The Macquarie Gateway to Academic Literacy

Part 1: Getting Started: Writing at University

Academic writing

Sample Text Growing old involves a slowing down of most biological processes (Grayson, 1993) and some researchers assume there is a parallel decrement in intellectual function (e.g., Choun, 1992). This assumption was supported by research using a cross-sectional methodology (e.g., Jones & Conway, 1988). Specifically, intelligence was thought to "decline progressively after reaching a peak somewhere between the ages of 18 and 25" (Westerman, 1993, p.135). In contrast, studies adopting a longitudinal methodology showed a less pronounced rate of decline (e.g., Owen, 1995). This essay discusses why different methodologies produce different results. The cross-sequential method (Shalley, 1994) which can be seen as avoiding the problems associated with the other two methods and reveals little or no decline with age, will be advanced

Academic writing tends to be formal. Academic writing does tend to be formal. It avoids contractions (it is, not it's), colloquial expressions and slang. It includes more formal vocabulary (research 'carried out', rather than research 'done') and technical language appropriate to the subject area.

2. Academic writing tends to be impersonal and objective. Academic writing is generally objective and impersonal. First person pronouns such as 'I' or 'we' are generally avoided, as are emotive words and expressions.

3. In academic writing, the main idea or argument is usually included in the introduction. Academic writing presents the reader with a main idea/argument/proposition, generally at the beginning of the essay (in the introduction). In the sample paragraph below, the student clearly outlines the argument in the last two sentences of the introduction (first paragraph).

4. The ordering of information is not really important as long as it is all included in the essay or report. The ordering of information is very important to your academic text. The sentences of a paragraph develop the main idea of that paragraph in a logical way. Paragraphs are often seen as the 'building blocks' of a clear and coherent text. The main idea or argument is developed clearly and logically throughout the essay until the reader reaches the 'inevitable' conclusion.

5. Academic writing uses references. In academic writing, the use of authors' ideas and research is always acknowledged by references to the source of information. The use of ideas without acknowledgement is known as plagiarism and is strongly condemned in academic writing.

6. In academic writing, the reader wants to know your personal opinion on issues you write about. In academic writing, your personal opinion, unsupported by facts and evidence, is generally not appropriate. While your 'point of view' or 'critical view' is often required, this is your academic view, informed by research, rather than your uninformed personal opinion. Much of your evidence will come from secondary sources, ie published articles and books.

7. Academic writing is very clear in the statements made and terms used.

Academic writing is explicit. The meaning of what you are saying needs to be clear, key terms need to be defined and all relevant information included. Avoid generalizations and statements unsupported by evidence.

gram above is represen 8. Academic writing aims to present strong, definite claims. Any hint of cautiousness about claims made weakens the argument. In academic writing, claims are often hedged or 'softened' by modifying words and expressions such as '..seems to be .', '..appears to be..', '..could be a result of..' etc. Academic writers are generally cautious about making very strong claims as these can be more easily and readily disputed.

Summary

Academic writing tends to be formal. It avoids contractions, colloquial expressions and slang. It includes more formal vocabulary and technical language appropriate to the subject area. Academic writing tends to be objective and impersonal. First person pronouns rarely appear, and emotive words and expressions should be avoided. In academic writing, the main idea or argument is generally presented in the introduction. In academic writing, the argument is developed logically and coherently through the paper. In academic writing, claims are supported by references to previous research and thought in the topic area. The use of author's ideas and research is acknowledged by references to the source of information. In academic writing, the writer's personal opinion, uninformed by research and unsupported by evidence, is not appropriate. Point of view in academic writing is formed by the writer's analysis of previous and current published ideas and research. Academic writing is clear, precise and explicit. Ambiguity, overgeneralisations and irrelevant information should be avoided.

In academic writing, writers often modify or qualify the strength of their claims to make them more acceptable and more easily defended.

Academic writing is written for an academic audience, who as readers have certain expectations about the structure, style and purpose of the text. Learning to write academically is learning to think academically - that is, critically, objectively and logically.

Part 1 Writing at University> Tutors' expectations

Tutors' expectations

"The following sample marking sheet shows the different criteria assessed in marking a student's essay. The criteria can change somewhat depending on the schools, subjects and types of assignments, so students should check with their tutor in each subject for the marking criteria in each specific essay." Look at the sample marking matrix below for an essay in Education. Marking Matrix for Essay
Criteria Comments

Introductory passage that engages with the question posed and which establishes the writer's argument or position;

Well organised thoughts that systematically develop an argument;

Understanding of relevant concepts;

Evidence of thought about theories, ideas and evidence

discussed;

Ability to provide examples/evidence to support claims;

Conclusion that summarises the points made in the essay.

Writing and Research

Style:

Overall quality of writing. Careful construction of arguments.

Research:

Reference to appropriate readings and to recent published scholarly opinion. Use of APA referencing procedures
Conventions of Writing

Textual coherence, expression, spelling Use of APA referencing procedures

1500 word limit

Summative Comment

Grade: HD D CR P CP F

Marker's signature:

Part 2 Writing Tutorials> 1. Analysing the question> Directional words

1. Analysing the question - Identifying directional words

The directional words, such as: 'discuss', 'compare and contrast' or 'evaluate' direct how you should handle the content. Often, the directional words are not given, so you will have to decide from the question which directional word(s) might apply, ie, what the question is requiring you to do. Directional term Account for Analyse Argue What do you do? Offer an explanation of how/why something happened Divide the subject matter into its parts to discover their nature, proportion, function and relationships Systematically support or reject a position by presenting reasons and evidence for acceptance or rejection. Always indicate your awareness of opposing viewpoints and reasons for opposing them. Express a view, based on evidence and informed opinion Point out similarities based on evidence (some contrast may also need to be made) Emphasise differences based on evidence (some comparison may also need to be made) Make an informed judgement about an issue or statement. Base your judgement on wide reading of and reference to relevant academic literature. Examine the issue from all sides and present your argument systematically, using supporting references. This does not mean criticise.

Comment on Compare Contrast Critically

Discuss Evaluate, assess

Give points for and against, based on evidence, and draw a conclusion from points presented Make a judgement by weighing up both strengths and weaknesses. Examine the issue from a range of viewpoints. In particular, look for differing/apparently contradictory perspectives and develop an argument, using evidence to expand on each perspective. Give a clear account of what happened and offer reasons for it happening Offer an explanation of/for something Give the main points, arranged in a logical order Quantify your agreement, disagreement with a given statement

Explain How Outline To what extent/ How far do you agree? Why

Give the reasons for something

1. Analysing the question - Interpreting the question

Now that you know the direction of your answer, what do you actually have to do? Interpreting the question means

identifying all the key terms and make sure you understand them identifying any value-laden words and phrases labelling all parts of the question and following all directions.
1. Analysing the question

Understanding value-laden words and phrases Very often, assignment questions contain words and phrases which are very open in meaning. You will have to let the reader know how you intend to interpret the meaning of the word or phrase for the purpose of your argument. For example:

'Was Captain Cook the greatest navigator of the eighteenth century? In this question, the directional word might be 'discuss'. The key terms would be Captain Cook, greatest navigator and eighteenth century. The value-laden word is 'greatest'. What do we mean by 'greatest'? Your argument in this essay will depend on how you interpret the word, so you will need to tell the reader at the beginning of the essay how you are interpreting 'greatest'. Here's how one student tackled this: (Introduction) "The eighteenth century represented a period of unbridled activity on the world's oceans as empires sought expansion into new territories, trade routes and riches. In this period, navigators set out with the aim of exploring as much new territory as they could, and to provide accurate charting of passages and territories in their role as the 'mapmakers of the new world' (Kleeson, 1988, p 135). During his many voyages on the Indian and Pacific oceans between 1745 and 1790, Captain Cook was able to provide the British home base with over two hundred charts mapping the new territories including what is now Australia, South East Asia, the Pacific Islands and South America. If we are to understand great navigation in terms of the territories and sea routes opened up for imperial expansion and the accuracy of the charting carried out, then Captain can arguably be seen as one of the eighteenth centuries greatest navigators."

e.g. Topic 2 (History Essay) Was Captain Cook the greatest navigator of the eighteenth century? Key Directional Words & Phrases discuss critically evaluate assess
1. Analysing the question

"Writing is merely a device for recording speech." How well does this account for the relationship between the two media? Try to answer the following questions: 1. What type of task is it? A critical evaluation essay A research report A discussion 2. What is the key topic? The nature of writing The relationship between writing and speech Writing and the media 3. Are there any value-laden terms in the question? If so, note here. (in box)
Value laden terms and phrases: "merely" suggests t

4. What must I do? (List two directional instructions.) Directional instructions: Answer is

1. Account for 3. Discuss

'Crossing the river' Some students find it useful to imagine themselves in their essay writing as guiding the reader across a river using stepping stones. First, you tell the reader where you are taking them and you indicate the kind of approach you will be taking (stepping stones). Then, you take them step by step towards the 'destination', clearly showing them each stepping stone and helping them make the step from stone to stone. Finally, you reach the destination with them. You persuade them that this was an effective approach, and reflect on and reinforce the stepping stones used to get
Part 2: 1. Analysing the question - Checklist

Analysing the question means: 1.Identifying directional words What is the question asking me to do? Discuss? Compare and contrast? Evaluate? Explain? Argue? 2. Interpreting the question What are the key words and phrases? Are there any value-laden words or phrases which I will need to define? Have I considered all parts of the question? 3. Considering your audience What does your reader need to know, and in what order, to understand your argument or explanation in this topic area? What source materials will you need to consult?

Part 2: 2. Research and Reading strategies - Planning

Starting to plan your essay

"I've found the best thing is to start writing early. Don't wait until you've finished all your reading, or you'll run out of time."
The best way to start is to put pen to paper or hand to keyboard! Just make a start. You may: 1. Brainstorm - start by writing down your ideas about the question and the kind of answer you think it requires. This will help you to analyse the question and direct your reading. Don't worry about structure at this point. The main thing is to spend some time really considering the question and all its parts.

2. Make a list of ideas as you read. Keep track of each reference as shown below. Then arrange and organise the ideas - this becomes your plan. Reference Brown, A. (1998). A guide to effective teaching. Page Main ideas 76 Talks about the importance of humour and interest in the subject

Melbourne: Nelson.

to be an effective teacher.

3. Draw a concept map, linking main ideas and their interrelationships. This will help to clarify the ideas and ways they are linked. For example if you had to write an essay on Piaget's theory, you might develop a concept map like this:-

4. Develop a draft plan. You will probably want to change this as you go. A draft plan will save time and will help you produce a more logical piece of writing.

"Even though you are writing freely & jotting down ideas, keep the essay's overall purpose and organisation in mind. Make sure you are on track with answering the question. In planning, you are starting to think about what your overall proposition or argument will be."
Part 2: 2. Research and Reading strategies - Research skills

"The key to successful academic writing is knowing how to use the library.

Now that you've

analysed the question made a plan

What next? You will need to search for references. In academic writing, your writing is informed by 'experts' and researchers in the your area of study How do I do that?

The library should be central to your assignment preparation. Remember you can visit the Macquarie Library online as well. Remember! Published books and journal articles are more appropriate as a source than articles in the popular press (newspapers and magazines). Also, your key definitions should come from academic sources in your field of study rather than a general dictionary.

Part 2: 2. Research and Reading strategies - Reading strategically

"How do I know what to look for in these references?"

Now that you have

analysed the question made a plan found your references...

What next? You need to work through all the references and find the most relevant material for your assignment. How do I do that?

Learn to read strategically Focus on what's relevant Reading strategically means reading appropriately for a purpose.

If you want to sift through a lot of references to select the most relevant information for close study, skim read. If you need to read closely, use the Reading Analytically: SRQ Method. These are just two ways to get started. There are many more.

Part 2: 2. Research and Reading strategies - Checklist

In undertaking research for your paper, you will need to locate and read reference materials. Reading and researching means: 1. Starting to plan early. Make a list of ideas, brainstorm your thoughts and draw concept maps of how you can approach the topic. 2. Starting to find relevant references. Seek references from reliable, authoritative sources. You might need to improve your library research skills using library training programs, both onsite and on-line. 3. Reading strategically, that is, reading appropriately for a particular purpose. You might want to skim a reference to check that it is relevant, or read analytically to understand the writers position for the argument you are intending to make in your paper. 4. Making notes of ideas and references as you go. As you read, make careful notes of ideas and the sources of those ideas (name, title, year and place of publication). This will help you reference accurately when you write your paper. 5. Starting to formulate your proposition as you read. You will need to keep the essay or report question in sharp focus as you research and read it is easy otherwise to get 'off the track'. Aim to start formulating the overall proposition you will adopt in your paper and focus your reading on developing this proposition.
Part 2: 3. Referencing

"I can't understand why referencing is such a big deal".

Now you have

analysed the question made a plan found your references read through the references strategically...

What next?

You need to:

keep a careful record of sources for your assignment. reference your sources accurately.

Many students find referencing one of the most challenging things about their first uni assignment. This tutorial will help you understand how to reference accurately in your assignment writing.
Part 2: 3. Referencing - Using references in your assignments

"Why is referencing so important?".

"As a reader, I'm interested in where the information comes from. I may want to find that information myself, and find out more about the topic. I'm also interested in the date it was published (eg how recent it is)."

"As a writer, I need to provide evidence to support my claims. My argument is not based on my personal feelings, but on a body of academic research. I need to let the reader know where I have derived my academic viewpoint from."
In academic writing, writers use direct quotations from an author, or they paraphrase the author's ideas, that is, they rewrite them or summarise them in their own words. In using references to support your claims, it is important to maintain your own voice in your writing.
Part 2: 3. Referencing - Using references in your assignments

Making the assignment your voice

"What happens when the sources seem to be writing the paper for me?"
"Remember, the main point of an academic assignment is not simply to quote or paraphrase others, but to evaluate their work and provide your own arguments. Your analysis is extremely important. References should be used to support your argument, not to write the paper for you" Compare the following two paragraphs taken from student essays. In each text, whose 'voice' can we hear? Whose voice can Text 1. Cameron (1996, p.15) claims that "Knowledge about the subject and enthusiasm in teaching it are the

we hear?

two key factors in effective teaching". She points out that "although much attention is given to qualities such as classroom management and curriculum control, without sound knowledge of the subject and the ability to motivate learners within it, these issues become barely relevant" (p.16). Further, Cameron (1996) and Massey (1997) both propose that effective teaching "entails the ability to provide learners with the confidence and skills to take control of their own learning in a process of engagement with the subject" (Massey, 1997, p.72). Text 2. Knowledge of the subject and enthusiasm in teaching have been widely identified as key to effective teaching (Cameron 1996, Massey 1997). Learners respond positively to the subject if the teacher is felt to be motivated and seen as 'expert' in their area. Criticising the traditional view of knowledge as 'technical competence' however, researchers have emphasised that a sound knowledge of a subject involves an ability to make the subject relevant; to help the learner make connections between it and their everyday lives (Massey 1997, Fuller & Crosse 1998). This ability to engage students positively in making important connections within and across subjects is now recognised as a key ingredient of effective teaching, both among teachers and students (Massey 1998).

Whose voice can we hear?

Which paragraph mostly presents the student's own voice? How does it do this?
Referencing

Tutor comments In Text 1, the student has read some background research on the subject and chosen the parts of the text to quote directly in the essay. In using direct quotations and referencing the sources, the student has avoided plagiarism. The sources, however, seem to be writing the essay for the student and we hear little of the student's own voice or their evaluation of what the sources are saying. In Text 2, the student has read the research (perhaps more widely), and presented the main thrust of the authors' ideas in his/her own words, while recognising the sources of

those ideas in referencing. The student has been able to stand back from the research information and evaluate: for example in pointing out the change in how educators see teacher 'knowledge'. As a reader, therefore, we can get a better overall understanding of the topic being discussed.

"So how can I change my writing to my own voice?"

1. Go back to your overall argument: what are you trying to argue? How are you developing this argument through the essay? A tendency to use too many direct quotations may mean you are not sure of what you are trying to say in the assignment. 2. What is the main point each source is making? How does it fit into your argument? Try to write, or say, the author's main point(s) in your own words, as if you are telling a friend what the author is getting at. 3. Try to avoid long quotations. Paraphrase the main ideas of the author in your own words and remember to reference the author. 4. Avoid starting paragraphs with a direct quotation. Instead, try to start paragraphs with a topic sentence in your own words. This encourages you to think carefully about the main point you are making in that paragraph. You can then use references to support that point, instead of having them make the point for you. 5. Be critical about any direct quotations you use. Ask yourself:

Is this quotation necessary? Does it serve a useful purpose in my writing? Are the actual words important? Could I have paraphrased the idea(s) presented? How does this point advance my overall argument?

"When should I use direct quotes?"

"There are no fixed rules about how many direct or indirect quotations you should use in an assignment. Generally, the use of paraphrasing can indicate a higher level of understanding than a lot of direct quotations. Try to paraphrase and summarise where possible, and only use direct quotations when you cannot put the ideas into your own words, where the quotation has clever wording, or where they are the exact words of a particular authority.

The following two sections of this tutorial will help you understand how to use direct quotations and paraphrasing in your writing.
Part 2: 3. Referencing - Using references in your assignments

Using direct quotations "Aim to use direct quotes only when necessary, such as when the author's exact words are particularly important and so paraphrasing may lose the substance and impact of their message." "Generally, it is better to paraphrase than use direct quotes. If you are able to put the author's ideas in your own words, it shows you understand what he or she is saying, and it usually helps the writing to flow more easily. An assignment that uses too many direct quotes often means the student hasn't really understood what the author is saying, or doesn't know how to incorporate the information into their argument." "Generally, keep direct quotes short and to the point. You can paraphrase a large part of an author's idea, and only directly quote the important part." 1. Direct quotes can be used in a sentence: Example 1: Slavin refers to some weaknesses of Piaget's theory, stating that "some of his central principles have been questioned in more recent research" (1997, p. 43). Example 2: One author suggests that Piaget's work has been criticised recently because the "broad stages of development affecting all types of cognitive tasks" (Slavin, 1997, p. 44) have been questioned. Tutor's Note 1: If you omit any words from the original text, use three dots (ellipsis) to indicate this. Example: Cameron argues that Piaget's theory represented a "significant step forward in our understanding of children's cognitive development, while offering ... immense implications for classroom teaching" (1998, p.131).

2. Longer quotations Longer quotations are not placed in quotation marks. Instead, they are doubleindented so that they are separated from the text. Example: Perhaps the most fundamental issue to be taken into account when considering the socialization of children into school life is their family life. Huxon (1996 in Edwards 1998) argues that by the time a child reaches school, the larger part of their acquisition of values and selfhood has already occurred. According to Johnson (1998:185), The family is the child's passport to social life. Through the language, relationships and social life of the family, the child will adopt the world view of the community in which he or she lives, and this view is very strong by the time the child begins school. While schooling can have a significant influence in shaping the child, it is early family life that is essential in giving the child the opportunity to grow up as a welladjusted individual.
Part 2: 3. Referencing - Using references in your assignments

Paraphrasing

If you use/borrow an idea from another source, even if you don't use the exact words, you must acknowledge this. If it is possible to identify the page from which the idea was taken, give the page number - i.e., provide as much information as possible. If you are referring to a whole document (e.g., a research paper), just give the author's surname and year of publication. Example 1: Slavin (1997, p. 43) indicates that some of the key principles of Piaget's theory of cognitive development have been called into question in recent years. Example 2: Berk and Garvin's research (1984) with young children supports Vygotsky's notion of private speech. They found that the young children in their study frequently talked to themselves, especially when faced with difficult tasks.

Note 1: In Example 2, Berk and Garvin (1984) would appear on your reference list at the end of the essay, assuming that you had found and used their original article. Note 2: In Example 2 sentence 2, you do not need to reference the authors a second

time in the same paragraph, as long as there is no confusion regarding the source. Referencing your sources in paraphrasing In paraphrasing, you can make the author more prominent by putting the name first, or the information more prominent by putting it first. 1. Author-prominent Example: Slavin (1997, p 43) suggests that some of the central principles of Piaget's work have been criticised recently. Author's surname Slavin Year Reporting verb Information that some of the central principles of Piaget's work have been criticised recently.

(1997) suggests

2. Information-prominent Example: Some of the central principles of Piaget's work have been criticised recently (Slavin, 1997). Information Some of the central principles of Piaget's work have been criticised recently 3. Quoting secondary sources: Example 1: Slavin (1997, p. 43) cites the research of such authors as Black (1981) and Donaldson (1978) to support the contention that Piagetian tasks such as conservation can, in fact be taught to younger children in earlier stages of development. Example 2: Gelman (1979 as cited in Slavin, 1997, p. 43) supports the argument that young children can perform tasks involving conservation, as long as the tasks and the language used are simplified. Author & Year (Slavin, 1997)

Part 2: 3. Referencing - Referencing the APA way

The most commonly used system at Macquarie University is the included reference system known as the APA style (American Psychological Association). Other fields of study may use MLA format. You need to use the referencing style appropriate to your area of study. Always check in your course guide or subject web site exactly how you are required to reference in each subject. Step 1. Record-keeping: the APA way Tips on what to do in APA What to do 1. Within-text referencing: In APA style, all references to books, articles, and other sources must be acknowledged at an appropriate point within the text by the name of the author(s), year of publication and, where appropriate, page number(s). 2. Reference List: All items used in the body of the assignment are listed alphabetically by author at the end of the text under the heading 'Reference List'. What NOT to do Do not use footnotes at the bottom (foot) of each page. (there are some exceptions to this rule, but it is unlikely that you will need to make use of these)

Do not use a Bibliography (a bibliography is like a wider reading list. It lists all references you examined, but did not necessarily cite in the assignment.)

What does an APA Reference List look like? APA workshop 1 APA workshop 2 Do you have more tricky questions about APA referencing? APA workshop 3 Step 2. Keep a record of your references

When you are searching and making notes, keep a full record of the reference. This will save time backtracking at the last minute, just to find the city of publication! It is better to keep a record of all the sources you find useful, then delete the ones you don't use in your final assignment. This example might help your record-keeping - keep track as you read.

Reference Brown, A. (1998). A guide to effective teaching. Melbourne: Nelson.

Page Main ideas 76 Effective teachers have a good sense of humour

Learning how to paraphrase and reference accurately will help you to avoid the dangers of plagiarising.

Part 2: 3. Referencing - Plagiarism and how to avoid it

"What is plagiarism? How do I know if I'm plagiarising or not?"

Plagiarism occurs when a writer uses other people's words or ideas as their own without indicating their source. They are giving the reader the impression that they are their own words or ideas when they are not, and this is considered a very serious offence."

Plagiarism can take several forms. The most serious is simply quoting from a source (book or article) without acknowledging by quotation marks and a reference that it is actually from someone else. It is also possible to plagiarise by using a writer's unique ideas (ideas that belong to them and are not generally held) without indicating who expressed that idea - therefore leaving the false impression that the idea is your own. Downloading information from the net without acknowledgement is also plagiarism, and is detected using programs that locate the material easily. Avoid Plagiarism By: 1. ensuring that all work you submit is the result of your own efforts, rather than those of another person (unless groupwork is an integral component of the assignment). 2. using direct quotes for appropriate phrases or sentences copied directly from another source AND including the author's surname, year of publication and page number directly after the quote. 3. introducing a key idea or concept or research finding from your reading AND acknowledging the source by including the author's name, date of publication and page number (if appropriate) after discussing the idea. This may also include paraphrasing. "Many students become extremely anxious about plagiarism. Aim to form your own ideas through your research & reading, and use your sources to provide evidence for those ideas. As long as you remember to cite those sources, you will not need to become so anxious about plagiarism."

Want to know more about plagiarism? Check your course guide, and read Macquarie University's policy on plagiarism.

Part 2 Writing Tutorials> 3. Referencing> Checklist

Part 2: 3. Referencing - Checklist

Accurate and appropriate referencing in academic writing means: 1. Understanding why referencing is important in academic writing. It provides evidence for your claims and allows the reader to check the source for further information. 2. Maintaining your own voice in your writing, and not relying on the sources to write the paper for you. Your own analysis is very important; references should be used to support your argument, and not write the paper for you. 3. Using reputable, published sources including books, journals and articles. Avoid the popular press as a source, and be wary of information obtained over the internet. 4. Evaluating and distilling information and ideas obtained from your sources and using them to support your own argument. In this, you may choose to include direct quotations or to paraphrase. The use of too many direct quotations can indicate to a reader that you do not fully understand the issues. In maintaining your own voice and using references to support your own argument, it is advisable to avoid too many direct quotations in your paper. Aim to use direct quotations only when the exact wording used by an author is particularly important. 5. Avoiding plagiarism by ensuring that the work you submit is a result of your own efforts, rather than those of another person, author or other source. 6. Checking your course notes carefully to ensure you have followed the correct procedures for referencing in that subject

Part 2: 4. Composing your essay

"I find it really hard to put it all together... I feel like I end up with just a jumble of ideas"
Now, you have done most of your research (carefully recording your references as you go) and made a draft plan, it's time to compose your assignment.

How do I do that? Composing involves: 1. Going back to the question/topic. Make sure you are answering it clearly and completely. 2. Deciding how to incorporate your own ideas and those of others into a coherent argument. 3. Ordering your ideas according to your overall plan. As you come up with new ideas, your plan may change, but do try to keep a plan so you can maintain a focus on your answer. 4. Thinking about the reader. Make sure you are guiding them carefully through the information or argument.
Part 2: 4. Composing your essay - Organising your assignment

"I find it hard to structure an essay - I end up with so much information, but what do I include and where?"

"Your decision of what you include and where goes back to your argument. The essay is structured to develop a logical, coherent argument that is persuasive and convincing to the reader. In other words, you first have to be clear about where you are going in order to decide how to get there." "This means spending time on planning your essay -make an outline of how your argument will be developed step by step through the essay. You may change this outline as you write and edit, as long as you keep the essay's overall purpose in mind."

Developing an outline

Look at the way this student's rough plan of an essay is then organised into a structure of Introduction, Development of Body, and Conclusion. The student is arguing a proposition, which is outlined to the reader in the introduction. Topic: Does TV viewing affect the social development of children?

Student's outline

Student's final essay

Introduction As television viewing increasingly becomes a major part of children's lives, various studies have attempted to assess the impact it has on children's behaviour, values and social lives (eg Butler & Crewe 1998, Davids 1991). Social development can be seen to involve personal attitudes and values, as well as relationships with family and peers Crewe, 1996). Studies in these particular areas have obtained interesting results, which indicate that excessive or unmonitored television viewing can have short term affects on the attitudes and behaviour of children. In this paper, these studies are discussed, while the need to maintain clear definitions of what constitutes 'television viewing' and 'social development' are highlighted. Body Paragraphs 2 Understanding notion of social development - need to focus -3 on attitudes & values, and social relationships

Need to define TV viewing - absorbed or background. Paragraphs 4 Studies focusing on difference between these, and TV's -6 affects on personal attitudes & values Paragraphs 7 Overall positive affect of TV viewing on personal attitudes -8 and values Paragraphs 9 Studies focusing on TV's affects on social relationships - 11 Paragraphs 12 - 13 Paragraphs 14 - 15 Paragraph 16 Conclusion: While studies have shown that television viewing can have a major influence on children's attitudes and values, research has not been able to draw any definite conclusions regarding its long term affect on social relationships, and therefore its influence on social development. This has been largely due to the difficulty of separating television viewing from other factors such as family and peer influences, as well as the need to distinguish between long and short term affects. In order to produce any valid findings regarding long term affects, studies would have to attempt to control for family influences, perhaps by studying siblings in one family.
Part 2: 4. Composing your essay - Paragraphing

Discussion of affects on social relationships: need to make clear distinction between short term affects and long term affects Discussion of difficulty of separating TV viewing from other influencing factors Discussion of need to differentiate between short & long term affects

In the body of the essay, the argument is developed in a logical, coherent way towards the conclusion. The logical development of the body is in the form of paragraphs. What is a paragraph?

"The topic sentence introduces the main idea of the paragraph"

Generally, a paragraph is a single idea that is adequately developed. It should concern itself with a single focus. Its length depends on the length of the paper you are writing, but it is generally around 3 - 6 sentences long. The focus of the paragraph is generally given to the reader in the topic sentence - usually the first sentence of the paragraph. The information or idea in the topic sentence is then logically developed throughout the paragraph. Topic Sentence

Topic sentences are developed within the paragraph through:

Elaboration (more information about the topic) Explanation (explaining, giving more detailed definition) Evidence (citing research etc) Example (giving examples to illustrate the topic)

Paragraphs are linked by a clear development of ideas. The connection between a paragraph and the next paragraph is made by:

Repetition of key words or phrases Reference words, particularly 'This..' Connectives

What are connectives? Example: (Geography essay) The impact of industry on the environment in this region is most evident in water and air pollution. Industrial sources contribute a high share to air pollution in this region because the main source of industrial energy is fossil fuels. With the rapid increase of air-polluting industries in the region, such as iron, steel, fertilizer and cement, this is fast becoming a major problem. Similarly, water-polluting industries are expanding rapidly. In 1992, for example, approximately 64 per cent of the total wastewater generated in the region was from the industrial sector (ESCAP, 1995a). Further, both the quality and quantity of industrial solid waste is environmentally problematic. China has had the most waste-intensive production process in this region; in 1990, more than two kilograms of industrial waste were generated for The topic sentences for each paragraph are underlined. They tell the reader what to expect in that paragraph. Note the progression to the second paragraph. The connective 'Further, ...' tells the reader they can expect more information on a similar topic to the first paragraph. Note the way the repetition of words and phrases can help the paragraph develop logically and coherently.

every US dollar (in constant 1980 prices) of industrial production (ESCAP, 1995a). Since 1990, however, the rate of waste generation has slowed down and even decreased in the case of industrial solid waste (NEPA, 1996).
Part 2: 4. Composing your essay - Writing an introduction

"What should I include in an introduction?"

"The introduction serves a few different purposes:

1. It provides the context of the topic for the reader. This is often in fairly general statements that give the reader some brief background information about the topic. 2. It introduces the argument or proposition to be discussed in the essay, and often indicates how it will be discussed. 3. It often defines any terms that are necessary for an understanding of your argument. These include key terms and value-laden terms."
"Avoid starting your essay with statements that are so broad and general that that they are meaningless."

Look at the following introduction from a Linguistics essay:

"In countries of significant migration such as Australia, newly arrived settlers from non-English speaking countries need to gain at least some fluency in English. While for some families the process of integrating into Australian life means the gradual loss of their ethnic language, the majority of communities have shown a significant resilience to this, in maintaining their ethnic language over successive generations. For the purposes of

"Here, the student is broadly introducing the topic being discussed in the paper, and providing a general context for the argument to come."

"Here, the student defines how they will be interpreting the key term in this essay. This is very important as the term is central to this essay.

this essay, language maintenance is used to refer to the ability of ethnic communities, families and individuals to maintain their own language while adapting to the language of their new country. There seems to be little doubt among researchers that attitudes influence language maintenance (Mattison 1993, Crosse & Gilley 1994). This essay considers some of the more powerful social and psychological forces which propel individuals towards the continued maintenance of a minority language. Further, attitudes towards the minority language and culture appear to underlie the other relevant factors, including sense of ethnic identity, motivation and family support. These factors will be dealt with in turn in this essay.

"Here, the student introduces the argument. This tells the reader what the essay will be arguing and how it will go about arguing it. The reader understands clearly what to expect in this paper, and how the essay will be structured (ie the factors will be dealt with in turn).

Which introduction works best? Why? Introduction 1: As everyone knows, aggression is a hidden force in man, and may be defined as the strength or hostility with which either positive or negative acts may be carried out. Such a hidden force is present in all children, and may be set off in a destructive manner by means of television violence. Violence is indeed a reality in human life and is therefore part of serious television programming such as the news and current affairs. It is also portrayed in a meaningless, insensitive way in cartoons and television dramas for the purpose of sensationalism. Introduction 2 As television viewing increasingly becomes a major part of children's lives, various studies have attempted to assess the impact it has on

children's behaviour, values and social lives (eg Butler & Crewe 1998, Davids 1991). Although many studies have indicated a correlation between television viewing and fitness or obesity (Glenn 1992) or between television viewing and violent behaviour (Ryce 1988), it has been more difficult to draw any positive correlation between television and overall social development. Social development can be seen to involve personal attitudes and values, and relationships with family and peers. Studies in these particular areas have obtained interesting results which indicate that excessive or unmonitored television viewing can affect the social development of children. In this paper, these studies are discussed, while the need to maintain clear definitions of what constitutes 'television viewing' and 'censorship' are highlighted. Tutor's comment: Introduction 1: 1. Fails to answer the question. The student has understood the question as television violence, and has written about violence instead of social development. 2. Does not indicate what their argument will be. 3. Has given a very subjective, personal view that is not informed by any research. 4. Has included sexist language (in 'man'), generalisations ('as everyone knows', 'it is also portrayed in a meaningless way in cartoons and dramas...' Introduction 2: 1. Gives a context or background to the topic (first sentence). 2. Defines how they will approach the key term 'social development'. 3. Tells the reader what their argument is, and how they will go about arguing it. 4. Provides evidence to support their claims (references).

Part 2: 4. Composing your essay - Conclusions

"I never know what to write in a conclusion - it always seems like I'm just repeating the introduction"

"A strong conclusion is very important to your assignment. It plays a major role in the impression the reader will leave your assignment with."

What the conclusion does:

It summarises and reinforces the main point(s) made in the essay and shows how your argument is valid and difficult to dispute. It expresses the significance of all the material you have presented giving it some kind of perspective. It sometimes broadens the perspective to the future, and considers the implications of what has been discussed. In scientific writing, this may take the form of something future or ongoing research may uncover.

What the conclusion doesn't do:

It doesn't repeat what is written in the introduction It doesn't introduce new information or data to the paper.

Look at the following conclusion to a Psychology essay. "Discuss Craik & Lockhart's depth of processing approach to the study of memory" (2000 words) Conclusion The depth of processing model has eliminated many of the problems inherent in the multistore approach to memory, and at the same time has posed new questions for memory research. Craik & Lockhart (1972) strongly emphasised that their depth of processing model was a 'framework' for memory research; it was not a theory. As such, Craik & Lockhart touched upon possible limitations and other influencing variables, and then suggested further research. Given this, some writers (eg Eysenck) have been overcritical of the depth of processing model. While it seems that some modification is necessary (eg Craik & Tulving's integration

This topic sentence of the conclusion summarises the main argument of the paper. Here the main argument in the paper is reinforced. The concluding sentence summarises the implications of the model discussed in the paper and reinforces the main thrust of the argument

and elaboration principle, 1975) and the model could be extended to include further levels of processing, it is plausible that this framework could provide a basis for future cognitive research.
Part 2: 4. Composing your essay

Composing your essay means: 1. Going back to the question or topic. Make sure you are answering it clearly and fully. 2. Identifying a clear proposition. You need to be clear about the overall argument you are making in the paper. Test youself: can you easily summarise your argument in a couple of sentences? 3. Organising your ideas to develop your argument in logical steps. Consider how you will organise your information to present the reader with a clear and coherent argument. Draft an outline of the steps your argument will take. 4. Arranging your ideas in paragraphs. Aim to have each paragraph develop one main idea, with clear transitions between paragraphs. Does the paragraph have a clear topic sentence that informs the reader about the main idea of the paragraph? Does the paragraph develop that topic sentence through elaboration, evidence, example or explanation? 5. Composing an introduction that provides the reader with a clear picture of where the paper is taking them. Does the introduction provide a context for the topic being discussed? Does it introduce the argument to be discussed, and give the reader an idea of how it will be discussed? 6. Composing a strong conclusion that sums up the argument made in the paper. Does the conclusion reinforce the validity of the points you have made? Does it express the significance of the argument or findings?

Part 2: 5. Developing an argument

"One of the most difficult tasks in academic writing is understanding how to formulate and develop an argument".

What is an 'argument' in academic writing?

One of the most common assignments set in university courses asks students to argue for or against a certain proposition, or to develop and expand a logical case by analysing different views and theories on a subject. Your argument can be seen as the overall point or case that you are trying to prove in your paper. The development of your 'line of argument' in a logical way is what holds your paper together (makes it coherent). An argument is constructed by providing a proposition (what you will be arguing), which is developed into a case through logic, explanation and supporting evidence. "Academic readers want you to develop the habits and mind of a serious researcher. They want you to do more than just accumulate facts about a topic then summarise and report them. They want you formulate a problem that you (and perhaps they) have a stake in seeing solved". Booth et al (1995) Look at how propositions are developed from the following questions: Question "Captain Cook was the greatest navigator of the twentieth century". Proposition "If 'greatest navigator' is based on the number of sea routes opened and new territories explored and mapped, it can be argued that Captain Cook was the greatest navigator of the twentieth century". 1. The Australian economic recession of the late 1980s was primarily caused by years of financial mismanagement by a succession of Federal Governments from Whitlam through Fraser to Hawke and Keating. This was exacerbated by the failure of these governments to curb the aggressive corporate behaviour of a number of key entrepreneurs and indeed the banks. It was these internal factors that caused the late 1980's recession. The Australian economy is so closely tied to the fortunes of our major trading partners and competitors that, while governments in the 1980s

"The late 1980s recession in Australia was caused by poor fiscal policy on the part of a succession of governments, coinciding with unchecked corporate misbehaviour; it owed very little to outside factors." Do you agree?

"The late 1980s recession in Australia was caused by poor fiscal policy on the part of a succession of governments,

coinciding with unchecked corporate misbehaviour; it owed very little to outside factors." Do you agree?

may not have been expert managers of the domestic economy, it made very little difference to the overall economic outcome. At that time, as now, when North America sneezes, Australia catches the flu.

STEPS TOWARDS DEVELOPING AN ARGUMENT: Rebecca's Psychology assignment >> Follow the way Rebecca developed has argument for this psychology essay topic. Question: "Discuss the 'depth of processing approach' to the study of memory" (2000 words) Developing an argument means analysing the issues in the topic and deciding on the case you will follow and the evidence you will use to support it. The argument will represent your point of view on the topic.

Developing an argument:

Point of view in academic writing "I don't really get it. Tutors say they don't want our personal opinion, but they say they do want our ideas - it's confusing." Your uninformed personal opinion, which is not supported by evidence, is not appropriate in academic writing. Tutors want to know your informed, considered analysis of a question or topic. This means reading widely, considering different views or theories and then synthesising the ideas to form your own individual view (or argument) about it.

Part 2: 5. Developing an argument - Checklist

Developing an argument means: 1. Considering the proposition you are making. An argument develops this proposition into a case through logic, explanation and supporting evidence.

2. Analysing the issues in the topic and deciding on the case you will follow, and the evidence you will use to support it. The argument will represent your point of view on the topic. 3. Reading widely on a topic in order to form your own point of view. Your academic point of view is developed logically in your paper and supported in your writing by evidence from your readings. 4. Deciding for yourself how to interpret and evaluate the information you read in your academic research and how to evaluate and synthesise different viewpoints or theories. This means making a logical and rational evaluation of theories or research evidence, assessing its strengths and weaknesses.
Part 2: 6. Academic style

"I feel my grammar and writing style really let me down in essay writing."
Now, you have

interpreted the question made a plan found your references and recorded them read the references strategically considered the structure of your paper and written a draft

What next? It's time to think about how you write in academic assignments. How do I do that? "Most students gradually find an 'academic voice' that they feel comfortable with; a way of writing that has authority, objectivity and clarity. In academic writing, like any other kind of writing, writers are always learning and improving their 'style'; it's an ongoing process. This tutorial introduces you to some of the common features of academic writing."
Part 2: 6. Academic style - Overview: What makes academic writing seem formal and objective?

Academic writing is generally seen as formal, objective and often quite technical. Compare the language in the following two texts. Consider: what makes the second text sound more 'academic'? 1. We've always known that drinking alcohol is linked with car accidents. Well over half the deaths in car accidents involve drink driving. To stop any more increases in the number of accidents involving people who drink and drive, we need better policing on the

roads and people (especially young people) need to be educated about the dangers of drinking and driving. 2. The link between alcohol consumption and motor vehicle accidents has long been recognised. A recent study conducted by the National Road Safety Association attributes a high sixty per cent of road fatalities to the effects of alcohol among drivers as well as pedestrians (1998, p 84). As the report goes on to recommend, more effective policing and educational programs, particularly aimed at younger drivers, are required in order to prevent any further escalation in drink driving accidents. How is the language made more formal and objective in the second text? Consider the following aspects of academic language explored in this tutorial. We've always known that drinking alcohol is linked with car accidents. The link between alcohol consumption and motor vehicle accidents has long been recognised. "In academic writing the passive is often used when the "doer" of an action is not important or unknown. In this case "we" are not important. What is important is the fact i.e the link between alcohol consumption and motor vehicle accidents. The second text emphasises this fact, then uses passive to emphasise the action (recognised) rather than the doer of the action (we). The verb "is linked" is changed in the second text to a noun "the link". This process, known as nominalisation , is common in academic writing . Changing a process (verb) to a concrete object or "thing"(noun - either real or abstract) makes it more concrete. This adds authority to what is being said. Well over half the deaths in car accidents involve drink driving. A recent study conducted by the National Road Safety Association attributes a high sixty per cent of road fatalities to the effects of alcohol among drivers as well as pedestrians (1998, p 84). Academic writing requires accurate reporting of evidence with sources referenced . The second text does this, however the first text makes vague unsupported claims.

To stop any more increases in the number of accidents involving people who drink and drive, we need better policing on the roads and people (especially young people) need to be educated about the dangers of drinking and driving.

As the report goes on to recommend, more effective policing and educational programs, particularly aimed at younger drivers, are required in order to prevent any further escalation in drink driving accidents. The first text expresses the writer's personal opinion ("we need ...."), whereas the second text , although it may also be the opinion of the writer, attributes the claim to the report. In academic writing your academic point of view (evidenced by reliable academic sources) is required, not your personal opinion. Academic writing tends to use formal language. Compare: better policing more effective policing (especially young people) particularly aimed at younger drivers To stop any more increases to prevent any further escalation "The modules in this tutorial will help you develop our academic voice in aiming for an academic writing style that is clear, confident, informative and authoritative."

Part 2: 6. Academic style - Building sentences

"You will need to be able to use all types of sentences to communicate information and ideas in formal academic writing. If you pay careful attention to how you construct your sentences, the sentences will become much clearer, more interesting and more persuasive." "Aim to present your information and ideas clearly and simply. Try to vary the length of your sentences: a short, straightforward sentence among longer sentences can have a dramatic and persuasive affect on the reader. Avoid confusing, long sentences which your reader will find difficult to follow. "
Part 2: 6. Academic style - The structure of a sentence

Sentences can be divided into three main groups: The Simple Sentence The Compound Sentence The Complex Sentence

The Simple Sentence

The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains only one clause. A simple sentence can be as short as one word: Look! Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and both the subject and the predicate may have modifiers. All of the following are simple sentences, because each contains only one clause: Look! John looks. John looks around quickly. Sally's older brother John looks around quickly from behind his dark sunglasses. Standing further up the road under the midday sun, Sally's older brother John looks around quickly from behind his dark sunglasses. As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long - it is a mistake to think that you can tell a simple sentence from a compound sentence or a complex sentence simply by its length. << Back to top
The Compound Sentence

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple sentences) joined by co-ordinating conjunctions like ``and,'' ``but,'' and ``or'': Simple Australia is a rich country. Simple Still, it has many poor people. Compound Australia is a rich country, but still it has many poor people. A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of balance or contrast between two (or more) equally important pieces of information: Sydney has great beaches, but Melbourne has better cinemas. Special Cases of Compound Sentences

There are two special types of compound sentences. First, rather than joining two simple sentences together, a co-ordinating conjunction sometimes joins two complex sentences, or one simple sentence and one complex sentence. In this case, the sentence is called a compound-complex sentence: compound-complex The legislation was passed in the Senate, but the President resigned before it could be instituted. The second special case involves punctuation. It is possible to join two originally separate sentences into a compound sentence using a semicolon instead of a co-ordinating conjunction: The company had a serious cash flow problem; when sales were high, however, it was hugely competitive in the industry. Usually, a conjunctive adverb like "however'' or "consequently'' will appear near the beginning of the second part, but it is not required: The sun rises in the east; it sets in the west. << Back to top
The Complex Sentence

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Unlike a compound sentence, however, a complex sentence contains clauses which are not equal. Consider the following examples: Simple My friend invited me to the beach. I did not want to go. Compound My friend invited me to the beach, but I did not want to go. Complex Although my friend invited me to the beach, I did not want to go. In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences: "My friend invited me to the beach" and "I did not want to go." The second example joins them together into a single sentence with the co-ordinating conjunction "but," but both parts could still stand as independent sentences -- they are entirely equal, and the reader cannot tell which is most important. In the third example, however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first clause, ``Although my friend invited me to the beach,'' has become incomplete, or a dependent clause.

A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a compound sentence because it makes clear which ideas are most important. When you write My friend invited me to the beach. I did not want to go. or even My friend invited me to the beach, but I did not want to go. The reader will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most important to you. When you write the subordinating conjunction "although" at the beginning of the first clause, however, you make it clear that the fact that your friend invited you is less important than, or subordinate, to the fact that you do not want to go.

Part 2: 6. Academic style - Common sentence problems

Too long! Using a comma to join two sentences The sentence fragment Problems with subject-verb agreement Lack of parallel structure Inconsistent pronouns
Too long!

The major problem with sentences is when they are too long. Cramming too many ideas into one sentence can make it difficult for a reader to follow. It is often better to separate your ideas into a number of sentences. Example : Aggressive conflict is that which is perpetrated amongst like individuals, (individuals of the same species) as distinct to predation which is not necessarily aggressive but a consequence of the desire for nutriment; aggressive behaviour is a consequence of the desire to establish dominance and is correlated to the establishment of both dominant and subordinate figures within a community. Correct: Aggressive conflict is that which is perpetrated amongst like individuals, (individuals of the same species) as distinct to predation. Predation is not necessarily aggressive but a consequence of the desire for nutriment, while aggressive behaviour is a consequence of the desire to establish dominance and is correlated with the establishment of both dominant and subordinate figures within a community.

<< Back to top

Using a comma to join two sentences

A comma cannot be used to join two separate sentences. You need to separate the two sentences with a full stop. Example 1: The Federation was regarded as the birth of a nation, people now regarded Australia as their birthplace. Correct: The Federation was regarded as the birth of a nation. People now regarded Australia as their birthplace. Example 2: The Nationalist movement was formed in 1921, this was followed soon after by the establishment of the Nationalist Socialist party in 1925. Correct: The Nationalist movement was formed in 1921. This was followed soon after by the establishment of the Nationalist Socialist party in 1925. << Back to top
The sentence fragment

This is a 'non-sentence'. It is a string of words that lacks an independent subject and a verb, and therefore doesn't make sense on its own. Example 1: Even though they are unaware of this fact. Correct: Even though they are unaware of this fact, many people are eligible for this payment. Example 2: Having been enrolled in tertiary studies and gaining entry to an Honours program. Correct: Having been enrolled in tertiary studies and gaining entry to an Honours program, the student felt confident in his academic ability. << Back to top
Problems with subject verb agreement

This is when the subjects don't agree in number with the verbs.

Example 1: Each of the organisations were represented in the treaty talks. Correct: Each of the organisations was represented in the treaty talks. (Each means each one and therefore takes a singular verb) Example 2: Australia, as well as a number of other countries, have been reluctant to sign the legislation. Correct: Australia, as well as a number of other countries, has been reluctant to sign the legislation. << Back to top
Lack of parallel structure

This is where a writer ignores parallel constructions in a sentence, instead changing to a new construction. It makes it more difficult for the reader to understand. Example: The results showed that most students valued teachers' knowledge, enthusiasm, and being aware of student needs. Correct: The results showed that most students valued teachers' knowledge, enthusiasm, and awareness of student needs. Here, 'being aware' is changed to a noun 'awareness' in line with the other nouns, 'knowledge, enthusiasm' used. << Back to top
Inconsistent pronouns

This is where the pronoun used is not consistent with the subject. Example: A teacher is more likely to rank their students according to academic achievement rather than consistent effort. Correct: A teacher is more likely to rank his/her students according to academic achievement rather than consistent effort.

Part 2: 6. Academic style - Strategies for improving sentence clarity

Go from old to new information Be careful about placement of subordinate clauses Use parallel constructions Choose action verbs over forms of 'be' Avoid unclear pronoun references
Go from old to new information

Introduce your readers to the "big picture" first by giving them information they already know. Then they can link what's familiar to the new information you give them. As that new information becomes familiar, it too becomes old information that can link to newer information. The following example sentence is clear and understandable because it uses old information to lead to new information: A major factor determining good economic performance is low and stable inflation (new information). It (old information) can account for much of Australia's economic growth throughout the 1990s, accompanied by successful macroeconomic policies (new information). These policies (old information) had an important affect of holding down inflation while encouraging productivity and global competition (new information). This (old information), coupled with micro reforms, set Australia's relative economic growth at a pace quite unprecedented in our economic history (new information). Note the frequency of reference pronouns such as 'it', 'these' and 'this'. This is only possible because the text is moving from old information to new, so the reader understands what the reference word refers to. << Back to top
Be careful about placement of subordinate clauses

Avoid interrupting the main clause with a subordinate clause if the interruption will cause confusion:

clear (subordinate clause at the end): Australia's wool industry is in crisis because of increased competition from overseas and the increased sophistication of man-made fibres. clear (subordinate clause at the beginning): Because of increased competition from overseas and the

increased sophistication of man-made fibres, Australia's wool industry is in crisis. not as clear (subordinate clause embedded in the middle): Australia's wool industry, because of increased competition from overseas and the increased sophistication of man-made fibres, is in crisis.

<< Back to top

Use parallel constructions

When you have a series of words, phrases, or clauses, put them in parallel form (similar grammatical construction) so that the reader can identify the linking relationship more easily and clearly.

clear (parallel): In the research, students were encouraged to: (1) participate in an open dialogue on their ideas about teacher effectiveness; (2) provide an account of their own experiences with past teachers, and (3) respond to a short survey on current teachers. not as clear (not parallel): In the research, students were encouraged to: (1) participate in an open dialogue on their ideas about teacher effectiveness; (2) There was an opportunity to discuss their own experiences with past teachers, and (3) responding to a short survey on current teachers.

In the second sentence, it is much more difficult it is for a reader to follow the meaning compared to the first one. << Back to top
Choose action verbs over forms of be

Many students tend to overuse forms of be as the main verbs in sentences and clauses. Instead of using a 'be' verb, focus on the actions you wish to express, and choose the appropriate verbs. In the following example, two ideas are expressed: 1) that there is a difference between the views of high school students and university students regarding teacher effectiveness, and 2) the nature of that difference. The revised version expresses these two main ideas in the two main verbs.

Unclear (overuse of be verbs): One difference between high school students' views of teacher effectiveness and the views of university students is the

importance given to teacher knowledge. The difference is that for high school students, knowledge is not as important as other factors such as enthusiasm for the subject. Clearer: The views of high school students regarding teacher effectiveness differ from that of university students in that, while university students value knowledge of the subject quite highly, high school students tend to place a higher value on qualities such as enthusiasm for the subject.

<< Back to top

Avoid unclear pronoun references

Be sure that the pronouns you use refer clearly to a noun in the current or previous sentence. If the pronoun refers to a noun that has been implied but not stated, you can clarify the reference by explicitly using that noun.

Unclear (unclear pronoun reference): The drought in rural Australia has forced many farmers to sell livestock, delay any planting and even take out mortgages on their farms. This has prompted the Commonwealth government to initiate a program of relief for farmers. Clearer: The drought in rural Australia has forced many farmers to sell livestock, delay any planting and even take out mortgages on their farms. This situation has prompted the Commonwealth government to initiate a program of relief for farmers.

Part 2: 6. Academic style - Understanding the passive voice

Why use the passive voice in academic writing? 1. Often in academic writing, we don't want to focus on who is doing an action, but on who is receiving or experiencing the action. The passive voice is thus extremely useful in academic writing because it allows writers to highlight the most important participants or events within sentences by placing them at the beginning of the sentence. Examples In the following sentences, the passive construction is preferable because you want readers to focus on the result of an action rather than the person doing the action. Active: Scientists classify glass as a solid.

Passive: Glass is classified as a solid. The passive sentence focuses on how glass is classified, rather than on who classifies glass. Active: Four teachers observed the play activities of children over a period of five weeks. Passive: The play activities of children were observed by four teachers over a period of five weeks. The passive sentence focuses on play activities rather than on the five teachers. 2. In academic writing sometimes it is obvious, irrelevant or repetitive to state who the 'doer' of the sentence is: The cross-sectional methodology, which avoids the problems of the other methodologies is discussed in this paper. The study was designed to test the relationship between emotional response and memory. The business practices of four companies were observed by members of the taxation department. The number of items recalled after 30 seconds were recorded. This process was then repeated using a more complex number series. It is obvious that it is the author who will be doing the discussing.

It is irrelevant to the reader here who did the designing.

The passive is used to avoid repeated reference to the known doer of the action (ie. the observers). The passive allows you to avoid using a personal pronoun (...by us).

See how the use of the active and the passive voice contribute to formality in the model texts.

6. Academic style

Understanding the passive voice While the informal text uses only the active voice, the formal text uses a combination of both the active and the passive voice. Formal Academic Text (passive voice is used) The effectiveness of a school can be seen to depend on three main variables: teacher and student satisfaction, unity of purpose, and the effective development of students both academically and socially. Schools which have a high degree of teacher satisfaction have been shown to produce more positive, highachieving students (Moore, 1992). Effectiveness has also been linked to unity of purpose, whereby common social and educational goals are shared by teachers and students. In this way, aims and outcomes are clarified, common goals are set, and students are encouraged to work cooperatively Informal Text (active voice is used) The effectiveness of a school depends on three main variables: teacher and student satisfaction, unity of purpose, and the effective development of students both academically and socially. Studies have shown that Schools which have a high degree of teacher satisfaction produce more positive, highachieving students (Moore, 1992). Researchers have also linked effectiveness to unity of purpose, whereby teachers and students share common social and educational goals In this way, they first clarify aims and outcomes, then they set common goals, and they encourage students to work cooperatively towards meeting these goals (Gibson, 1994). As Milner & Fauke

towards meeting these goals (Gibson, 1994). The social and academic development of students is also emphasised as crucial to a school's effectiveness (Milner & Fauke, 1992). Students need to be prepared by schools to meet the demands that will be placedon them in the wider community. For this reason, schools are often regarded as 'training grounds' in preparing students to be responsible adults and citizens.

(1992) emphasise, the social and academic development of students is crucial to a school's effectiveness. Schools need to prepare students to meet the demands that the wider community will place on them. For this reason, people often regard schools as 'training grounds' in preparing students to be responsible adults and citizens.

Part 2: 6. Academic style - Nominalisation: making verbs into nouns

Academic writing frequently uses nominalisation; that is, the noun forms of verbs. The process of nominalisation turns verbs (actions or events) into nouns (things, concepts or people). This focuses the text on objects or abstract concepts, rather than actions. For example: We've always known that drinking alcohol is linked with car accidents. The link between alcohol consumption and motor vehicle accidents has long been recognised.

The verbs 'linked' and 'drinking alcohol' have been nominalised to the nouns 'The link' and 'alcohol consumption'. As you can see from the example above, when a verb is nominalised, it becomes a concept rather than an action. As a consequence, the tone of your writing will sound more abstract and also more formal: Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned.

The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police.

The environment is being destroyed and this situation is not improving, despite the fact that environmental groups are trying to teach people that this is dangerous in the longer term.

Attempts by environmental groups to educate the public about the long term dangers of environmental destruction are not resulting in any improvements to the situation
Part 2: 6. Academic style - Understanding correct punctuation

"Many students say they have very little knowledge about how to use punctuation, yet using punctuation effectively is an important part of writing well in academic assignments." "The purpose of punctuation is to ensure the meaning of what you are saying is clear rather than being seen as just a set of rules." Quick check: The 5 most common punctuation problems in student writing

Incorrect punctuation The industry receives it's funding from the State. Tariff barriers are reduced, this leads to greater competition from overseas imports. The level of commitment to training varies among industries, some adopt best practice approaches while others do nothing.

Correct punctuation The industry receives its funding from the State. Tariff barriers are reduced. This leads to greater competition from overseas imports. The level of commitment to training varies among industries; some adopt best practice approaches while others do nothing.

Read more about the rule Read more about using apostrophes. You can't join two sentences with a comma. Read more about using commas. Semicolons are used to separate main statements (or a full stop could be used here). Read more about using semicolons. Overuse of commas, making the sentence difficult to follow. Read more about using commas.

Australia, was seen to follow the United States on foreign policy, however, on the issue of Timorese independence, more local concerns, influenced Australian policy. Australians favourite leisure activities are: football, water activities and watching television.

Australia was seen to follow the United States on foreign policy, however on the issue of Timorese independence, more local concerns influenced Australian policy Australians favourite leisure activities are football, water activities and watching television

A colon can't be used between a verb and its object. Read more about using colons.

Understanding and using punctuation: An easy guide:

Apostrophe Comma Semicolon Colon Brackets Quotation Marks

Apostrophe

(1) To mark possession (by nouns but NEVER by pronouns)

a. b. c. d. e. f.

Mr Black's attitude to our proposal... Ms Jones' attitude to our proposal... The public's attitude to our proposal... The committee's decision... The writer's intentions... (one writer) The writers' intentions... (more than one writer)

(2) To mark the omission of a letter or letters. a. b. c. d. couldn't = could not should've = should have (NEVER "should of" !!!) they're = they are who's = who is ( NOT "belonging to whom", which is "whose") e. it's = it is, as in "It's a lovely day today." (NB If it is owning something there is no apostrophe in "its", as in "The committee has reached its decision.")

Such forms are of course contractions and reflect the language of speech; they are thus colloquial and so usually considered inappropriate in formal writing. Back to Puntuation Guide>>
Comma

(1) To separate items in a simple series: a. The committee will consist of two professors, three senior lecturers, an associate lecturer and a clerical assistant. b. The committee agreed to seek further technical advice on this issue, send a detailed report to all member organisations and leave the final decision open until the Annual General Meeting.

(2) To mark off a phrase or clause that interferes with the essential structure of the message: a. A large male, the leader of the pack, appeared on the ridge b. Athletic children, no matter how keen they are initially, will often need a morale boost during the season. c. The generosity of the Australian public has assisted Care Australia, a non-profit-making international aid organisation, to provide much needed personnel, medicines and

equipment to the people of Rwanda.

(3) To separate phrases and clauses which might otherwise be misinterpreted. In the following pairs of sentences, each of the pair means something different to the other:
a. Sixty metres down, the road had been washed away. (i.e the road itself was washed away.) b. Sixty metres down the road was washed away. (i.e. it is possibly not the road itself but a place 60m down the road that has been washed away.) a. He was not happy, because his family were all away for the school holidays. (i.e their absence made him unhappy.) b. He was not happy because his family were all away for the school holidays. (i.e. he was happy, but it wasn't their absence making him happy; it was something else.)

a. Officers of the NSW Health Department, who wish to be considered for secondment to regional centres, should lodge written expressions of interest by Friday, August 26. (i.e ALL officers of the Department wish to be considered for secondment, which seems unlikely!) b. Officers of the NSW Health Department who wish to be considered for secondment to regional centres should lodge written expressions of interest by Friday, August 26. (i.e. only certain officers of the Department behave like this and they are the subject of this comment. The lack of comma here has the effect of making the following phrase or clause RESTRICT the subject, which was clearly the intention.) NB A common error with this kind of structure is to put a comma after the whole phrase acting as subject of the verb in the clause or sentence. So:
c. Officers of the NSW Health Department who wish to be considered for secondment to regional centres, should lodge written expressions of interest by Friday, August 26.

is quite wrong. The phrase, "Officers of the NSW Health Department who wish to be considered for secondment to regional centres" is the most complete answer to the question "Who should lodge written expressions of interest ?" Linguists variously call such groupings NOUN PHRASES or NOMINAL GROUPS. The clause "who wish to be considered for secondment to regional centres" is acting like an adjective to define "officers of the NSW Health Department". It should therefore be treated as part of the whole noun phrase, in the same way that a preceding adjective would be treated.

In the above sentence, therefore, the whole noun phrase, "Officers of the NSW Health Department who wish to be considered for secondment to regional centres", is the subject of the verb "should lodge". In other words, just as we would not put a comma after "participants" in the sentence "Intending participants should lodge their application forms early." so we should not put a comma after a long Nominal Group/ Noun Phrase of the type shown above. Back to Puntuation Guide>>
Semicolon

1) To separate independent messages in the same sentence when these are not connected by a conjunction and the writer does not wish to make them two separate sentences: There are many false stories around about punctuation; what follows is an attempt to point you in the right direction. Alternatives here would be: a. There are many false stories around about punctuation and what follows... b. There are many false stories around about punctuation. What follows... (2) To act as a second grade of punctuation, in addition to the comma to separate items in a series where each item in the series is complex. The semicolon is used here to avoid the kind of confusion that a whole host of commas might create. The team's audience included, amongst others: ten schoolchildren, each with notebook and pencil and each assiduously taking notes of the discussion; two or three harassed looking women, each with at least one restless child in her arms; a policeman who looked as if he was not sure he should be there; and an eager-eyed dog, which wagged its tail throughout the proceedings. Back to Puntuation Guide>>
Colon

A colon is generally used to announce or introduce an explanation or clarification, an interpretation or formal list. It is used to indicate that examples, or perhaps a rephrasing, of what has just been said will follow:

A business report should include the following: a Letter of Transmittal, a Synopsis, a Table of Contents. We have used the following software packages: WordPerfect, Microsoft Word, and EZYEdit. Back to Puntuation Guide>>
Brackets

The main use of round brackets (or parentheses) is to set apart an 'aside' which is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. The summary (see page three) should be helpful. Square brackets are also used to add clarifying words if the meaning is ambiguous: It is definitely established that she [Dr Smith] had issued the health warning. Back to Puntuation Guide>>
Quotation marks

Quotation marks (or inverted commas) are used around directly quoted material. The most common practice is to use single quotation marks in the first instance, then double quotation marks for a quote inside you're your first quote: Harvey (1992, p18) claims that 'Each area of industry naturally develops its own jargon in order to both consolidate membership, and block outsiders who are not familiar with the "shop talk" and how it is used'. An exception to this is if the first quote is longer than around 40 words, in which case it is indented rather than using quotation marks. Single quotation marks are then only used for the quotation inside the first quotation. Quotation marks can also be used to indicate that you are using a word or expression in an unusual way: Australia's refugee policy outlines Australia's attitude towards its 'alien' neighbours.

Part 2: 6. Academic style - Choosing your words carefully Using formal vocabulary

1. Avoid slang Academic writing tends to use more formal vocabulary and avoids colloquialisms and slang. Compare Informal car accidents stop any more increases better policing especially young people really important Formal motor vehicle accidents prevent further escalation more effective policing particularly younger drivers very /extremely important

2. Be precise In academic writing, it is important to aim to be precise in the words you choose and the statements you make. This particularly means avoiding overgeneralising and being as accurate as possible in your choice of vocabulary. Compare: 'Rural people are suffering from changes in government subsidies' [This is too broad - all rural people?] 'Many of those in rural areas whose income has depended on wheat and wool subsidies are currently suffering from reductions made to those subsidies over the past three years.' [This is more precise.] 3. Avoid contractions, short forms and 'email-speak'. In academic writing, the subject and verb are generally not contracted: Informal He's It's They're Uni re Academic He is It is They are University regarding

vs eg ie

versus for example that is

Making your sentences more formal Note how the following sentences have been rewritten to achieve a more formal academic style. 1. If we can improve the soil quality, then maybe the native species will return. If the soil quality can be improved, the native species may return. 2. It's really important to the area that the native species are regrown, so any more soil erosion can hopefully be prevented. The regrowth of the native species is essential in order to prevent further soil erosion in this area. 3. The water levels in the catchment area have recently been reduced, which has reduced the variety of plant life on the shores. Recent reductions in the water levels in the catchment area have reduced the variety of plant life on the shores. 4. Crime increased a lot in the early colonies and this led to them establishing the early form of what we now know as the NSW Police Service. The dramatic increase in crime in the early colonies led to the establishment of what is now known as the NSW Police Service. 5. There are many things involved in deciding about what makes 'good economic performance' and the growth in GDP is only one of them. 'Good economic performance' is determined by a number of factors, one of which is the growth in GDP.
Part 2: 6. Academic style - Choosing your words carefully Being clear and concise

"I find it hard to get across exactly what I mean. I always get comments from markers like "Be explicit", and "What is your point here?" It's very frustrating."

"You can work to improve the clarity of your writing. Clarity starts on a broad level of how you structure your essay, to clear paragraphing, to sentence clarity."

"If you know where you are going, it is easier to be clear in the steps you take to get there."

Clarity in structuring your essay

step1 The overall structure of your paper must be clear

Have you formulated a clear proposition? Have you outlined your argument in your introduction?

Step 2 The development of your argument must be clear.

Are your ideas developed in a clear and logical way? Can you easily relate each step in your argument to your overall proposition?

Step 3 Your paragraphs must be clear.

Does each paragraph represent a single developed 'idea'? Have you used topic sentences to tell the reader the main point of the paragraph?

Step 4 Your sentences need to be clear. Do your sentences clearly develop the idea(s) in each paragraph?
Part 2: 6. Academic style - Choosing your words carefully Being clear and concise

"There are many ways writers can add emphasis to their statements, such as varying sentence length, the way they structure a sentence and the words they use".

Compare these two texts:

Text 1 Training programs in the ASB corporation are out of step with their stated philosophy and, importantly, with the wider corporate environment. The changes discussed in the business environment including notions of company loyalty, multiskilling and the continued move towards job sharing and work teams, are not reflected in the company training program. Johns (1998) states that this is not unusual in the insurance industry, which has been affected by changes including the need to downsize, takeovers and privatization, thus paying less attention to training and support programs. Text 2 Not only are training programs in the ASB corporation clearly out of step with their own stated philosophy but, more importantly, with the wider corporate environment. The key notions of company loyalty, multiskilling, job sharing and work teams are not reflected in ASB's training program. This is very typical of the insurance industry (Johns, 1998). Rapid changes within the industry have focused HR on issues of downsizing, takeovers and privatisation, while overlooking the vital importance (and relevance) of ongoing training and support (Higgs & Wilson, 1999). Notice that in Text 2, the writer adds emphasis by:

Thematic choice.

Starting the sentence with 'Not only...' to emphasise the two different ways ASB is out of step, and particularly to emphasise the second way, 'the wider corporate environment', which they go on to give more detail about. Training programs in the ASB corporation are out of step with their stated philosophy and, importantly, with the wider corporate environment. Not only are training programs in the ASB corporation clearly out of step with their own stated philosophy but, more importantly, with the wider corporate environment

Varying sentence length.

In these examples, note how the writer in the second text includes a short sentence 'This is very typical of the insurance industry (Johns, 1998).' to add emphasis to the point:

The changes discussed in the business environment, including notions of company loyalty, multiskilling and the continued move towards job sharing and work teams are not reflected in the company training program. Johns (1998) states that this is not unusual in the insurance industry, which has been affected by changes including the need to downsize, takeovers and privatization, thus paying less attention to training and support programs. The key notions of company loyalty, multiskilling, job sharing and work teams are not reflected in ASB's training program. This is very typical of the insurance industry (Johns, 1998). Rapid changes within the industry have focused HR on issues of downsizing, takeovers and privatisation, while overlooking the vital importance (and relevance) of ongoing training and support (Higgs & Wilson, 1999). In your writing, aim to vary your sentence length to achieve emphasis for the reader on any aspects you feel are more important. Burying too much information in continuously long sentences can be more tiring to read!

Using words and phrases for emphasis.

Note the words and phrases the writer has used to emphasise points in the second text: '...clearly out of step...' '...key notion of...' '...more importantly,...' '...vital importance...' Other ways of adding emphasis to your writing

Using punctuation

Compare: The employees were surprised by the decision, which was not to change company policy. The employees were surprised by the decision: no change in company policy. You need to be careful to use punctuation that is appropriate to academic writing. Common problems are: using a dash to separate ideas, or overusing semi-colons to join ideas.

Using visual devices for emphasis.

Writers also use visual devices to achieve emphasis, such as using parentheses in the second text to draw the reader's attention to the aspect of relevance, ' the vital importance (and relevance) of ongoing training and support.'

This could have been included without parentheses. Visual devices including underlining, boldface and bullet points are more commonly used in reports rather than essays.
Part 2: 6. Academic style - Choosing your words carefully Qualifying your claims

In academic writing, writers may want to vary the strength of their claims. Consider the following two statements: 1. "Migrants who do not learn English find it more difficult to integrate into the community." 2. It has been suggested by several experts that in some cases, migrants who do not learn English may find it more difficult to integrate into the community." In the second statement, the writer is qualifying or moderating the claim in the first statement as it is too strong - and therefore difficult to prove. Claims can be qualified in a number of ways: Ways of qualifying your claims in academic writing. Probability: (how likely or unlikely something is.) 1. Using auxiliary verbs: Compare: "This framework will provide a basis for future cognitive research." "This framework could provide a basis for future cognitive research." The strength of claims can be reduced using may, might, can or could instead of will. 2. Using phrases: Compare: "English will never lose its status as a global language." "It is very unlikely that English will lose its status as a global language." Common phrases include: It is certain that... It is almost certain that...

It It It It It

is is is is is

very probable that.../highly likely that... probable that... possible that... unlikely that... very unlikely that...

Distance:(in academic writing it is common for writers to distance themselves from the statement.) Compare: "Some writers have been overcritical of Dawson's later poems" "Some writers appear to have been overcritical of Dawson's later poems." "Some writers seem to have been overcritical of Dawson's later poems." Distance is also achieved by showing the limited nature of the evidence that supports it. For example: "According to a few studies of his works, some writers have been overcritical of Dawson's later poems." Tendency Students are often criticised for making generalisations. Generalisations can be qualified in different ways: a. Qualify the verb with tend to: "Dawson's later poems are more spiritual and introspective." "Dawson's later poems tend to be more spiritual and introspective." b. Qualify the subject: "Many of Dawson's later poems are more spiritual and introspective." "In many cases, Dawson's later poems are more spiritual and introspective." c. Add Exceptions "Except for his most recent poem, Dawson's later poems are more spiritual and introspective." d. Indicate frequency "Occasionally, Dawson draws on biblical metaphors in his poetry."

Other ways of indicating frequency without exception always usually frequently not infrequently often at times sometimes occasionally rarely e. Use weaker verbs You can modify the strength of a claim by your choice of verb: Compare: "TV viewing causes violent behaviour among children." "TV viewing contributes to violent behaviour among children" We can modify this statement even further using the strategies above: "TV viewing may contribute to violent behaviour among children." "In some cases, TV viewing may contribute to violent behaviour among children." "In some cases, TV viewing may be seen to contribute to violent behaviour among children." And finally, "Preliminary findings of some recent studies indicate that in some cases, TV viewing may be seen to contribute to violent behaviour among children." The writer has modified and qualified the first overgeneralised statement into a statement they feel they can defend.
Part 2: 6. Academic style - Choosing your words carefully Varying reporting verbs

"In academic writing, it is useful to vary the way you report evidence from a source. You do this to indicate how you feel about the claim being made, as well as to achieve some variety in the words you use."

Compare the following two texts:

Text 1 Research on the relationship between teacher knowledge and student achievement has produced mixed results. Crosse (1992) claims that teacher knowledge will have a positive influence on student results. By contrast, Hyland (1994) claims that while teacher knowledge affects student morale and confidence, it has little influence on student achievement. Southon (1994) talks about the importance of enthusiasm for the subject, which he claims has a greater influence than subject knowledge on both student achievement and morale, saying that teacher education programs should be directed at ways of maintaining a teacher's enthusiasm for their subjects. Ellis (1995) also claims that in one-teacher classes, teacher enthusiasm is the single most influential factor in student satisfaction and motivation in their learning. Text 2 Research on the relationship between teacher knowledge and student achievement has produced mixed results. Crosse (1992) argues that teacher knowledge will have a positive influence on student results. By contrast, Hyland (1994) proposes that while teacher knowledge affects student morale and confidence, it has little influence on student achievement. Southon (1994) discusses the importance of enthusiasm for the subject, which he claims has a greater influence than subject knowledge on both student achievement and morale, emphasising that teacher education programs should be directed at ways of maintaining a teacher's enthusiasm for their subjects. Ellis (1995) supports this view, suggesting that in one-teacher classes, teacher enthusiasm is the single most influential factor in student satisfaction and motivation in their learning. Note the way Text 2 uses a variety of reporting verbs. This makes the text more interesting to read, and the writer can indicate the strength of the claims though the reporting verb. Note the difference between 'Crosse (1992) argues that...' and 'Crosse (1992) suggests that...'. Check out this handy list of ways of reporting claims or findings.
Part 2: 6. Academic style - Checklist

Maintaining an academic style means: 1. Being aware of the conventional features of academic writing, and their purpose in achieving writing that is authoritative, factual, objective and persuasive.

2. Maintaining an awareness of your own writing. You can constantly fine tune your writing through critical reading, critical appraisal of your own writing and your marked papers, and access to resources such as Writing Skills courses, Gateway, and other online or hard copy writing support materials. Try to identify your typical weak areas and focus on improving them as you write, review and proofread. 3. Being aware of the link between 'micro' issues such as sentence structure and word choice, and more 'macro' issues such as formulating a clear proposition and organising your argument and information into a clear and logical structure. Jumbled ideas and lack of a clear direction in your paper will easily lead to clumsy, nonsensical sentences with poor punctuation. 4. Maintaining an awareness of the reader when you write. It is important to consider the reader both in writing and reviewing your paper. Have you provided a clear introduction that tells the reader where they are going? Have you explained your terms clearly? Are you expecting the reader to make huge jumps in trying to connect the ideas you are presenting, as you have not provided clear and logical connections between them? Do you need to make what you are saying more explicit (spell it out)?
Part 2: 7. Reviewing your paper

Always make sure you leave enough time to review and carefully proofread your paper. No matter how many times you read through a 'finished' paper, you're likely to miss many of your most frequent errors. This tutorial will help you proofread more effectively:

by giving you some useful general strategies for reviewing your paper by giving you strategies for careful proofreading so you can identify errors you typically make by giving you specific strategies for finding and correcting those errors.

Part 2: 7. Reviewing your paper

"Reviewing your paper is different from proofreading. In reviewing, you are looking at broader issues of structure and coherence, whereas proofreading focuses on the 'micro' issues such as sentences, word choice, punctuation and referencing." Strategies for reviewing your paper Before you start, leave some time between finishing your paper and reviewing it. Even some minutes break will help you to review your paper with a fresh mind. Now ask yourself the following questions: 1. Does the paper answer the question?

Re-read the question carefully. Does the paper answer the question and all its parts fully? Does it comply with any instructions accompanying the question, such as structure of the paper and use of reference materials? 2. Does the introduction introduce the main issues or argument discussed in the paper? The introduction should tell the reader what the main argument presented in the paper will be, and an idea of how it will be argued. It should provide some overall context for the issues discussed in the paper. It is useful to check 'What an introduction does', outlined in Tutorial 4. 3. Does the structure of the paper logically develop the argument? Go through the paragraphs of your paper. Do they all clearly relate to your overall argument? Do they develop your argument in a clear and logical way? Check the topic sentences: how well do they link the paragraph to the preceding paragraph? Does each paragraph present the reader with a single, developed idea? How well does the paragraph develop the idea presented in the topic sentence? Is all of the information related enough to be in the same paragraph, or should you create another paragraph and move some of the details to the other paragraph? Are there clear transitions between paragraphs? 4. Does the paper provide a strong, summative conclusion? Your conclusion should have a strong, 'concluding' feel about it. It should convince the reader of the validity of your argument. Check Tutorial 4 for 'What a conclusion does' in reviewing your conclusion. 5. Have you provided evidence for your claims, and referenced your evidence appropriately? Check that the main claims in your paper are supported by evidence from your research readings. Claims and evidence will need to be referenced; check your referencing guide for the subject for the appropriate way to reference. 6. Have you followed the specified format for the presentation of your paper? Are you required to provide an abstract? Is a Reference List required, or a Bibliography? Are tables, charts, graphs etc appropriately included and labeled? Have you satisfied the specified word count? Tutor head: "Once you have satisfied these broader concerns, take a short break before you begin the important process of proofreading your paper".

Part 2: 7. Reviewing your paper - Proofreading Strategies

"Errors, however small, can create a very negative impression on a reader. Many tutors are surprised at how many essays are submitted with typographical errors, words missing and names spelt wrongly. It is important to take time carefully proofreading your paper before submitting it. Start by taking a break. Allow yourself some time between writing and proofing. Even a five-minute break is productive because it will help get some distance from what you have written. The goal is to return with a fresh eye and mind. In proofreading, s l o w d o w n as you read through the paper. This will help you catch mistakes that you might otherwise overlook. If you read at a normal speed, you won't give your eyes sufficient time to spot errors." Effective proofreading: What do students say? "I find reading aloud really helps - it encourages you to read every little word and you can pick up mistakes, or sentences that sound 'strange', even though they're OK when you read them". "I never proofread off the computer screen. I print the essay out, then I read with a 'cover' - I slide a blank sheet of paper down the page line by line as it helps me slow down and read it in detail". "I find it helps to imagine myself as the reader. I look at the paper with a 'blank' open mind and try to read it as if I haven't seen it before. It's amazing how much you can read that suddenly doesn't make sense - even though it made good sense when you wrote it". "I always get a friend or two to read through my essays - they can look at an essay with a fresh, 'objective' mind and see things I couldn't see even after reading it a few times." "I think it's important to know where your typical problem areas are, and look particularly at those areas - a kind of personalised proofreading. For me, my sentences are often too long and I use too many commas in the wrong places, so I check particularly for that when I proofread. You can learn from going through your marked papers what your typical errors are."
What to look for in proofreading

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Usage and Sentence Structure Spelling Punctuation Left out words Referencing

1. Usage and Sentence Structure

Subject/Verb Agreement 1. Find the main verb in each sentence. 2. Match the verb to its subject. 3. Make sure that the subject and verb agree in number. Pronoun Reference/Agreement 1. Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun. Look especially at it, this, they, their, and them. 2. Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces. If you can't find any noun, insert one beforehand or change the pronoun to a noun. If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun. Parallel Structure 1. Skim your paper, stopping at key words that signal parallel structures. Look especially for and, or, not only...but also, either... or, neither...nor, both...and. 2. Make sure that the items connected by these words (adjectives, nouns, phrases, etc.) are in the same grammatical form. << Back to 'What to look for in proofreading'
2. Spelling

1. Examine each word in the paper carefully and individually. 2. Do not rely on spellcheck to correct all your spelling errors! 3. Be aware of English and American spelling: Nationalise (English) Nationalize (Am) and be consistent in your use of one form. 4. Always take the time to check a dictionary to confirm the spelling of words you are unsure of. 5. Make sure you spell technical terms, sources and places correctly! << Back to 'What to look for in proofreading'
3. Punctuation

Compound Sentence Commas

1. Skim for the conjunctions and, but, for, or, nor, so and yet. 2. See whether there is a complete sentence on each side of the conjunction. If so, place a comma before the conjunction. Introductory Commas 1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence. 2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker, a transition word, a participle, or a preposition. 3. Listen for a possible break point before the main clause. 4. Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase or clause (which is before the independent clause). Comma Splices 1. Skim the paper, stopping at every comma. 2. See whether there is a complete sentence on each side of the comma. If so, add a coordinating conjunction after the comma or replace the comma with a semicolon. 3. Avoid overuse of commas! This can make your writing difficult to read. Apostrophes 1. Check the use of common errors such as 'its' (possessive) versus it's (=it is). 2. See whether or not a word needs an apostrophe to indicate possession. If an apostrophe is needed, you will be able to invert the word order and say "of" or "of the":

Mary's hat = the hat of Mary The children's clothes = the clothes of the children The teachers' room = the room of all the teachers The teacher's room = the room of one teacher

<< Back to 'What to look for in proofreading'

4. Left-Out Words

1. Read the paper aloud, pointing to every word as you read. Don't let your eye move ahead until you spot each word.

2. Also, make sure that you haven't doubled any words. << Back to 'What to look for in proofreading'
5. Referencing

1. Make sure you have followed the correct referencing procedure, with name, year and page number where appropriate. 2. Also, make sure each reference in your paper is included accurately in your Reference List or Bibliography.
Part 2: 7. Reviewing your paper - Checklist

Reviewing your paper means: 1. Always allowing time to take a break after finishing your paper, and coming back to it with a fresh mind. 2. Asking yourself questions about the paper as a whole: Have I answered the question fully? Does the introduction introduce the main issues/argument discussed in the paper? Is the paper structured to logically and clearly develop the argument? Have I provided evidence for my claims and referenced it appropriately? Have I provided a strong, summative conclusion that is persuasive and convincing? 3. Reading very carefully and s-l-o-w-l-y through the paper to identify errors. Again, take a break before proofreading your paper. It may help to read it in hard copy rather than on computer screen, to have a friend read through it, to read it aloud, and to be objective, in reading as the reader rather than as the writer. 4. Personalising your proofreading. Be aware of the types of errors you commonly make and aim to identify them as you read. Read carefully through your essays when they are returned so you can improve your awareness of your own weaknesses in academic writing. 5. Looking particularly at usage such as sentence structure, noun-verb agreement, pronoun references, spelling, punctuation and correct referencing.