman, c1984-c1991) 6. ^ Hughes, Paul; More, Arthur J. "Aboriginal Ways of Learning and Learning Styles", Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education Brisbane, December 4, 1997 7. ^ Adeyemi Michael B; Adeyinka, Augustus A "Some key issues in African traditional education", McGill Journal of Education; Spring 2002; 37, 2; at pages 229 and 233-235. 8. ^ Akinnaso, F. Niyi "Schooling, Language, and Knowledge in Literate and Nonliterate Societies" an article on pages 339-386 of "Cultures of Scholarship" 1998, The University of Michigan Press: see particularly pages 349-351 9. ^ Mookerji, Radha Kumud "Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist" 1990, (there are previous and subsequent editions) ISBN :8120804236 10. ^ Fischer, Steven Roger, "A History of Writing", 2004, Reaktion Books, ISBN 1-86189167-9, ISBN 978-1-86189-167-9, at page 36 11. ^ a b Fischer, Steven Roger, "A History of Writing", 2004, Reaktion Books, ISBN 1-86189167-9, at pp. 34, 35, 44 12. ^ Fischer, Steven Roger, "A History of Writing", 2004, Reaktion Books, ISBN 1-86189167-9, ISBN 978-1-86189-167-9, at pages 168-170 13. ^ Article at Cornell University Library, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections [2] 14. ^ Article at Cornell University Library, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections [3] 15. ^ Thomason, Allison Karmel, "Luxury and Legitimation: Royal Collecting in Ancient Mesopotamia", 2005, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., ISBN 0-7546-0238-9, ISBN 978-0-75460238-5, at page 25. 16. ^ Rivkah Harris (2000), Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia

17. ^ Fischer, Steven Roger, "A History of Writing", 2004, Reaktion Books, ISBN 1-86189167-9, at page 50 18. ^ Ashurbanipal, from the Encyclopdia Britannica 19. ^ Baines, John "Literacy and ancient Egyptian society", 1983, Man (New Series), 18 (3), 572-599 20. ^ Hopkins K "Conquest by book", 1991, at page 135 in JH Humphrey (ed.) "Literacy in the Roman World" (Journal of Roman Archeology, Supplementary Series No 3, pp133-158), Universsity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 21. ^ Compayre, Gabriel; Payne, W. H., "History of Pedagogy (1899)", Translated by W. H. Payne, 2003, Kessinger Publishing; ISBN 0-7661-5486-6; at page 9. 22. ^ Hezser, Catherine "Jewish Literacy in Roman Palestine", 2001, Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism; 81. Tuebingen: Mohr-Siebeck, at page 503. 23. ^ Bar-Ilan, M. "Illiteracy in the Land of Israel in the First Centuries C.E." in S. Fishbane, S. Schoenfeld and A. Goldschlaeger (eds.), "Essays in the Social Scientific Study of Judaism and Jewish Society", II, New York: Ktav, 1992, pp. 46-61. 24. ^ a b c d Gupta, Amita "Going to School in South Asia", 2007, Greenwood Publishing Group; ISBN 0-313-33553-2, ISBN 978-0-313-33553-2; at page 73-76 25. ^ a b Brockington, John (2003), "The Sanskrit Epics", in Flood, Gavin, Blackwell companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing, pp. 116128, ISBN 0-631-21535-2 26. ^ Hartmut Scharfe (2002). Education in Ancient India. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004-12556-6. 27. ^ Majumdar, Raychauduri and Datta (1946), An Advanced History of India, London: Macmillan, p. 64 28. ^ UNESCO World Heritage List. 1980. Taxila: Brief Description. Retrieved 13 January 2007 29. ^ "History of Education", Encyclopdia Britannica, 2007. 30. ^ "Nalanda" (2007). Encarta. 31. ^ Joseph Needham (2004), Within the Four Seas: The Dialogue of East and West, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-36166-4: When the men of Alexander the Great came to Taxila in India in the fourth century BC they found a university there the like of which had not been seen in Greece, a university which taught the three Vedas and the eighteen accomplishments and was still existing when the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien went there about AD 400.

32. ^ a b Hardy, Grant; Kinney, Anne B; "The Establishment of the Han Empire and Imperial China", 2005, Greenwood Publishing Group; ISBN 0-313-32588-X, 9780313325885; at pp. 74-75 33. ^ a b Kinney, Anne B; "Representations of Childhood and Youth in Early China", 2004, Stanford University Press, ISBN 0-8047-4731-8, ISBN 978-0-8047-4731-8 at pp. 14-15 34. ^ Foster, Philip; Purves, Alan: "Literacy and Society with particular reference to the non western world" in "Handbook of Reading Research" by Rebecca Barr, P. David Pearson, Michael L. Kamil, Peter Mosenthal 2002, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002; Originally published: New York : Longman, c1984-c1991; at page 30. 35. ^ a b c d e f Coulson, Joseph: "Market Education: The Unknown History", 1999, Transaction Publishers; ISBN 1-56000-408-8, ISBN 978-1-56000-408-0; at pages 40-47 36. ^ a b c d Cordasco, Francesco: "A Brief History of Education: A Handbook of Information on Greek, Roman, Medieval, Renaissance, and Modern Educational Practice", 1976, Rowman & Littlefield;ISBN 0-8226-0067-6, ISBN 978-0-8226-0067-1; at pp. 5, 6, & 9 37. ^ a b Michael Chiappetta, Historiography and Roman Education, History of Education Journal 4, no. 4 (1953): 149-156. 38. ^ a b Harris W.V. "Ancient literacy", 1989, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., at page 158 39. ^ a b c Oxford Classical Dictionary, Edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, Third Edition. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1996 40. ^ Quintilian, Quintilian on Education, translated by William M. Smail (New York: Teachers College Press, 1966). 41. ^ Yun Lee Too, Education in Greek and Roman antiquity (Boston: Brill, 2001). 42. ^ Harris W.V. "Ancient literacy", 1989, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 43. ^ Scragg D. G.; "Textual and Material Culture in Anglo-Saxon England", 2003, DS Brewer, ISBN 0-85991-773-8, ISBN 978-0-85991-773-5, at page 185: "The numbers of the literate .... even in classical Greece did not much exceed 5 percent of the population", citing Harris W. V.; "Ancient Literacy", 1989, Cambridge, at page 328 44. ^ Rich, Pierre (1978): "Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century", Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 087249-376-8, pp. 126-7, 282-98 45. ^ Goffart, Walter. The Narrators of Barbarian History (A.D. 550-800): Jordanes, Gregory of Tours, Bede, and Paul the Deacon (Princeton University Press, 1988) pp. 238ff. 46. ^ Eleanor S. Duckett, Alcuin, Friend of Charlemagne: His World and his Work (1965) 47. ^ Joseph W. Koterski (2005). Medieval Education. Fordham U. Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-08232-2425-8.

48. ^ Stanley E. Porter, Dictionary of biblical criticism and interpretation (2007) p 223 49. ^ George Modelski, World Cities: 3000 to 2000, Washington DC: FAROS 2000, 2003. ISBN 2-00-309499-4. See also Evolutionary World Politics Homepage. 50. ^ Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R. "Madrasa." Encyclopaedia of Islam, (2nd ed. 2010) 51. ^ George Makdisi: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", in: Studia Islamica, Vol. 32 (1970), S. 255-264 (264) 52. ^ a b Alatas, Syed Farid (2006), "From Jami`ah to University: Multiculturalism and ChristianMuslim Dialogue", Current Sociology 54 (1): 112 32, doi:10.1177/0011392106058837 53. ^ Un patrimoine inestimable en danger : les manuscrits trouvs Tombouctou, par JeanMichel Djian dans Le Monde diplomatique d'aot 2004. 54. ^ Reclaiming the Ancient Manuscripts of Timbuktu 55. ^ Norman, Jerry (2005). "Chinese Writing: Transitions and Transformations". Retrieved 2006-12-11. 56. ^ K. S. Tom. [1989] (1989). Echoes from Old China: Life, Legends and Lore of the Middle Kingdom. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1285-9 57. ^ a b c d Yuan, Zheng. "Local Government Schools in Sung China: A Reassessment," History of Education Quarterly (Volume 34, Number 2; Summer 1994): 193213; at pages 196-201. 58. ^ Suresh Kant Sharma (2005). Encyclopaedia of Higher Education: Historical survey-preindependence period. Mittal Publications. pp. 4ff. ISBN 978-81-8324-013-0. 59. ^ "Really Old School," Garten, Jeffrey E. New York Times, December 9, 2006. 60. ^ Radhakumud Mookerji (1990). Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 587ff. ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4. 61. ^ Pankaj Goyal, "Education in Pre-British India" 62. ^ Orme, Nicholas (2006). Medieval Schools. New Haven & London: Yale University Press. 63. ^ John M. Jeep, Medieval Germany: an encyclopedia (2001) p. 308 64. ^ Arthur A. Tilley, Medieval France: A Companion to French Studies (2010) p. 213 65. ^ Donald Kagan, Steven Ozment, Frank M Turner (2007). Western Heritage: Since 1300 (AP Edition). Pearson Education, Inc.. ISBN 0-13-173292-7. 66. ^ Bryon K. Marshall, "Universal Social Dilemmas and Japanese Educational History: The Writings of R. P. Dore, History of Education Quarterly, (1972) 12#1 pp 97-106 in JSTOR

67. ^ Brian Platt, "Japanese Childhood, Modern Childhood: The Nation-State, the School, and 19th-Century Globalization," Journal of Social History, (2005) 38#4 pp 965-985 in JSTOR 68. ^ Kathleen S. Uno, Passages to Modernity: Motherhood, Childhood, and Social Reform in Early 20th century Japan (1999) 69. ^ Mark Jones, Children as Treasures: Childhood and the Middle Class in Early 20th century Japan (2010) 70. ^ David S. Nivison and Arthur F. Wright, eds. Confucianism in action (1959) p. 302 71. ^ Latika Chaudhary, "Land revenues, schools and literacy: A historical examination of public and private funding of education," Indian Economic & Social History Review, AprilJune 2010, Vol. 47 Issue 2, pp 179-204 72. ^ V. C. Bhutani, "Curzon'S Educational Reform in India," Journal of Indian History, 1973, Vol. 51 Issue 151, pp 65-92 73. ^ Fitzpatrick, S. (1994). Stalin's peasants: resistance and survival in the Russian village after collectivization. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 225-6 & fn. 78 p. 363. OCLC 28293091. 74. ^ Robinson, K.: Schools Kill Creativity. TED Talks, 2006, Monterey, CA, USA. Further reading

lawphil Today is Friday, June 07, 2013

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BATAS PAMBANSA BLG. 232

September 11, 1982

AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF AN INTEGRATED SYSTEM OF EDUCATION I. GENERAL PROVISIONS CHAPTER 1 Preliminary Matters Section 1. Title - This Act shall be known as the "Education Act of 1982." Section 2. Coverage - This Act shall apply to and govern both formal and non-formal systems in public and private schools in all levels of the entire educational system. CHAPTER 2 Declaration of Basic State Policy and Objectives Section 3. Declaration of Basic Policy - It is the policy of the State to established and maintain a complete, adequate and integrated system of education relevant to the goals of national development. Toward this end, the government shall ensure, within the context of a free and democratic system, maximum contribution of the educational system to the attainment of the following national developmental goals: 1. To achieve and maintain an accelerating rate of economic development and social progress; 2. To ensure the maximum participation of all the people in the attainment and enjoyment of the benefits of such growth; and 3. To achieve and strengthen national unity and consciousness and preserve, develop and promote desirable cultural, moral and spiritual values in a changing world. The State shall promote the right of every individual to relevant quality education, regardless of sex, age, creed, socio-economic status, physical and mental conditions, racial or ethnic origin, political or other affiliation. The State shall therefore promote and maintain equality of access to education as well as the enjoyment of the benefits of education by all its citizens. The state shall promote the right of the nation's cultural communities in the exercise of their right to develop themselves within the context of their cultures, customs, traditions, interest and belief, and recognizes education as an instrument for their maximum participation in national development and in ensuring their involvement in achieving national unity. Section 4. Declaration of Objectives - The educational system aim to: 1. Provide for a broad general education that will assist each individuals in the peculiar ecology of his own society, to

(a) attain his potentials as a human being; (b) enhance the range and quality of individual and group participation in the basic functions of society; and (c) acquire the essential educational foundation of his development into a productive and versatile citizen; 2. Train the nation's manpower in the middle-level skills for national development; 3. Develop the profession that will provide leadership for the nation in the advancement of knowledge for improving the quality of human life; and 4. Respond effectively to changing needs and conditions of the nation through a system of educational planning and evaluation. Towards the realization of these objectives, and pursuant to the Constitution, all educational institutions shall aim to inculcate love of country, teach the duties of citizenship, and develop moral character, personal discipline, and scientific, technological, and vocational efficiency. Furthermore, the educational system shall reach out to educationally deprived communities, in order to give meaningful reality to their membership in the national society, to enrich their civic participation in the community and national life, and to unify all Filipinos into a free and just nation.

II. THE EDUCATIONAL COMMUNITY CHAPTER 1 Preliminary Provisions Section 5. Declaration of Policy and Objectives - It is likewise declared government policy to foster, at all times, a spirit of shared purposes and cooperation among the members and elements of the educational community, and between the community and other sectors of society, in the realization that only in such an atmosphere can be true goals and objectives of education be fulfilled. Moreover, the State shall: 1. Aid and support the natural right and duty of parents in the rearing of the youth through the educational system. 2. Promote and safeguard the welfare and interest of the students by defining their rights and obligations, according them privileges, and encouraging the establishment of sound relationships between them and the other members of the school community. 3. Promote the social economic status of all school personnel, uphold their rights, define their obligations, and improve their living and working conditions and career prospects. 4. Extend support to promote the viability of those institutions through which parents, students and school personnel seek to attain their educational goals. Section 6. Definition and Coverage - "Educational community" refers to those persons or groups of persons as such or associated in institutions involved in organized teaching and learning systems. The members and elements of the educational community are: 1. "Parents" or guardians or the head of the institution or foster home which has custody of the pupil or student. 2. "Students," or those enrolled in and who regularly attend and educational institution of secondary or higher level of a person

engaged in formal study. "Pupils," are those who regularly attend a school of elementary level under the supervision and tutelage of a teacher. 3 "School personnel," or all persons working for an educational institution, which includes the following: a. "Teaching or academic staff," or all persons engaged in actual teaching and/or research assignments, either on full-time or parttime basis, in all levels of the educational system. b. "School administrators," or all persons occupying policy implementing positions having to do with the functions of the school in all levels. c. "Academic non-teaching personnel," or those persons holding some academic qualifications and performing academic functions directly supportive of teaching, such as registrars, librarians, research assistants, research aides, and similar staff. d. "Non-academic personnel," or all other school personnel not falling under the definition and coverage of teaching and academic staff, school administrators and academic non-teaching personnel. 4. "Schools," or institutions recognized by the State which undertake educational operations. Section 7. Community Participation. - Every educational institution shall provide for the establishment of appropriate bodies through which the members of the educational community may discuss relevant issues, and communicate information and suggestions for assistance and support of the school and for the promotion of their common interest. Representatives from each subgroup of the educational community shall sit and participate in these bodies, the rules and procedures of which must be approved by them and duly published. CHAPTER 2 Rights Section 8. Rights of Parents - In addition to other rights under existing laws, all parents who have children enrolled in a school have the following rights: 1. The right to organize by themselves and/or with teachers for the purpose of providing a forum for the discussion of matters relating to the total school program, and for ensuring the full cooperation of parents and teachers in the formulation and efficient implementation of such programs. 2. The right to access to any official record directly relating to the children who are under their parental responsibility. Section 9. Right of Students in School - In addition to other rights, and subject to the limitation prescribed by law and regulations, and student and pupils in all schools shall enjoy the following rights: 1. The right to receive, primarily through competent instruction, relevant quality education in line with national goals and conducive to their full development as person with human dignity. 2. The right to freely chose their field of study subject to existing curricula and to continue their course therein up to graduation, except in cases of academic deficiency, or violation of disciplinary regulations. 3. The right to school guidance and counseling services for decisions and selecting the alternatives in fields of work suited to his potentialities. 4. The right of access to his own school records, the confidentiality of which the school shall maintain and preserve.

5. The right to the issuance of official certificates, diplomas, transcript of records, grades, transfer credentials and other similar documents within thirty days from request. 6. The right to publish a student newspaper and similar publications, as well as the right to invite resource persons during assemblies, symposia and other activities of similar nature. 7. The right to free expression of opinions and suggestions, and to effective channels of communication with appropriate academic channels and administrative bodies of the school or institution. 8. The right to form, establish, join and participate in organizations and societies recognized by the school to foster their intellectual, cultural, spiritual and physical growth and development, or to form, establish, join and maintain organizations and societies for purposes not contrary to law. 9. The right to be free from involuntary contributions, except those approved by their own he organizations or societies. Section 10. Rights of all School Personnel - In addition to other rights provided for by law, the following rights shall be enjoyed by all school personnel: 1. The right to free expression of opinion and suggestions, and to effective channels of communication with appropriate academic and administrative bodies of the school or institution. 2. The right to be provided with free legal service by the appropriate government office in the case of public school personnel, and through the school authorities concerned in the case of private school personnel, when charged in an administrative, civil and/or criminal proceedings by parties other than the school or regulatory authorities concerned for actions committed directly in the lawful discharge of professional duties and/or in defense of school policies. 3. The right to establish, join and maintain labor organizations and/or professional and self-regulating organizations of their choice to promote their welfare and defend their interests. 4. The right to be free from involuntary contributions except those imposed by their own organizations. Section 11. Special Rights and/or Privileges of Teaching or Academic Staff - Further to the rights mentioned in the preceding Section, every member of the teaching or academic staff shall enjoy the following rights and/or privileges: 1. The right to be free from compulsory assignments not related to their duties as defined in their appointments or employment contracts, unless compensated therefor, conformably to existing law. 2. The right to intellectual property consistent with applicable laws. 3. Teachers shall be deemed persons in authority when in the discharge of lawful duties and responsibilities, and shall, therefore, be accorded due respect and protection. 4. Teachers shall be accorded the opportunity to choose alternative career lines either in school administration, in classroom teaching, or others, for purposes of career advancement. Section 12. Special Rights of School Administration - School administrators shall, in accordance with existing laws, regulations and policies of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports, be accorded sufficient administrative discretion necessary for the efficient and effective performance of their functions. School administrators shall be deemed persons in authority while in the discharge of lawful duties and responsibilities, and shall therefore be accorded due respect and protection.

Section 13. Rights of Schools - In addition to other rights provided for by law, schools shall enjoy the following: 1. The right of their governing boards or lawful authorities to provide for the proper governance of the school and to adopt and enforce administrative or management systems. 2. The right for institutions of higher learning to determine on academic grounds who shall be admitted to study, who may teach, and what shall be subjects of the study and research. CHAPTER 3 Duties and Obligations Section 14. Duties of Parents. - In addition to those provided for under existing laws, all parents shall have the following duties and obligations: 1. Parents, individually or collectively, through the school systems, shall help carry out the educational objectives in accordance with national goals. 2. Parents shall be obliged to enable their children to obtain elementary education and shall strive to enable them to obtain secondary and higher education in the pursuance of the right formation of the youth. 3. Parents shall cooperate with the school in the implementation of the school program curricular and co-curricular. Section 15. Duties and Responsibilities of Students - In addition to those provided for under existing laws, every student shall: 1. Exert his utmost to develop his potentialities for service, particularly by undergoing an education suited to his abilities, in order that he may become an asset to his family and to society. 2. Uphold the academic integrity of the school, endeavor to achieve academic excellence and abide by the rules and regulations governing his academic responsibilities and moral integrity. 3. Promote and maintain the peace and tranquility of the school by observing the rules and discipline, and by exerting efforts to attain harmonious relationships with fellow students, the teaching and academic staff and other school personnel. 4. Participate actively in civic affairs and in the promotion of the general welfare, particularly in the social, economic and cultural development of his community and in the attainment of a just, compassionate and orderly society. 5. Exercise his rights responsibly in the knowledge that he is answerable for any infringement or violation of the public welfare and of the rights of others. Section 16. Teacher's Obligations - Every teacher shall: 1. Perform his duties to the school by discharging his responsibilities in accordance with the philosophy, goals, and objectives of the school. 2. Be accountable for the efficient and effective attainment of specified learning objectives in pursuance of national development goals within the limits of available school resources. 3. Render regular reports on performance of each student and to the latter and the latter's parents and guardians with specific suggestions for improvement. 4. Assume the responsibility to maintain and sustain his professional growth and advancement and maintain professionalism in his behavior at all times.

5. Refrain from making deductions in students' scholastic rating for acts that are clearly not manifestations of poor scholarship. 6. Participate as an agent of constructive social, economic, moral, intellectual, cultural and political change in his school and the community within the context of national policies. Section 17. School Administrators' Obligations - Every school administrator shall: 1. Perform his duties to the school by discharging his responsibilities in accordance with the philosophy, goals and objectives of the school. 2. Be accountable for the efficient and effective administration and management of the school. 3. Develop and maintain a healthy school atmosphere conducive to the promotion and preservation of academic freedom and effective teaching and learning, and to harmonious and progressive school-personnel relationship. 4. Assume and maintain professional behavior in his work and in dealing with students, teachers, academic non-teaching personnel, administrative staff, and parents or guardians. 5. Render adequate reports to teachers, academic non-teaching personnel and non-academic staff on their actual performance in relation to their expected performance and counsel them on ways of improving the same. 6. Observe due process, fairness, promptness, privacy, constructiveness and consistency in disciplining his teachers and other personnel. 7. Maintain adequate records and submit required reports to the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports. Section 18. Obligations of Academic Non-Teaching Personnel - Academic non-teaching personnel shall: 1. Improve himself professionally be keeping abreast of the latest trends and techniques in his profession. 2. Assume, promote and maintain an atmosphere conducive to service and learning. 3. Promote and maintain an atmosphere conducive to service and learning.

III. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS CHAPTER 1 Formal Education Section 19. Declaration of Policy. - The State recognizes that formal education, or the school system, in society's primary learning system, and therefore the main instrument for the achievement of the country's educational goals and objectives. Section 20. Definition - "Formal Educational" refers to the hierarchically structured and chronologically graded learning organized and provided by the formal school system and for which certification is required in order for the learner to progress through the grades or move to higher levels. Formal education shall correspond to the following levels: 1. Elementary Education. - the first stage of compulsory, formal education primarily concerned with providing basic education and usually corresponding to six or seven grades, including pre-school programs. 2. Secondary Education. - the state of formal education following the elementary level concerned primarily with continuing basic education and expanding it to include the learning of employable gainful skills, usually corresponding to four years of high school.

3. Tertiary Education. - post secondary schooling is higher education leading to a degree in a specific profession or discipline. Section 21. Objectives of Elementary Education - The objectives of elementary education are: 1. To provide the knowledge and develop the skills, attitudes, and values essential to personal development and necessary for living in and contributing to a developing and changing social milieu; 2. To provide learning experiences which increase the child's awareness of and responsiveness to the changes in and just demands of society and to prepare him for constructive and effective involvement; 3. To promote and intensify the child's knowledge of, identification with, and love for the nation and the people to which he belongs; and 4. To promote work experiences which develop the child's orientation to the world of work and creativity and prepare himself to engage in honest and gainful work. Section 22. Objectives of Secondary Education. - The objectives of secondary education are: 1. To continue to promote the objectives of elementary education; and 2. To discover and enhance the different aptitudes and interests of the students so as to equip him with skills for productive endeavor and/or prepare him for tertiary schooling. Section 23. Objective of Tertiary Education. - The objectives of tertiary education are: 1. To provide a general education program that will promote national identity, cultural consciousness, moral integrity and spiritual vigor; 2. To train the nation's manpower in the skills required for national development; 3. To develop the professions that will provide leadership for the nation; and 4. To advance knowledge through research work and apply new knowledge for improving the quality of human life and responding effectively to changing societal needs and conditions. CHAPTER 2 Non-Education and Specialized Educational Services Section 24. Specialized Educational Service - The State further recognizes its responsibility to provide, within the context of the formal education system, services to meet special needs of certain clientele. These specific types, which shall be guided by the basic policies of the State embodied in the General Provisions of this Act, include: 1. "Work Education," or "Practical Arts," as a program of basic education which aims to develop the right attitudes towards work; and "technical-vocational education," post-secondary but non-degree programs leading to one, two, or three year certificates in preparation for a group of middle-level occupations. 2. "Special Education," the education of persons who are physically, mentally, emotionally, socially, or culturally different from the socalled "normal" individuals that they require modification of school practices/services to develop them to their maximum capacity; and 3. "Non-formal Education," any organized school-based educational activities undertaken by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports and other agencies aimed at attaining specific learning objectives for a particular clientele, especially the illiterates and the

out-of-school youth and adults, distinct from and outside the regular offerings of the formal school system. The objectives of non-formal education are as follows: a. To eradicate illiteracy and raise the level of functional literacy of the population; b. To provide unemployed and underemployed youth and adults with appropriate vocational/technical skills to enable them to become more productive and effective citizens; and c. To develop among the clientele of non-formal education proper values and attitudes necessary for personal, community and national development. CHAPTER 3 Establishment of Schools Section 25. Establishment of Schools - All schools shall be established in accordance with law. The establishment of new national schools and the conversion of existing schools from elementary to national secondary or tertiary schools shall be by law: Provided, That any private school proposed to be established must incorporate as an non-stock educational corporation in accordance with the provisions of the Corporation Code of the Philippines. This requirement to incorporate may be waived in the case of familyadministered pre-school institutions. Government assistance to such schools for educational programs shall be used exclusively for that purpose. Section 26. Definition of Terms - The terms used in this Chapter are defined as follows: 1. "Schools" are duly established institutions of learning or educational institutions. 2. "Public Schools" are educational institutions established and administered by the government. 3. "Private Schools" are educational institutions maintained and administered by private individuals or groups. Section 27. Recognition of Schools - The educational operations of schools shall be subject to their prior authorization of the government, and shall be affected by recognition. In the case of government operated schools, whether local, regional, or national, recognition of educational programs and/or operations shall be deemed granted simultaneously with establishment. In all other case the rules and regulations governing recognition shall be prescribed and enforced by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports defining therein who are qualified to apply, providing for a permit system, stating the conditions for the grant of recognition and for its cancellation and withdrawal, and providing for related matters. Section 28. Effects of Recognition; Punishable Violations - The issuance of a certificate of recognition to a school shall have the following effects: 1. It transforms the temporary permit to a permanent authority to operate; 2. It entitled the school or college to give the students who have completed the course for which recognition is granted, a certificate, title or diploma; and 3. It shall entitle the students who have graduated from said recognized course or courses to all the benefits and privileges enjoyed by graduates in similar courses of studies in all schools recognized by the government. Operation of schools and educational programs without authorization, and/or operation thereof in violation of the terms of recognition, are hereby declared punishable violations subject to the penalties provided in this Act.

Section 29. Voluntary Accreditation - The Ministry shall encourage programs of voluntary accreditation for institution which desire to meet standards of quality over and above minimum required for State recognition. CHAPTER 4 Internal Organization of Schools Section 30. Organization of Schools - Each school shall establish such internal organization as will best enable it to carry out its academic and administrative functions, subject to limitations provided by law. Each school establish such arrangements for the peaceful settlement of disputes between or among the members of the educational community. Section 31. Governing Board - Every government college or university as a tertiary institution and every private school shall have a governing board pursuant to its charter or the Corporation Code of the Philippines, as the case may be. Section 32. Personnel Transactions - The terms and conditions of employment of personnel in government schools shall be governed by the Civil Service, budgetary and compensation laws and rules. In private schools, dispute arising from employer-employee relations shall fall under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Labor and Employment as provided for by law regulations: Provided, That in view of the special employment status of the teaching and academic non-teaching personnel, and their special roles in the advancement of knowledge, standards set or promulgated jointly by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports and by the Ministry of Labor and Employment shall be applied by the Ministry of Labor and Employment: Provided, further, That every private school shall establish and implement an appropriate system within the school for the prompt and orderly settlement of provisions of Articles 262 and 263 of the Labor Code. CHAPTER 5 School Finance and Assistance Section 33. Declaration of Policy - It is hereby declared to be the policy of the State that the national government shall contribute to the financial support of educational programs pursuant to goals of education as declared in the Constitution. Towards this end, the government shall: 1. Adopt measures to broaden access to education through financial assistance and other forms of incentives to schools, teachers, pupils and students; and 2. Encourage and stimulate private support to education through, inter alia, fiscal and other assistance measures. A. FUNDING OF REPUBLIC SCHOOLS Section 34. National Funds - Public school shall continue to be funded from national funds: Provided, That local governments shall be encouraged to assume operation of local public schools on the basis of national fund participation and adequate revenue sources which may be assigned by the national government for the purpose. Section 35. Financial Aid Assistance to Public Secondary Schools - The national government shall extend financial aid and assistance to public secondary schools established and maintained by local governments, including barangay high schools. Section 36. Share of Local Government - Provinces, cities and municipalities and barangays shall appropriate funds in their annual budgets for the operation and maintenance of public secondary schools on the basis of national fund participation. Section 37. Special Education Fund - The proceeds of the Special Education Fund accruing to local governments shall be used exclusively for the purposes enumerated in Section 1 of Republic Act No. 5447, and in accordance with rules and regulations issued by

the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports and the Ministry of the Budget. Said proceeds shall be considered a local fund and shall be subject to Presidential Decrees No. 477, Presidential Decree No. 1375 and other applicable local budget laws and regulations. Section 38. Tuition and other School Fees - Secondary and post-secondary schools may charge tuition and other school fees, in order to improve facilities or to accommodate more students. Section 39. Income from other Sources - Government-supported educational institution may receive grants, legacies, donations and gifts for purposes allowed by existing laws. Furthermore, income generated from production activities and from auxiliary enterprises may be retained and used for schools concerned in accordance with rules and regulations jointly issued consistently with pertinent appropriation and budgetary laws by the Ministry of the Budget, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports and the Commission on Audit. B. FUNDING OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS Section 40. Funding of Private Schools - Private schools may be funded from their capital investment or equity contributions, tuition fees and other school charges, grants, loans, subsidies, passive investment income and income from other sources. Section 41. Government Assistance - The government, in recognition of their complementary role in the educational system, may provide aid to the programs of private schools in the form of grants or scholarships, or loans from government financial institutions: Provided, That such programs meet certain defined educational requirements and standards and contribute to the attainment of national development goals. Section 42. Tuition and Other Fees - Each private school shall determine its rate of tuition and other school fees or charges. The rates and charges adopted by schools pursuant to this provision shall be collectible, and their application or use authorized, subject to rules and regulations promulgated by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports. Section 43. Income from Other Sources - Any private school duly recognized by the government, may receive any grant and legacy, donation, gift, bequest or devise from any individual, institution, corporation, foundation, trust of philanthropic organization, or research institution or organization as may be authorized by law. Furthermore, private schools are authorized to engage in any auxiliary enterprise to generate income primarily to finance their educational operations and/or to reduce the need to increase students' fees. Section 44. Institutional Funds - The proceeds from tuition fees and other school charges, as well as other income of schools, shall be treated as institutional funds. Schools may pool their institutional funds, in whole or in part, under joint management for the purpose of generating additional financial resources. C. INCENTIVES TO EDUCATION Section 45. Declaration of Policy - It is the policy of the State in the pursuit of its national education development goals to provide an incentive program to encourage the participation of the community in the development of the educational sector. Section 46. Relating to School Property - Real property, such as lands, buildings and other improvements thereon used actually, directly and exclusively for educational purposes shall be subject to the real property tax based on an assessment of fifteen per cent of the market value of such property: Provided, That all the proceeds from the payment thereof shall accrue to a special private education fund which shall be managed and disbursed by a local private school board which shall be constituted in each municipality or chartered city with private educational institutions with the mayor or his representative as chairman and not more than two representatives of the institutional taxpayers, and, likewise, not more than two residents of the municipality or chartered city who are alumni of any of the institutional taxpayers as members: Provided, further, That fifty percent of the additional one percent tax on real

estate property provided for under Republic Act 5447, shall accrue to the special private education fund: Provided, finally, That in municipalities or chartered cities wherein the number of private institutions with individual enrollment of pupils and students over five thousand exceeds fifteen, the members of the private school board shall be increased to not more than fourteen members determined proportionately by the Minister of Education, Culture and Sports. The private school board shall adopt its own rules which shall enable it to finance the annual programs and projects of each institutional taxpayer for the following purposes; student-pupil scholarships; improvement of instructional, including laboratory, facilities and/or equipment; library books and periodicals acquisition; and extension service in the community, in that order of priority. Section 47. Relating to Gifts or Donations to Schools - All gifts or donation in favor of any school, college or university recognized by the Government shall not be subject to tax; Provided, That such gifts or donations shall be for improvement of classrooms and laboratory of library facilities, and shall not inure to the benefit of any officer, director, official, or owner or owners of the school, or paid out as salary, adjustments or allowance of any form or nature whatsoever, except in support of faculty and/or professorial chairs. Section 48. Relating to Earnings from Established Scholarship Funds - All earnings from the investment of any duly established scholarship fund of any school recognized by the government, constituted from gifts to the school, and/or from contributions or other resources assigned to said fund by the school, if said earnings are actually used to fund additional scholarship grants to financially deserving students shall be exempt from tax until the scholarship fund is fully liquidated, when the outstanding balance thereof shall be subject to tax. Section 49. School Dispersal Program - All gains realized from the sale, disposition or transfer of property, real or personal, of any duly established private school, college or university, in pursuance of a school dispersal program of the government or of the educational institution as approved by the government, shall be considered exempt from tax if the total proceeds of the sale are reinvested in a new or existing duly established school, college, or university located in the dispersal site, within one (1) year from the date of such sale, transfer or disposition; otherwise, all taxes due on the gains realized from the transaction shall immediately become due and payable. Section 50. Conversion to Educational Foundations - An educational institution may convert itself into a non-stock, non-profit educational foundation, in accordance with the implementing rules to be issued jointly by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports and the Ministry of Finance. In the case of stock corporations, if for any reason its corporate existence as an educational institution ceases and is not renewed, all its net assets after liquidation of the liabilities and other obligations may be conveyed and transferred to any non-profit educational institution or successor non-profit educational institution or to be used in such manner as in the judgment of said court will best accomplish the general purposes for which the dissolved organization was organized, or to the State. D. ASSISTANCE TO STUDENTS Section 51. Government Assistance to Students - The government shall provide financial assistance to financially disadvantaged and deserving students. Such assistance may be in the form of State scholarships, grants-in-aid, assistance from the Educational Loan Fund, or subsidized tuition rates in State colleges and universities. All the above and similar assistance programs shall provide for reserve quotas for financially needed but academically qualified students from the national cultural communities. Section 52. Grant of Scholarship Pursuant to Existing Laws - Educational institutions shall be encouraged to grant scholarships to students pursuant to the provisions of existing laws and such scholarship measures as may hereafter be provided for by law. Section 53. Assistance from the Private Sector - The private sector, especially educational institutions, business and industry, shall be encouraged to grant financial assistance to students, especially those undertaking research in the fields of science and technology or

in such projects as may be necessary within the context of national development.

IV. THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, CULTURE AND SPORTS CHAPTER 1 GENERAL PROVISIONS Section 54. Declaration of Policy - The administration of the education system and, pursuant to the provisions of the Constitution, the supervision and regulation of educational institutions are hereby vested in the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports, without prejudice to the provisions of the charter of any state college and university. Section 55. Organization - The Ministry shall be headed by the Minister of Education, Culture and Sports who shall be assisted by one or more Deputy Ministers. The organization of the Ministry shall consist of (a) the Ministry Proper composed of the immediate Office of the Minister, and the Services of the Ministry, (b) the Board of Higher Education, which is hereby established, (c) the Bureau of Elementary Education, the Bureau of Secondary Education, the Bureau of Higher Education, the Bureau of Technical and Vocational Education, and the Bureau of Continuing Education, which are hereby established, (d) Regional offices and field offices, (e) the National Scholarship Center and such other agencies as are now or may be established pursuant to law, and (f) the cultural agencies, namely: the National Library, the National Historical Institute, the National Museum, and the Institute of National Language. Such of the above offices as are created or authorized to be established under this provision, shall be organized and staffed and shall function, subject to the approval of the President, upon recommendation of the Minister of Education, Culture and Sports in consultation with the Presidential Commission on Reorganization. Section 56. The National Board of Education is hereby abolished, and its appropriations, personnel, records, and equipment are hereby transferred to the Office of the Minister of Education, Culture and Sports. Section 57. Functions and Powers of the Ministry - The Ministry shall: 1. Formulate general education objectives and policies, and adopt long-range educational plans; 2. Plan, develop and implement programs and projects in education and culture; 3. Promulgate rules and regulations necessary for the administration, supervision and regulation of the educational system in accordance with declared policy; 4. Set up general objectives for the school system; 5. Coordinate the activities and functions of the school system and the various cultural agencies under it; 6. Coordinate and work with agencies concerned with the educational and cultural development of the national cultural communities; and 7. Recommend and study legislation proposed for adoption. Section 58. Report to the Batasang Pambansa. - The Minister of Education, Culture and Sports shall make an annual report to the Batasang Pambansa on the implementation of the national basic education plan, the current condition of the education programs, the adequacy or deficiency of the appropriations and status of expenditures, the impact of education on the different regions, the growth of enrollment, the adequacy of academic facilities, the concentration of low income groups, or the supply of teaching and non-

teaching personnel, with such comments and appropriate recommendations thirty (30) days before the opening of its regular session. CHAPTER 2 BOARD OF HIGHER EDUCATION Section 59. Declaration of Policy - Higher education will be granted towards the provision of better quality education, the development of middle and high-level manpower, and the intensification of research and extension services. The main thrust of higher education is to achieve equity, efficiency, and high quality in the institutions of higher learning both public and private, so that together they will provide a complete set of program offerings that meet both national and regional development needs. Section 60. Organization of the Board of Higher Education - The Board of Higher Education is reconstituted as an advisory body to the Minister of Education, Culture and Sports. The Board shall be composed of a Deputy Minister of Education, Culture and Sports designated as Chairman and four other members to be appointed by the President of the Philippines upon nomination by the Minister of Education, Culture and Sports for a term of four years. The four members shall have distinguished themselves in the field of higher education and development either in the public or private sector. In the initial appointment of the non-ex officio members, the first appointee shall serve for a term of four years; the second for a term of three years; the third for a term of two years; and the fourth for a term of one year. The Director of the Bureau of Higher Education shall participate in the deliberation of the Board but without the right to vote. The Bureau of Higher Education shall provide the Board with the necessary technical and staff support: Provided, That the Board may create technical panels of experts in the various disciplines as the need arises. Section 61. Function of the Board of Higher Education. - The Board shall: 1. Make policy recommendations regarding the planning and management of the integrated system of higher education and the continuing evaluation thereof. 2. Recommend to the Minister of Education, Culture and Sports steps to improve the governance of the various components of the higher education system at national and regional levels. 3. Assist the Minister of Education, Culture and Sports in making recommendation relatives to the generation of resources and their allocation for higher education. CHAPTER 3 THE BUREAUS Section 62. Bureau of Elementary Education - The Bureau shall perform the following functions: 1. Conduct studies and formulate, develop, and evaluate programs and educational standards for elementary education; 2. Undertake studies necessary for the preparation of prototype curricular designs, instructional materials, and teacher training programs for elementary education; and 3. Formulate guidelines to improve elementary school physical plants and equipment, and general management of these schools. Section 63. Bureau of Secondary Education - The Bureau shall perform the following functions: 1. Conduct studies and formulate, develop and evaluate programs and educational standards for secondary education; 2. Develop curricular designs, prepare instructional materials, and prepare and evaluate programs to update the quality of the teaching and non-teaching staff at the secondary level; 3. Formulate guidelines to improve the secondary school physical plants and equipment, and general management of these schools.

Section 64. Bureau of Technical and Vocational Education. - The Bureau shall perform the following: 1. Collaborate with other agencies in the formulation of manpower plans; 2. Conduct studies, formulate, develop and evaluate post-secondary vocational-technical programs and recommend educational standards for these programs; 3. Develop curricular designs and prepare instructional materials, prepare and evaluate programs to upgrade the quality of teaching and non-teaching staff, and formulate guidelines to improve the physical plant and equipment of post-secondary vocational-technical schools. Section 65. Bureau of Higher Education - The Bureau of higher Education shall perform the following functions: 1. Develop, formulate and evaluate programs, projects and educational standards for a higher education; 2. Provide staff assistance to the Board of Higher Education in its policy formulation and advisory functions; 3. Provide technical assistance to encourage institutional development programs and projects; 4. Compile, analyze and evaluate data on higher education; and 5. Perform other functions provided for by law. Section 66. Bureau of Continuing Education - As the main implementing arm of the non-formal education programs of the Ministry, the Bureau shall provide learning programs or activities that shall: 1. Serve as a means of meeting the learning needs of those unable to avail themselves of the educational services and programs of formal education; 2. Provide opportunities for the acquisition of skills necessary to enhance and ensure continuing employability, efficiency, productivity, and competitiveness in the labor market; 3. Serve as a means for expanding access to educational opportunities to citizens of varied interests, demographic characteristics and socio-economic origins or status. CHAPTER 4 REGIONAL OFFICES Section 67. Functions - A regional office shall: 1. Formulate the regional plan of education based on the national plan of the Ministry taking into account the specific needs and special traditions of the region; 2. Implement education laws, policies, plans, programs, rules and regulations of the Ministry or agency in the regional area; 3. Provide economical, efficient and effective education services to the people in the area.

V. MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS CHAPTER 1 PENAL ADMINISTRATIVE SANCTIONS

Section 68. Penalty Clause - Any person upon conviction for an act in violation of Section 28, Chapter 3, Title III above, shall be punished with a fine of not less than two thousand pesos (P2,000.00) nor more than ten thousand pesos (P10,000.00) or imprisonment for a maximum period of two (2) years, or both, in the discretion of the court. If the act is committed by a school corporation, the school head together with the person or persons responsible for the offense or violation shall be equally liable. Section 69. Administrative Sanction - The Minister of Education, Culture and Sports may prescribe and impose such administrative sanction as he may deem reasonable and appropriate in the implementing rules and regulations promulgated pursuant to this Act for any of the following causes: 1. Mismanagement of school operations; 2. Gross inefficiency of the teaching or non-teaching personnel; 3. Fraud or deceit committed in connection with the application for Ministry permit or recognition; 4. Failure to comply with conditions or obligations prescribed by this Code or its implementing rules and regulations; and 5. Unauthorized operation of a school or course, or any component thereof, or any violation of the requirement governing advertisements or announcements of educational institutions. Sanctions against the schools shall be without prejudice to the interest of the students, teachers and employees. CHAPTER 2 ADMINISTRATIVE PROVISIONS Section 70. Rule-making Authority - The Minister Education, Culture and Sports charged with the administration and enforcement of this Act, shall promulgate the necessary implementing rules and regulations. Section 71. Separability Provision - Any part or provision of this Act which may held invalid or unconstitutional shall not affect its remaining parts of provisions. Section 72. Repealing Clause - All laws or parts thereof inconsistent with any provision of this Act shall be deemed repealed or modified, as the case may be. Section 73. Effectivity - This Act shall take effect upon its approval. Approved, September 11, 1982. The Lawphil Project - Arellano Law Foundation

Your Account

Pedagogy in Action > Library > Assessment Assessment This material was originally created for Starting Point:Introductory Geology and is replicated here as part of the SERC Pedagogic Service. Author Profile William Slattery, Departments of Geological Sciences and Teacher Education, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio

What is Assessment?

Assessment is the process of observing and measuring learning. Assessments provide faculty with a better understanding of what your students are learning and engage students more deeply in the process of learning geoscience content. By using assessment strategies that draw students into the assessment process it is more likely that they learn more of the geoscience content that you want them to learn while getting the added benefits of learning skills that will be useful to them in the future. As the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996) points out, assessments don't take time from learning, they are learning experiences by themselves. Click on the following link for additional information on the Domains of Learning. Why Is Assessment Important?

By deliberately using different Functions of Assessments at specific times during the learning process students will have a clearer vision of what is expected of them and generally will be more positive about

their course experiences. They will also learn to use skills that will help them understand how scientists analyze and present findings. In addition, a program of sustained student assessment is the foundation for evaluation of courses andgeoscience programs. How to Use an Assortment of Assessment Strategies

Imagine that you have just finished a lecture on atmospheric dynamics, ocean currents or plate tectonics. Students anxiously ask "will we be tested on this?" They are concerned about getting a good grade. There might be some questions you have yourself, such as, "How do I know my students learned anything? Have they met my learning objectives for the unit? Are they ready to tackle more abstract conceptual ideas in the geosciences?" By learning how to use the assessment strategies in this module, you will reduce student anxiety and it is likely that they will learn and remember more of what you want them to know. Examples of Assessment in Various Learning Settings

Geoscientists teach and learn in the laboratory, classroom and in the field. Students learning in those varied settings can get value added learning experiences by engaging in some of the same activities that geoscientists use to gather and analyze data and report their findings to their colleagues. Click on the following link to see examples of assessment in several learning settings.

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Interdisciplinary Approaches to Teaching Inventing and Testing Models Investigative Case Based Learning Jigsaws Just in Time Teaching Lecture Tutorials Mathematical and Statistical Models Measurement and Uncertainty Models Peer Review Peer-Led Team Learning PhET Interactive Science Simulations Process of Science Process-Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning Professional Communications Projects Quantitative Writing Role Playing SCALE-UP Service-Learning Socratic Questioning Structured Academic Controversy Studio Teaching in the Geosciences Teaching Quantitative Reasoning with the News Teaching Urban Students Teaching with Data Teaching with Data Simulations Teaching with GIS Teaching with Google Earth Teaching with Learning Assistants

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Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles Emily Giles, Sarah Pitre, Sara Womack Department of Educational Psychology and Instructional Technology, University of Georgia Independent Chapter Review This is where you would see an independent review of this chapter, but no one has written it yet. If you would like to be the one that writes this review, you can e-mail me your review directly. If you suggest changes and I can make them, I will and then I will delete that portion of your review. Make sure you include the following information: Your name, Ph.D. Your affiliation Your title Contents [hide]

1 Introduction 2 Multiple Intelligences Section

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2.1 Multiple Intelligences Scenario

3 What is Multiple Intelligences Theory? 4 The Eight Intelligences

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4.1 Verbal/Linguistic 4.2 Logical/Mathematical 4.3 Visual/Spatial 4.4 Bodily/Kinesthetic 4.5 Naturalistic 4.6 Musical Intelligence 4.7 Interpersonal 4.8 Intrapersonal

5 Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom

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5.1 Planning and Implementing Student-Centered Lessons

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5.2 Planning and Implementing a Teacher-Centered Lesson 5.3 Benefits of Multiple Intelligences

6 Learning Styles Section

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6.1 Scenario

7 Learning Styles
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7.1 The Visual Learning Style 7.2 The Aural Learning Style 7.3 The Reading/Writing Learning Style 7.4 The Kinesthetic/Tactile Learning Style 7.5 Learning Strategies for Each Learning Style

8 Educational Implications for Learning Styles 9 References 10 Citation

Click Here to Play the Multiple Intelligences Presentation Caption: This Narrated PowerPoint presentation describes how a single piece of math content might be addressed from each of the 8 intelligences Howard Gardner proposes Click Here to for the script of this Multiple Intelligences Presentation in MS Word. By Darren West, Joe Pearce and Moira Chance (2010) Introduction Various theories on learning have been developed with increasing frequency in the last few decades. In order to understand the relationship between these theories, Curry's onion model (Curry, 1983) was developed with four layers -- personality learning theories, information processing theories, social learning theories, and multidimensional and instructional theories. Personality learning theories define the influences of basic personality on preferences to acquiring and integrating information. Models used in this theory include Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which measures personality in dichotomous terms -- extroversion versus introversion, sensing versus intuition, thinking versus feeling, and judging versus perception, and the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, which classifies people as rationals, idealists, artisans, or guardians. Information processing theories encompass individuals' preferred intellectual approach to assimilating information, and includesDavid Kolb's model of information processing, which identifies two separate learning activities: perception and processing.

Social learning theories determine how students interact in the classroom and include Reichmann's and Grasha's types of learners: independent, dependent, collaborative, competitive, participant, and avoidant. Multidimensional and instructional theories address the student's environmental preference for learning and includes the Learning Style Model of Dunn and Dunn and the multiple intelligences theory of Howard Gardner. This chapter focuses on this type of learning theory by Howard Gardner. Multiple Intelligences Section Caption: This is a questionnaire created with Flash to give users a profile of their multiple intelligences. It assesses the eight intelligences that are fully accepted by educators in the classroom. The eight intelligences are verbal, logical, spatial, kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic. The ninth would be Existential, but this is not a confirmed intelligence. This is NOT a scientific assessment. There is no validty to this test at all. We include it to simply help you think about your own abilities. By Myung Hwa Koh, Li Zhu and Seow Chong Wong (2003). Multiple Intelligences Scenario Ms. Cunningham, a seventh grade American History Teacher, is preparing a unit on the American Civil Rights Movement of the 1950's and 1960's. The teacher has created a succession of lessons to be completed over a two-week period to enhance her students' understanding of the events, organizations, and individuals that were crucial to the movement. When the unit is over, Ms. Cunningham wants her students to have a complete picture of the historical period. She designs a variety of activities that give the students the opportunity to explore historical and cultural aspects of the 1950's and 1960's, and to fully identify with those who were involved in the Movement. In order to reach her instructional goals, the students will read selected excerpts from the textbook and listen to various lecturers about the Movement. In addition to the aforementioned, the students will complete several exploratory tasks about the Civil Rights movement as well. To begin the unit the teacher uses a KWL chart on the overhead to spur discussion and start the students' "juices" flowing. A KWL chart is a visual representation of what students already know, what they want to know, and what they learned at the end of a lesson. This activity is completed as a class. The students take turns sharing the tidbits of information that they already know about the Civil Rights movement. This information is on major figures, events and places involved in the Civil Rights movement. Upon establishing what basic prior knowledge the students possess, it is now time to begin discovering new information and confirming previously held information about the Civil Rights movement. Ms. Cunningham then lectures on the basic events, people, and places involved in the majority of the Civil Rights movement in order to provide students some framework within which to begin placing their new information. She closes the first lesson by asking the students to create a timeline using the dates of events she has provided. This will be a working outline to be used throughout the unit. During a subsequent lesson, students are asked to share their outlines with their classmates in small groups. They should make corrections and comments on the outlines as needed. Ms. Cunningham gains class consensus of the proper order for their working outline as she places an enlarged version on the classroom wall.

The culmination of this unit will be a final project in which students create a portfolio containing work on three mini-projects. All students will listen to the same guest lecturers, view the same video taped footage and participate in the same class discussions during the first half of each class. The remainder of each class period will be reserved for work on personal exploration pertaining to their portfolio pieces. Ms. Cunningham has provided a list of possible activities and a rubric for each suggested activity in order to support and to guide the student's work. She has also arranged her room so that "art" materials are in a central location; mapping and graphing information is grouped together and there is a section replete with reading and research materials. Mrs. Cunningham's students will have many options for creating something chat can be included in their portfolios. Students will have the option to write letters to members of the community who were teenagers during the Civil Rights Movement, asking them to share their memories and experiences about life during the time period. Students may work in teams to prepare speeches based on period issues for their fellow classmates. Students may consult with the school's Media Specialist or more knowledgeable other to find resources for the class, including popular music from the time period. They may also learn and share dances that were popular during the 1950's and 1960's. If they choose, students may include music in the plays they write and act out for their classmates. With the assistance of the Art instructor, students may opt to work together to create a mural that represents key figures of the Civil Rights Movement such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr., with accompanying biographical information about each leader. Students may also create a map representing key events. Students may also work in groups to prepare short plays to enact for the class based on the readings and what they learn from the guest speakers. Afterwards, Mrs. Cunningham will moderate discussion sessions about the plays. All students will keep a record of their thoughts and feelings about the minilessons they completed. This journaling process will provide a synthesis of the materials with which they dealt. As one final measure, students present their portfolios to their classmates. James, a student whose proclivities lean towards creative visual projects expresses interest in working on the mural of Civil Rights leaders. Mrs. Cunningham feels that James needs to shift gears and concentrate on other activities in the classroom. The teacher suggests that James work on creating the map and / or timeline. At the teacher's encouragement, James begins to work on the other projects, but his attention continues to drift towards the students painting the mural. He contributes some excellent ideas and shows so much interest in the details and creation of the mural, that the teacher allows him to shift his focus back towards the visual project. In another seventh grade classroom, Mr. Smith taught a unit on the Civil Rights Movement by assigning textbook readings and lecturing the students on the historical events surrounding the Movement. Students were given sentence completion pop quizzes throughout the course of the lesson. The teacher showed videotaped programs to the class and each student wrote a short research paper about a Civil Rights leader or prominent figure. At the end of the unit, students were given a multiple choice and essay test. What is Multiple Intelligences Theory? Howard Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences utilizes aspects of cognitive and developmental psychology, anthropology, and sociology to explain the human intellect. Although Gardner had been working towards the concept of Multiple Intelligences for many years prior, the theory was introduced in 1983, with Gardner's book, Frames of Mind.

Gardner's research consisted of brain research and interviews with stroke victims, prodigies, and individuals with autism. Based on his findings, Gardner established eight criteria for identifying the seven (he has subsequently added an eighth and is considering a ninth) separate intelligences. The eight criteria used by Gardner to identify the intelligences are listed below:

Isolation by brain damage/neurological evidence The existence of prodigies, idiot savants, and exceptional individuals Distinguishable set of core operations Developmental stages with an expert end state Evolutionary history and plausibility Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system Support from experimental psychological tasks Support from psychometric research

For a more detailed look at these eight criteria, visit http://surfaquarium.com/MI/criteria.htm. Originally, the theory accounted for seven separate intelligences. Subsequently, with the publishing of Gardner's Intelligence Reframed in 1999, two more intelligences were added to the list. The intelligences are Verbal/Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Visual/Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic, and Existential. Gardner's theory challenges traditional, narrower views of intelligence. Previously accepted ideas of human intellectual capacity contend that an individual's intelligence is a fixed entity throughout his lifetime and that intelligence can be measured through an individual's logical and language abilities. According to Gardner's theory, an intelligence encompasses the ability to create and solve problems, create products or provide services that are valued within a culture or society. Originally, the theory accounted for seven separate intelligences. Subsequently, with the publishing of Gardner's Intelligence Reframed in 1999, two more intelligences were added to the list. The nine intelligences are outlined in more detail in the section below. Listed below are key points of Gardner's theory:

All human beings possess all nine intelligences in varying degrees. Each individual has a different intelligence profile. Education can be improved by assessment of students' intelligence profiles and designing activities accordingly. Each intelligence occupies a different area of the brain. The nine intelligences may operate in consort or independently from one another. These nine intelligences may define the human species.

Gardner, a Professor of Education at Harvard University, and other researchers and educators continue to work towards a more holistic approach to education through Project Zero. For more information on the projects and research involved in Project Zero, visit the website at http://www.pz.harvard.edu. Although the theory was not originally designed for use in a classroom application, it has been widely embraced by educators and enjoyed numerous adaptations in a variety of educational settings Teachers have always known that students had different strengths and weaknesses in the classroom. Gardner's research was able to articulate that and provide direction as to how to improve a student's ability in any given intelligence. Teachers were encouraged to begin to think of lesson planning in terms of meeting the needs of a variety of the intelligences. From this new thinking, schools such the Ross School in New York, an independent educational institution, and the Key Learning Community, a public magnet school in Indianapolis emerged to try teaching using a Multiple Intelligences curriculum. The focus of this part of the chapter will be on lesson design using the theory of Multiple Intelligences, and providing various resources that educator's may use to implement the theory into their classroom activities. The Eight Intelligences Verbal/Linguistic Verbal/Linguistic intelligence refers to an individual's ability to understand and manipulate words and languages. Everyone is thought to possess this intelligence at some level. This includes reading, writing, speaking, and other forms of verbal and written communication. Teachers can enhance their students' verbal/linguistic intelligence by having them keep journals, play word games, and by encouraging discussion. People with strong rhetorical and oratory skills such as poets, authors, and attorneys exhibit strong Linguistic intelligence. Some examples are T.S. Elliot, Maya Angelou, and Martin Luther King Jr. Traditionally, Linguistic intelligence and Logical/Mathematical intelligence have been highly valued in education and learning environments. Logical/Mathematical Logical/Mathematical intelligence refers to an individual's ability to do things with data: collect, and organize, analyze and interpret, conclude and predict. Individuals strong in this intelligence see patterns and relationships. These individuals are oriented toward thinking: inductive and deductive logic, numeration, and abstract patterns. They would be a contemplative problem solver; one who likes to play strategy games and to solve mathematical problems. Being strong in this intelligence often implies great scientific ability. This is the kind of intelligence studied and documented by Piaget. Teachers can strengthen this intelligence by encouraging the use of computer programming languages, criticalthinking activities, linear outlining, Piagetian cognitive stretching exercises, science-fiction scenarios, logic puzzles, and through the use of logical/sequential presentation of subject matter. Some real life examples people who are gifted with this intelligence are Albert Einstein, Niehls Bohr, and John Dewey. Visual/Spatial Visual/Spatial intelligence refers to the ability to form and manipulate a mental model. Individuals with strength in this area depend on visual thinking and are very imaginative. People with this kind of intelligence tend to learn most readily from visual presentations such as movies, pictures, videos, and demonstrations using models and props. They like to draw, paint, or sculpt their ideas and often express their feelings and moods through art. These individuals often daydream, imagine and pretend. They are

good at reading diagrams and maps and enjoy solving mazes and jigsaw puzzles. Teachers can foster this intelligence by utilizing charts, graphs, diagrams, graphic organizers, videotapes, color, art activities, doodling, microscopes and computer graphics software. It could be characterized as right-brain activity. Pablo Picasso, Bobby Fischer, and Georgia O'Keefe are some examples of people gifted with this intelligence. Bodily/Kinesthetic Bodily/Kinesthetic intelligence refers to people who process information through the sensations they feel in their bodies. These people like to move around, touch the people they are talking to and act things out. They are good at small and large muscle skills; they enjoy all types of sports and physical activities. They often express themselves through dance. Teachers may encourage growth in this area of intelligence through the use of touching, feeling, movement, improvisation, "hands-on" activities, permission to squirm and wiggle, facial expressions and physical relaxation exercises. Some examples of people who are gifted with this intelligence are Michael Jordan, Martina Navratilova, and Jim Carrey. Naturalistic Naturalistic intelligence is seen in someone who recognizes and classifies plants, animals, and minerals including a mastery of taxonomies. They are holistic thinkers who recognize specimens and value the unusual. They are aware of species such as the flora and fauna around them. They notice natural and artificial taxonomies such as dinosaurs to algae and cars to clothes. Teachers can best foster this intelligence by using relationships among systems of species, and classification activities. Encourage the study of relationships such as patterns and order, and compare-and-contrast sets of groups or look at connections to real life and science issues. Charles Darwin and John Muir are examples of people gifted in this way. Musical Intelligence Musical intelligence refers to the ability to understand, create, and interpret musical pitches, timbre, rhythm, and tones and the capability to compose music. Teachers can integrate activities into their lessons that encourage students' musical intelligence by playing music for the class and assigning tasks that involve students creating lyrics about the material being taught. Composers and instrumentalists are individuals with strength in this area. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Louis Armstrong are examples. Interpersonal Although Gardner classifies interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences separately, there is a lot of interplay between the two and they are often grouped together. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to interpret and respond to the moods, emotions, motivations, and actions of others. Interpersonal intelligence also requires good communication and interaction skills, and the ability show empathy towards the feelings of other individuals. Teachers can encourage the growth of Interpersonal Intelligences by designing lessons that include group work and by planning cooperative learning activities. Counselors and social workers are professions that require strength in this area. Some examples of people with this intelligence include Gandhi, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton. Intrapersonal

Intrapersonal Intelligence, simply put, is the ability to know oneself. It is an internalized version of Interpersonal Intelligence. To exhibit strength in Intrapersonal Intelligence, an individual must be able to understand their own emotions, motivations, and be aware of their own strengths and weaknesses. Teachers can assign reflective activities, such as journaling to awaken students' Intrapersonal Intelligence. Its important to note that this intelligence involves the use of all others. An individual should tap into their other intelligences to completely express their Intrapersonal Intelligence. Authors of classic autobiographies such as Jean Paul Satre and Frederick Douglas are examples of individuals who exhibited strong Interpersonal Intelligence in their lifetimes. There is a ninth intelligence that has yet to experience full acceptance by educators in the classroom. This is Existential intelligence, which encompasses the ability to pose and ponder questions regarding the existence -- including life and death. This would be in the domain of philosophers and religious leaders. The table below summarizes the strengths, learning preferences, and needs that correspond to the intelligences.

Table 1. Summary of the Eight Intelligences Intelligence Area Strengths Preferences Write, read, tell stories, talk, memorize, work at solving puzzles Learns best through Hearing and seeing words, speaking, reading, writing, discussing and debating Needs

Verbal / Linguistic

Writing, reading, memorizing dates, thinking in words, telling stories

Books, tapes, paper diaries, writing tools, dialogue, discussion, debated, stories, etc.

Working with relationships and Question, work Math, logic, problempatterns, Mathematical/ with numbers, solving, reasoning, classifying, Logical experiment, patterns categorizing, solve problems working with the abstract Maps, reading charts, drawing, mazes, Visual / Spatial puzzles, imagining things, visualization Athletics, dancing, crafts, using tools, Working with Draw, build, pictures and colors, design, create, visualizing, using daydream, look the mind's eye, at pictures drawing Move around, touch and talk,

Things to think about and explore, science materials, manipulative, trips to the planetarium and science museum, etc. LEGOs, video, movies, slides, art, imagination games, mazes, puzzles, illustrated book, trips to art museums, etc.

Bodily /

Touching, moving, Role-play, drama, things knowledge through to build, movement,

Kinesthetic

acting

body language

bodily sensations, processing

sports and physical games, tactile experiences, hands-on learning, etc.

Musical

Picking up sounds, remembering melodies, rhythms, singing Leading, organizing, understanding people, communicating, resolving conflicts, selling

Sing, play an instrument, listen to music, hum

Sing-along time, trips to Rhythm, singing, concerts, music playing melody, listening to at home and school, music and melodies musical instruments, etc. Friends, group games, social gatherings, community events, clubs, mentors/ apprenticeships, etc.

Interpersonal

Talk to people, have friends, join groups

Comparing, relating, sharing, interviewing, cooperating

Intrapersonal

Recognizing strengths Work alone, and weaknesses, reflect pursue setting goals, interests understanding self Understanding nature, making distinctions, identifying flora and fauna

Working alone, Secret places, time having space, alone, self-paced reflecting, doing projects, choices, etc. self-paced projects Order, same/different, connections to real life and science issues, patterns

Naturalistic

Working in nature, Be involved with exploring living nature, make things, learning distinctions about plants and natural events

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom There are many ways to incorporate Multiple Intelligences theory into the curriculum, and there is no set method by which to incorporate the theory. Some teachers set up learning centers with resources and materials that promote involving the different intelligences. For example, in the above scenario, Ms. Cunningham creates an area with art supplies in her classroom. Other instructors design simulations that immerse students into real life situations. Careful planning during the lesson design process will help to ensure quality instruction and valuable student experiences in the classroom. Other instructional models, such as project-based and collaborative learning may be easily integrated into lessons with Multiple Intelligences. Collaborative learning allows students to explore their interpersonal intelligence, while project-based learning may help structure activities designed to cultivate the nine intelligences. For instance, Ms. Cunningham uses aspects of project-based learning in her classroom by allowing students to plan, create, and process (through reflection) information throughout the Civil Rights unit, while also integrating activities that teach to the intelligences. This particular instructional model allows students to work together to explore a topic and to create something as the end product. This works well with Multiple Intelligences theory, which places value on

the ability to create products. By collaborating with the Media Specialist to give students the opportunity to choose from a variety of resources to complete their assignments, Ms. Cunningham uses aspects of resource-based learning, an instructional model that places the ultimate responsibility of choosing resources on the student. It is important for teachers to carefully select activities that not only teach to the intelligences, but also realistically mesh with the subject matter of the lesson or unit. Multiple Intelligences theory should enhance, not detract from what is being taught. Disney's website entitled Tapping into Multiple Intelligences suggests two approaches for implementing Multiple Intelligences theory in the classroom. One is a teacher-centered approach, in which the instructor incorporates materials, resources, and activities into the lesson that teach to the different intelligences. The other is a student-centered approach in which students actually create a variety of different materials that demonstrate their understanding of the subject matter. The student-centered approach allows students to actively use their varied forms of intelligence. In a teacher-centered lesson, the number of intelligences explored should be limited to two or three. To teach less than two is nearly impossible since the use of speech will always require the use of one's Verbal/Linguistic intelligence. In a student-centered lesson, the instructor may incorporate aspects of project-based learning, collaborative learning, or other inquiry-based models. In such a case, activities involving all nine intelligences may be presented as options for the class, but each student participates in only one or two of the tasks. Ms. Cunningham incorporates both student-centered and teacher-centered activities into her unit on the Civil Rights Movement. The teacher-led lecture is a standard example of a teacher-centered activity. The lecture teaches to students' Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence. The viewing of the videotape is another example of a teacher-centered activity. This activity incorporates Visual/Spatial Intelligence into how the unit is learned. It is important to note that many activities, although designed to target a particular intelligence, may also utilize other intelligences as well. For example, in Ms. Cunningham's classroom the students may work together on creating a mural of Civil Rights Leaders. This is a student-centered activity that directly involves Visual/Spatial intelligence, but also gives students a chance to exercise their Interpersonal Intelligence. The journal assignment, also a student-centered activity, is designed to enhance students' Intrapersonal Intelligence by prompting them to reflect on their feelings and experiences in relation to the Civil Rights movement. This activity also taps into Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence. The timeline and map assignments are student-centered activities that are designed to enhance students' Logical/Mathematical Intelligence, but they also delve into Visual/Spatial Intelligence. Students must collect and organize information for both the timeline and the map therefore using their Logical/Mathematical intelligence. In creating these items, students must think visually as well. By incorporating dance into one lesson, Ms. Cunningham is able to promote awareness of her students' Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence. By showing videos of popular dances from the time period, or inviting an expert from the community to talk about the social aspects of dance, Ms. Cunningham might incorporate a teacher-centered activity. Having students learn and perform dances is a student-centered way of teaching through Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence. The short plays that students prepare involve Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence, as well as Interpersonal and Verbal/Linguistic intelligences. Class discussions provide an opportunity for students to exercise both areas of their personal intelligences, as well as to reinforce the subject matter. Planning and Implementing Student-Centered Lessons

This type of lesson revolves around student created materials. The types of activities and assignments that support student-centered lessons can be easily designed in concert with many of the inquiry-based models discussed in the text of this book. One of the most important aspects of student-centered lessons is allowing students to make choices. Teachers should encourage students to exercise their weaker intelligences, but allow them to explore their stronger areas as well. In Ms. Cunningham's class, the student named James is very strong in Visual/Spatial Intelligence and always leans towards this type of project. The teacher encourages James to participate in other activities, but when it is obvious that his interest lies in working on the mural Ms. Cunningham allows him to work on the project. Listed below are steps to implement a student-centered lesson or unit:

Carefully identify instructional goals, objectives, and instructional outcomes. Consider activities that you can integrate into the lesson or unit that teach to the different intelligences. Teachers need not incorporate all nine intelligences into one lesson. When gathering resources and materials, consider those which will allow students to explore their multiple intelligences. Specify a timeframe for the lesson or unit. Allow for considerable element of student choice when designing activities and tasks for the intelligences Design activities that are student-centered, using inquiry-based models of instruction. Provide a rubric for student activities. You might consider having students help create rubrics. Incorporate assessment into the learning process.

In an effort to maximize students' interest in both the subject matter and their own learning proclivities, teachers may wish to teach their students a little bit about Multiple Intelligences. Teachers can brief the class about each type of intelligence and then follow up with a self-assessment for each student. In this way, students will be able to capitalize on their strengths and work on their weaker areas. Disney's Tapping Into Multiple Intelligences website includes a self-assesment. Planning and Implementing a Teacher-Centered Lesson Structured, teacher-centered activities provide an opportunity for teachers to introduce material and establish prior knowledge and student conceptions. Teachers may lecture students, show informational videos and posters, perform drills, pose problem-solving exercises, arrange museum visits, and plan outings to concerts. There are all examples of teacher-centered activities. All of these activities integrate the Multiple Intelligences into the subject matter being taught. Teacher-centered lessons should be limited to a few activities that provide a foundation for students to later complete more exploratory tasks in which they can demonstrate understanding of the material. A teacher may choose to start an instructional unit or lesson with teacher-centered activities and then follow up with subsequent studentcentered lessons. Teachers may follow these steps when designing and implementing a teachercentered lesson:

Identify instructional goals and objectives

Consider teacher-centered activities that teach to students' Multiple Intelligences. In a teachercentered lesson, limit the number of activities to two or three. Consider what resources and materials you will need to implement the lesson. For example, will you need to schedule a museum visit or to consult the Media Specialist for videos or other media? Specify a timeframe for the lesson or unit. Provide an opportunity for reflection by students Provide a rubric to scaffold student activities Integrate assessment into the learning process

Assessment is one of the biggest challenges in incorporating Multiple Intelligences in the classroom. Ms. Cunningham's students are given the option of working on several mini-projects during the course of the Civil Rights unit. At the end of the unit, their performance is assessed through a portfolio that represents their work on these projects. It is very important for assessment to be integrated into the learning process. Assessment should give students the opportunity to demonstrate their understanding of the subject matter. One of the main goals of acknowledging and using Multiple Intelligences in the classroom is to increase student understanding of material by allowing them to demonstrate the ways in which they understand the material. Teachers need to make their expectations clear, and may do so in the form of a detailed rubric. Benefits of Multiple Intelligences Using Multiple Intelligences theory in the classroom has many benefits:

As a teacher and learner you realize that there are many ways to be "smart" All forms of intelligence are equally celebrated. By having students create work that is displayed to parents and other members of the community, your school could see more parent and community involvement. A sense of increased self-worth may be seen as students build on their strengths and work towards becoming an expert in certain areas Students may develop strong problem solving skills that they can use real life situations

Multiple Intelligences: Classroom Application (Table added by Brandy Bellamy and Camille Baker, 2005) Table 2. Multiple Intelligences: Classroom Application (Table added by Brandy Bellamy and Camille Baker, 2005) Teacher Centered Student Centered

Present content verbally Ask questions aloud and look for student feedback Interviews

Student Presents Material Students read content and prepare a presentation for his/her classmates Students debate over an issue Students categorize information in logical sequences for organization. Students create graphs or charts to explain written info. Students participate in webquests associated with the content Students use computers to research subject matter. Students create props of their own explaining subject matter (shadow boxes, mobiles, etc...) Students create review games. Have students work individually or in groups to create visuals pertaining to the information: Posters; timelines; models; powerpoint slides; maps; illustrations, charts; concept mapping Create a song or melody with the content embedded for memory Use well known songs to memorize formulas, skills, or test content

Verbal/Linguistic

Provide brain teasers or challenging questions to begin lessons. Make logical connections between the subject matter and authentic situations to answer the question "why?"

Logical/Mathematical

Use props during lecture Provide tangible items pertaining to content for students to examine Review using sports related examples (throw a ball to someone to answer a question)

Bodily/Kinesthetic

When presenting the information, use visuals to explain content:</br> PowerPoint Slides, Charts, Graphs, cartoons, videos, overheads, smartboards Visual/Spatial

Play music in the classroom during reflection periods Show examples or create musical rhythms for students to remember things

Musical

Be aware of body language and facial expressions Offer assistance whenever needed Encourage classroom discussion

Encourage collaboration among peers Group work strengthens interpersonal connections Peer feedback and peer tutoring Students present to the class Encourage group editing

Interpersonal

Encourage journaling as a positive outlet for expression Introduce web logging (blogs) Make individual questions welcome Create a positive environment. Take students outside to enjoy nature while in learning process (lecture) Compare authentic subject matter to natural occurrences. Relate subject matter to stages that occur in nature (plants, weather, etc)

Journaling Individual research on content Students create personal portfolios of work

Intrapersonal

Students organize thoughts using natural cycles Students make relationships among content and the natural environment (how has nature had an impact?) Students perform community service

Naturalistic

Learning Styles Section Scenario A group of four city planners in Boston is working on a project to improve the methods of repairing streets. They have spent a lot of time in the field looking at streets and learning about the stresses they receive, how engineers currently deal with those problems, and the public's perceptions of street conditions. Some improvements have been made including a new system of diagnosing problems and new methods of repairing the streets. The final stage of their project is to determine how to educate the city's employees on these improvements. Jessica believes that showing maps of where the various sidewalks in various states of decay would be helpful. She also wants to use a flow chart to represent the new repair process. Maybe a computer instruction guide could be utilized in the employee education program.

Patrick feels that the planners need to discuss these improvements with the city's employees. A question and answer session could also be implemented in an attempt to answer any questions concerning the new system of diagnosing problems and new methods of repairing the streets. Will has already begun work on an extensive training manual, which will provide a concrete resource to guide employees in training and for later reference. The manual will be available in hard copy and on the web. Claire thinks that the city employees would benefit the most from a multimedia presentation as well as a CD-ROM with links to other useful information. She also wants the employees to go into the field and see some of the streets that were used as models in the new program. If that is not possible, pictures could be provided as examples to give the employees a concrete idea of the improvements. Learning Styles The term "learning styles" is commonly used throughout various educational fields and therefore, has many connotations. In general, it refers to the uniqueness of how each learner receives and processes new information through their senses. The National Association of Secondary School Principals defines learning style as, "the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning environment." Other phrases are used interchangeably with learning styles. Some include perceptual styles, learning modalities, and learning preferences. Each person is born with certain preferences toward particular styles, but culture, experience, and development influence these preferences. The four most common learning styles are visual, aural, reading/writing, and kinesthetic/tactile. Most people learn through all modalities, but have certain strengths and weaknesses in a specific modality. Some people have an equal propensity for more than one style, which is titled as the multimodal style. This preference can be determined through various testing instruments. Once a person's learning style is ascertained, accommodations can be made to increase academic achievement and creativity, as well as improve attitudes toward learning. What is your learning style? Take the VARK Questionnaire! The Visual Learning Style Visual learners process information most effectively when the information is seen. Depictions can include charts, graphs, flow charts, and all the symbolic arrows, circles, hierarchies and other devices that instructors use to represent what could have been presented in worlds. These learners think in pictures and have vivid imaginations. Most people are classified as visual learners. Jessica is a visual learner. Her suggestions focus on the use of visual aids to increase information processing. The Aural Learning Style Aural learners process information most effectively when spoken or heard. These learners respond well to lectures and discussions and are excellent listeners. They also like to talk and enjoy music and dramas. When trying to recall information, aural learners can often "hear" the way someone told them the information.

Patrick is an aural learner. His need to discuss the new improvements points to the benefits of obtaining information in an oral language format. The Reading/Writing Learning Style Reading/Writing learners process information most effectively when presented in a written language format. This type of learner benefits from instructors that use the blackboard to accent important points or provide outlines of the lecture material. When trying to recall information, reading/writing learners remember the information from their "mind's eye." Many academics have a strong preference for the reading/writing style. Will is a reading/writing learner. His comprehensive training manual allows the employees to utilize the written language format. The Kinesthetic/Tactile Learning Style Kinesthetic/Tactile learners process information actively through physical means. Kinesthetic learning refers to whole body movement while tactile learning refers only to the sense of touch. These learners gesture when speaking, are poor listeners, and lose interest in long speeches. Most students that do not perform well in school are kinesthetic/tactile learners. The crux of this learning style is that the learner is connected to real situations through experience, example, practice, or simulation. Claire is a kinesthetic/tactile learner. Her method of instruction utilizes "hands on" demonstrations and field experiences. Learning Strategies for Each Learning Style The Visual Learning Style

Replace words with symbols or initials. Translate concepts into pictures and diagrams. Underline or highlight your notes or textbooks with different colors. Practice turning your visuals back into words. Make flashcards of key information with words, symbols, and diagrams.

The Aural Learning Style

Attend lectures and tutorials. Discuss topics with your instructor and other students. Put summarized notes on tape and listen to them. Join a study group or have a "study buddy." Tape record your lectures. When recalling information or solving problems, talk out loud.

The Reading/Writing Learning Style

Write out important information again and again. Read your notes silently. Organize any diagrams into statements. Rewrite the ideas and principles in other words. Make flashcards of words and concepts that need to be memorized.

The Kinesthetic/Tactile Learning Style

Sit near the instructor in classroom situations. Read out loud from your textbook and notes. Copy key points onto large writing surfaces (i.e. chalkboard or easel board). Copy key points using word processing software. Listen to audiotapes of your notes while exercising. Take in information through field trips, laboratories, trial and error, exhibits, collections, and hands-on examples. Put real life examples into your notes summary. Recall experiments and role-play. Use pictures and photographs that illustrate an idea.

Click Here to Play the Presentation Caption: This PowerPoint presentation shows several concrete examples of the VARK learning styles applied to math, language arts, social studies and science.. By Rebecca Homan, Troy Perkins, Jean Pirkle, and Kathy Traylor (2005) Educational Implications for Learning Styles Teachers that rely on learning styles have opened their classrooms to more than one approach to intellectual work. The activities planned by these teachers are more student-centered than traditional activities and have engaged in learning-style based instruction. The first step in implementing learning style-based instruction is diagnosing the individual learning styles of each student. A variety of methods exist for testing learning styles in a relatively quick manner. Many are available online, like the VARK Questionnaire listed above. The second step is profiling group preferences and weaknesses. Are most of the students visual learners? Does your class have very few kinesthetic/tactile learners? The third step is assessing current instructional methods to determine whether they are adequate or require more flexibility. If modifications need to be made, various activities can be developed and/or adapted to conform with learning styles. Three techniques have been proposed.

1. Teachers can add alternative activities that could replace or supplement ones. This could create increased opportunities for students to use different styles. For example, hands on activities can be conducted after a lecture to confirm abstract concepts. 2. Teachers can also challenge students to develop skills in other areas by completing assignments that utilize all learning styles. For example, the students can complete multidimensional packets, which contain activities from each learning style. 3. Another approach to include learning styles in an education curriculum is to organize activities around complex projects. These projects would require that students use all learning styles. An example of a complex activity would be a project-based learning project. When teaching an individual, teachers should present the most difficult concepts in the preferred style. Easier concepts should be introduced in a different style. When teaching an entire class, teachers should use all learning styles in their presentations if they are to reach every student. This can be fairly simple. For example, Mrs. Erwin, a fifth grade teacher is going to teach a unit on Charlotte's Web. In order to accommodate all learning styles, she will have the students read sections of the book silently and out loud to others, act out various scenes, and complete a timeline of events on the bulletin board. Mrs. Erwin understands that students must be exposed to the concepts in a variety of ways to ensure full comprehension.

References Armstrong, T. (1994). Multiple Intelligences in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Campbell, L., & Campbell, B. (1992). Teaching and learning through Multiple Intelligences. Seattle, WA: New Horizons for Learning. Curry, Lynn. (1983). An organization of learning style theory and constructs. ERIC Document, 235, 185. Dunn, R., and Dunn, K. (1978). Teaching students through their individual learning styles. Reston, VA: Reston Publishing Company, Inc. Fogarty, R. (1997). Problem-based learning and other curriculum models for the Multiple Intelligences classroom. Arlington Heights, IL: IRI/Skylight Training and Publishing. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: the theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st century. New York, NY: Basic Books. Zhang, Li-Fang. (2002). Thinking styles: Their relationships with modes of thinking and academic performance. Educational Ps Websites: Concept to Classroom: Cooperative and Collaborative Learning

Concept to Classroom: Tapping into Multiple Intelligences Education World: Multiple Intelligences: A Theory for Everyone Gardner's Eight Criteria for Identifying Multiple Intelligences Multiple Intelligences Project Zero Technology and Multiple Intelligences Citation APA Citation: Giles, E., Pitre, S., Womack, S. (2003). Multiple intelligences and learning styles. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved <insert date>, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

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