LECTURE 5 Principles and Applications of Potentiometers [1]

Contents : 1 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 Introduction........................................................................................................... Potentiometer circuits........................................................................................... Basic Circuit.......................................................................................................... Single-range Potentiometer.................................................................................. Potentiometric Voltage Measurements................................................................ Duo-range Potentiometer...................................................................................... Multiple-range Potentiometer.............................................................................. Volt Box................................................................................................................ Shunt Box.............................................................................................................. Null Detectors....................................................................................................... Calibration of Voltmeter and Ammeters.............................................................. Self-Balancing Potentiometer............................................................................... 58 58 58 59 60 60 61 62 63 64 66 68

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5.1

Introduction [1] A potentiometer is an instrument designed to measure an unknown voltage by

comparing it with a known voltage. Measurements using the comparison method are capable of a very high degree of accuracy because the result obtained does not depend on an actual pointer deflection, as is the case with a moving-coil instrument, but only on the accuracy of the known voltage standard to which the comparison made. Since the potentiometer makes use of a balance or null condition, no power is consumed from the circuit containing emf when the instrument is balanced. Although the potentiometer measures voltage, it can be used to determine current simply by measuring the voltage drop produced by the unkknown current through a known resistance. The potentiometer is used extensively for the calibration of voltmeters and ammeters, and provides the standard method for calibration of these instruments. 5.2 Potentiometer circuits [1]

5.2.1 Basic Circuit The principle of operation of all potentiometers is based on the circuit of Figure 5-1, which shows the schematic of the basic slide-wire potentiometer.

FIGURE 5-1 Circuit diagram of the basic slide-wire potentiometer [1]

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With function switch S in the "operate" position and galvanometer key K open, the working battery supplies current through the rheostat and the slide wire. This working current through the slide wire may be varied by changing the rheostat setting. The method of measuring unknown voltage E depends on finding a position for a sliding cntact such that the galvanometer shows zero deflection (a null) when galvanometer key K is closed. Zero galvanometer current, or a null, means that the unknown voltage E is equal to the voltage drop E' across portion xy of the slide wire. Determination of the value of the unknown voltage now becomes a matter of evaluating the voltage drop E' along the slide wire. 5.2.2 Single-range Potentiometer [1] The slide-wire potentiometer is a rather impractical form of construction. Modern laboratory-type potentiometers use calibrated dial resistors and a small circular slide wire of one or more turns, thereby reducing the size of the instrument. Figure 5-2 shows the schematic diagram of a simple potentiometer where the long slide wire has been replaced by a combination of 15 precision resistors and a single-turn circular slide wire.

FIGURE 5-2

Circuit diagram of a simple potentiometer illustrating the use of dial resistors and a circular slide wire. [1]

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The potentiometer is provided with a double-throw function switch which connects either the standard cell or the unknown emf to the circuit. The galvanometer circuit includes a key and a protective series of resistance. To operate the galvanometer at its maximum sensitivity the resistance can be shorted out by inserting a shorting key in the contact across the resistance. 5.2.3 Potentiometric Voltage Measurements [1] The following steps are required in making a potentiometric measurement : (a) (b) The combination of dial resistors and slide wire is set to the value of the standard cell voltage (this value is usually printed on the body of the cell) The switch is thrown to the calibrate" position and the galvanometer key is tapped while the rheostat is adjusted for zero deflection on the galvanometer. The protective resistance is left in the circuit to avoid damage to the galvanometer during the initial stages of adjustment. (c) (d) As zero deflection is approached, the protective resistance is shorted and final adjustments are made with the rheostat control After the standardization has been completed, the switch is thrown to the "operate" position, thus connecting the unknown emf to the circuit. The instrument is balanced by the main dial and the slide wire, leaving the protective resistance again in the circuit. (e) (f) (g) As balance is approached, the protective resistance is shorted and final adjustments are made to obtain a true balance condition. The value of the unknown voltage is read directly off the dial settings. The working current is checked by returning to the "calibrate" position. If the dial settings are exactly the same as in the original calibration procedure, a valid measurement has been made. If the reading does not agree, a second measurement must be made, again returning to a calibration check after completion. 5.2.4 Duo-range Potentiometer [1] The single-range potentiometer is usually constructed to cover voltage ranges of up to 1.6 V. The circuit can be modified to include a second measuring range of lower value by adding two range resistors and a range switch. Figure 5-3 shows the schematic diagram of a duo-range potentiometer, where R1 and R2 are the range resistors and switch S is the range switch. The simplified schematic is shown in Figure 5-4. 60

FIGURE 5-3 Schematic diagram of a duo-range potentiometer [1].

FIGURE 5-4 Simplied schematic diagram of the duo-range potentiometer [1] 5.2.5 Multiple-range Potentiometer [1] Precision laboratory potentiometers usually have three voltage ranges : a high range (1.6 V), a middle range (0.16 V), and a low range (0.016 V). A simplified circuit diagram of a three-range instrument is given in Figure 5-5.

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FIGURE 5-5 Three-range laboratory potentiometer [1]. 5.3 Volt Box [1] The general purpose potentiometer usually covers a measurement range from 0 V to 1.6 V dc. If higher values of voltage are to be measured, a precision voltage divider, or volt box, is used to extend the range of the potentiometer. Figure 5-6 is a schematic diagram of a volt box with voltage ranges from 3 V to 750 V dc. The voltage to be measured is connected to the "line" terminals and the appropriate voltage range is selected by setting the rotary selector switch. The resistance values are so chosen that the output of the divider, applied to the potentiometer, equals 150 mV at maximum input voltage on each page. The current drawn from the voltage source under measurement can be made very small by using a high-resistance divider. In practice, however, the choice of resistance values involves a compromise : High resistance is desirable to reduce the current drawn from the voltage source, yet low-value resistors are generally more stable. Also, low-value resistors provide higher galvanometer sensitivity and minimize the effects of high-resistance leakage

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paths around the binding posts. In Figure 5-6 the total resistance is relatively high (750 assuring small current drain on the unknown voltage source (maximum 1.33 mA).

),

FIGURE 5-6 Schematic diagram of a volt box. [1]

5.4

Shunt Box [1] The shunt box is designed for use with potentiometers in the precise measurement of

direct currents and in the calibration of dc ammeters and wattmeters. Figure 5-7 shows a schematic diagram of a typical shunt box. The current to be measured is entered through the "line" terminals of the box and develops a voltage drop across the shunt resistor. A rotary switch allows selection of the desired current range from 75 mA to 15 A dc.

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FIGURE 5-7 Schematic diagram of a shunt box [1]

5.5

Null Detectors [1] There are basically three types of null detector :

(a)

The pointer-type galvanometer with taut-band suspension, generally found in portable instruments. This is a fairly rugged null detector with a sensitivity from 1.0 A to 0.1

A per scale division.

(b) The reflecting galvanometer with enclosed lamp and scale, typically used in laboratory applications. This galvanometer has high sensitivity, usually in the range of 0.1 A to 0.01 A per scale division. (c) The electronic null detector with solid-state circuitry; it has excellent sensitivity at high-input impedance and is extremely rugged but fairly expensive. Choosing the best type of null detector for a particular application depends on a number of factors. In the case of the pointer or reflecting galvanometer, these factors include galvanometer sensitivity, resistance of the galvanometer coil, period of the galvanometer, and external critical damping resistance of the circuit. Generally speaking, high galvanometer sensitivity is associated with a long period and a large critical damping resistance. A high sensitivity galvanometer, however, is difficult to set up anf tends to be somewhat unstable at its zero-deflection point, so that the choice of galvanometer often involves a trade-off between sensitivity and ease od operation.

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Figure 5-8 is a schematic view of a reflecting galvanometer with built-in lamp and integral scale.

FIGURE 5-8 Schematic view of a reflecting galvanometer with integral lamp and scale [1] The lens projects an image of the lamp filament and hairline through an intermediate achromatic lens C onto the galvanometer mirror D, mounted on the galvanometer coil. The mirror turns proportionally in response to the magnitude of the current through the coil, and reflects the light beam back through lens C to a cylindrical mirror E at the rear of the instrument case. Here the image is amplified and reflected to the reading scale F in the front. The combined effects of the intermediate lens and the cylindrical mirror from the primary hairline image, used as an index to indicate deflections. The electronic null detector combines the advantages of high-input impedance and high sensitivity. It generally consits of a solid-state dc amplifier with an input attenuator that provides several switch-selected calibrated input ranges. Any deviation from a zero-signal condition is indicated by a pointer deflection on a center-zero output meter.

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5.6

Calibration of Voltmetera and Ammeters [1] The potentiometer method is the usual basis for the calibration of voltmeters, ammeters,

and wattmeters. Since the potentiometer is a dc measurement device, the instrument to be calibrated must be of the dc or electrodybnamometer type. The circuit of figure 5-9 shows the measurement setup for calibration of a dc voltmeter. One of the first requirements in this calibration procedure is that a suitable, stable dc supply be available, since any variation in the supply voltage causes a corresponding change in the voltmeter calibration voltage.

FIGURE 5-9 Calibration of a dc voltmeter by the potentiometer method [1] An example of the data needed for the construction of a calibration curve is given in Table 5-1. Table 5-1 RESULTS OF A CALIBRATION OF A DC VOLTMETER BY THE POTENTIOMETER METHOD (in volts) [1]

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Figure 5-10 shows the calibration curve constructed from the data given in table 5-1.

FIGURE 5-10 Typical calibration curve [1] Since the calibration process is time consuming, the potentiometer method is often used to calibrate a laboratory standard voltmeter. A standard voltmeter for this type is a very precise instrument, with a large mirror-backed scale to increase the accuracy of reading. The accuracy of such an instrument is usually better than 0.1 per cent of full-scale reading. Ordinary laboratory meters and panel instruments are then checked by comparison with this laboratory standard, instead of against a potentiometer. Figure 5-11 shows the circuit used for calibrating an ammeter. The actual procedure of calibrating various points on the meter scale is very similar to that for the voltmeter.

FIGURE 5-11 Calibration of an ammeter by the potentiometer method [1]

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5.7

Self-Balancing Potentiometer [1] The circuit diagram of Figure 5-12 shows the schematic diagram details of the

potentiometer which in this case is used for measuring temperature by a thermocouple.

FIGURE 5-12 Cicruit diagram of the Speed-0-Max self-balancing potentiometer (courtesy Leeds & Northrup Company) [1] The emf produced by the thermocouple is a function of the temperature difference between the hot and the cold junction. The variation in temperature of the reference junction is compensated by an electrical compensating circuit. The voltage drop across resistor D, which is made of nockel-copper alloy, compensates for the change in temperature of the reference junction. Resistor G balances the voltage frop across D at the desired base temperature. Resisor K and slide wire S form the actual measuring circuit, and resistor B produces the correct voltage drop for calibration of the circuit with the reference voltage, in this case a Zener-diode reference. The signal supplied to the input of the potentiometer circuit is passed through a lowpass filter. The filter capacitors have no effect on the dc voltage supplied to the input, but any

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rapid variations in the input signal and any stray ac signals are smoothed out by the action of the capacitors.

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