Practical File

INSRUMENTATION AND CONTROL LAB

Submitted By

INDEX Sr. no. Name of the Experiment Exp. date Submission date Remarks

Experiment Number 3 AIM: Introduction to LabVIEW software and its bases APPARATUS: Computer system compatible with LabVIEW. THEORY: LabVIEW (short for Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Engineering Workbench) is a platform and development environment for a visual programming language from National Instruments. The graphical language is named "G". LabVIEW is commonly used for data acquisition, instrument control, and industrial automation on a variety of platforms including Microsoft Windows, various flavors of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS. One benefit of LabVIEW over other development environments is the extensive support for accessing instrumentation hardware. Drivers and abstraction layers for many different types of instruments and buses are included or are available for inclusion. These present themselves as graphical nodes. The abstraction layers offer standard software interfaces to communicate with hardware devices. The provided driver interfaces save program development time. Many libraries with a large number of functions for data acquisition, signal generation, mathematics, statistics, signal conditioning, analysis, etc., along with numerous graphical interface elements are provided in several LabVIEW package options. Another benefit of the LabVIEW environment is the platform independent nature of the Gcode (LabVIEW programming language), which is (with the exception of a few platform specific functions) portable between the different LabVIEW systems for different operating systems (Windows, MacOSX and Linux). Graphical programming LabVIEW ties the creation of user interfaces (called front panels) into the development cycle. LabVIEW programs/subroutines are called virtual instruments (VIs). Each VI has three components: Each VI contains three main parts: 1.Front Panel How the user interacts with the VI. 2.Block Diagram The code that controls the program. 3.Icon/Connector Means of connecting a VI to other VIs. The Front Panel is the user interface of the VI, to interact with the user when the program is running. Users can control the program, change inputs, and see data updated in real time. You build the front panel with controls and indicators (available on the Control Palette), which are the interactive input and output terminals of the VI, respectively. Controls are knobs, pushbuttons, dials, and other input devices. Indicators are graphs, LEDs, and other displays. Controls simulate instrument input devices and supply values to the block diagram of the VI.

Indicators simulate instrument output devices and display values the block diagram acquires or generates. These may include data, program states, and other information. Every front panel control or indicator has a corresponding terminal on the block diagram. When a VI is run, values from controls flow through the block diagram, where they are used in the functions on the diagram, and the results are passed into other functions or indicators. The Controls palette is available only on the front panel. Go to WindowShow Controls Palette or rightclick the front panel workspace to display the Controls palette. The Functions palette is available only on the block diagram. Select WindowShow Functions Palette or rightclick the block diagram workspace to display the Functions palette. The Block Diagram contains this graphical source code. Front panel objects appear as terminals on the block diagram. Additionally, the block diagram contains functions and structures from builtin LabVIEW VI libraries. These can be accessed from the Functions Palette. Wires connect each of the nodes on the block diagram, including control and indicator terminals, functions, and structures.The Icon/Connector may represent the VI as a subVI in block diagrams of calling VIs. Controls and indicators on the front panel allow an operator to input data into or extract data from a running virtual instrument. However, the front panel can also serve as a programmatic interface. Thus a virtual instrument can either be run as a program, with the front panel serving as a user interface, or, when dropped as a node onto the block diagram, the front panel defines the inputs and outputs for the given node through the connector pane. This implies each VI can be easily tested before being embedded as a subroutine into a larger program. The graphical approach also allows non programmers to build programs by simply dragging and dropping virtual representations of the lab equipment with which they are already familiar. The LabVIEW programming environment, with the included examples and the documentation, makes it easy to create small applications. For complex algorithms or largescale code it is important that the programmer possess an extensive knowledge of the special LabVIEW syntax and the topology of its memory management. The most advanced LabVIEW development systems offer the possibility of building standalone applications. Other features that you will need include the Tools Palette which is a Floating Palette that is used to operate and modify front panel and block diagram objects and the Status Toolbar. They contain the following tools and buttons, respectively:

Tools Palette:

Status Bar:

Exercise 1- Convert o C to o F
Complete the following steps to create a VI that takes a number representing degrees Celsius and converts it to a number representing degrees Fahrenheit. In wiring illustrations, the arrow at the end of this mouse icon shows where to click and the number on the arrow indicates how many times to click. Front Panel 1. Select File New to open a new front panel.

2. (Optional) Select WindowTile Left and Right to display the front panel and block diagram side by side. 3. Create a numeric digital control. You will use this control to enter the value for degrees Centigrade. a.Select the digital control on the ControlsNumeric Controls palette. If the Controls palette is not visible, rightclick an open area on the front panel to display it. b.Move the control to the front panel and click to place the control. c.Type deg C inside the label and click outside the label or click the Enter button on the toolbar. If you do not type the name immediately, LabVIEW uses a default label. You can edit a label at any time by using the Labeling tool. 4. Create a numeric digital indicator. You will use this indicator to display the value for degrees Fahrenheit. a.Select the digital indicator on the ControlsNumeric Indicators palette. b.Move the indicator to the front panel and click to place the indicator. c.Type deg F inside the label and click outside the label or click the Enter button. LabVIEW creates corresponding control and indicator terminals on the block diagram. The terminals represent the data type of the control or indicator. For example, a DBL terminal represents a double precision, floatingpoint numeric control or indicator. Note Control terminals have a thicker border than indicator terminals. Block Diagram 5. Display the block diagram by clicking it or by selecting WindowShow Diagram.

Note: Block Diagram terminals can be viewed as icons or as terminals. To change the way LabVIEW displays these objects right click on a terminal and select View As Icon.

6.Select the Multiply and Add functions on the Functions Numeric palette and place them on the block diagram. If the Functions palette is not visible, right click an open area on the block diagram to display it. 7.Select the numeric constant on the Functions Numeric palette and place two of them on the block diagram. When you first place the numeric constant, it is highlighted so you can type a value. 8.Type 1.8 in one constant and 32.0 in the other. If you moved the constants before you typed a value, use the Labeling tool to enter the values. 9.Use the Wiring tool to wire the icons as shown in the previous block diagram. To wire from one terminal to another, use the Wiring tool to click the first terminal, move the tool to the second terminal, and click the second terminal, as shown in the following illustration. You can start wiring at either terminal.

10. 11. 12.

You can bend a wire by clicking to tack the wire down and moving the cursor in a perpendicular direction. Press the spacebar to toggle the wire direction. To identify terminals on the nodes, rightclick the Multiply and Add functions and select Visible ItemsTerminals from the shortcut menu to display the connector pane. Return to the icons after wiring by rightclicking the functions and selecting Visible Items Terminals from the shortcut menu to remove the checkmark. When you move the Wiring tool over a terminal, the terminal area blinks, indicating that clicking will connect the wire to that terminal and a tip strip appears, listing the name of the terminal. To cancel a wire you started, press the <Esc> key, rightclick, or click the source terminal. Display the front panel by clicking it or by selecting WindowShow Panel. Save the VI for later use (have a folder by your own name). Enter a number in the digital control and run the VI. a.Use the Operating tool or the Labeling tool to doubleclick the digital control and type a new number. b.Click the Run button to run the VI. c.Try several different numbers and run the VI again.

Exercise 2 Create a SubVI

Front Panel 1. Select FileOpen and navigate to your folder to open the C to F VI. The following front panel appears.

2.Rightclick the icon in the upper right corner of the front panel and select Edit Icon from the shortcut menu. The Icon Editor dialog box appears. 3.Doubleclick the Select tool on the left side of the Icon Editor dialog box to select the default icon. 4.Press the <Delete> key to remove the default icon. 5.Doubleclick the Rectangle tool to redraw the border. 6.Create the following icon. a.Use the Text tool to click the editing area.

b.Type C and F. c.Doubleclick the Text tool and change the font to Small Fonts. d.Use the Pencil tool to create the arrow. (To draw horizontal or vertical straight lines, press the <Shift> key while you use the Pencil tool to drag the cursor). e.Use the Select tool and the arrow keys to move the text and arrow you created. f.Select the B&W icon and select 256 Colors in the Copy from field to create a black and white icon, which LabVIEW uses for printing unless you have a color printer. g.When the icon is complete, click the OK button to close the Icon Editor dialog box. The icon appears in the upper right corner of the front panel and block diagram. 7.Rightclick the icon on the front panel and select Show Connector from the shortcut menu to define the connector pane terminal pattern. LabVIEW selects a connector pane pattern based on the number of controls and indicators on the front panel. For example, this front panel has two terminals, deg C and deg F, so LabVIEW selects a connector pane pattern with two terminals. 8.Assign the terminals to the digital control and digital indicator.

a. Select HelpShow Context Help to display the Context Help window. View each connection in the Context Help window as you make it. b.Click the left terminal in the connector pane. The tool automatically changes to the Wiring tool, and the terminal turns black. c.Click the deg C control. The left terminal turns orange, and a marquee highlights the control. d.Click an open area of the front panel. The marquee disappears, and the terminal changes to the data type color of the control to indicate that you connected the terminal. e.Click the right terminal in the connector pane and click the deg F indicator. The right terminal turns orange. f.Click an open area on the front panel. Both terminals are orange. g.Move the cursor over the connector pane. The Context Help window shows that both terminals are connected to floatingpoint values. 9. Select FileSave to save the VI.

Exercise 3 Using Loops

Use a while loop and a waveform chart to build a VI that demonstrates software timing. Front Panel 1.Open a new VI. 2.Build the following front panel.

a.Select the horizontal pointer slide on the Controls Numeric Controls palette and place it on the front panel. You will use the slide to change the software timing. b.Type millisecond delay inside the label and click outside the label or click the Enter button on the toolbar, shown at left. c.Place a Stop Button from the ControlsButtons palette. d.Select a waveform chart on the ControlsGraph Indicators palette and place it on the front panel. The waveform chart will display the data in real time. e.Type Value History inside the label and click outside the label or click the Enter button. f.The waveform chart legend labels the plot Plot 0. Use the Labeling tool to triple click Plot 0 in the chart legend, type Value, and click outside the label or click the Enter button to relabel the legend. g.The random number generator generates numbers between 0 and 1, in a classroom setting you could replace this with a data acquisition VI. Use the

Labeling tool to doubleclick 10.0 in the yaxis, type 1, and click outside the label or click the Enter button to rescale the chart. h.Change 10.0 in the yaxis to 0. i.Label the yaxis Value and the xaxis Time (sec). Block Diagram 3.Select WindowShow Diagram to display the block diagram.

4.Enclose the two terminals in a While Loop, as shown in the following block diagram. a.Select the While Loop on the FunctionsExecution Control palette. b.Click and drag a selection rectangle around the two terminals. c.Use the Positioning tool to resize the loop, if necessary. 5.Select the Random Number (01) on the FunctionsArithmetic and ComparisonNumeric palette. Alternatively you could use a VI that is gathering data from an external sensor. 6.Wire the block diagram objects as shown in the previous block diagram. 7.Save the VI as Use a Loop.vi in your folder 8.Display the front panel by clicking it or by selecting WindowShow Panel. 9.Run the VI. The section of the block diagram within the While Loop border executes until the specified condition is TRUE. For example, while the STOP button is not pressed, the VI returns a new number and displays it on the waveform chart. 10. Click the STOP button to stop the acquisition. The condition is FALSE, and the loop stops executing. 11. Format and customize the X and Y scales of the waveform chart. a.Rightclick the chart and select Properties from the shortcut menu. The following dialog box appears. b.Click the Scale tab and select different styles for the y axis. You also can select different mapping modes, grid options, scaling factors, and formats and precisions. Notice that these will update interactively on the waveform chart c.Select the options you desire and click the OK button.

12. Rightclick the waveform chart and select Data OperationsClear Chart from the shortcut menu to clear the display buffer and reset the waveform chart. If the VI is running, you can select Clear Chart from the shortcut menu. Adding Timing When this VI runs, the While Loop executes as quickly as possible. Complete the following steps to take data at certain intervals, such as once every halfsecond, as shown in the following block diagram.

a.Place the Time Delay Express VI located on the FunctionsExecution Control palette. In the dialog box that appears, insert 0.5. This function would make sure that each iteration occurs every halfsecond (500 ms). b.Divide the millisecond delay by 1000 to get time in seconds. Connect the output of the divide function to the Delay Time (s) input of the Time Delay Express VI. This will allow you to adjust the speed of the execution from the pointer slide on the front panel. 13. Save the VI, because you will use this VI later in the course. 14. Run the VI. 15. Try different values for the millisecond delay and run the VI again. Notice how this effects the speed of the number generation and display.

EXPERIMENT NUMBER 2 AIM: To Study different transducers and their characteristics (LVDT, strain gauge, airflow, humidity etc. on the DIGIAC 1750) APPARATUS: DIGIAC 1750 kit, connecting wires, multimeter. THEORY: LINEAR POSITION OR FORCE APPLICATIONS The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) The construction and circuit arrangement an LVDT are as shown in Fig 4.1. It consists of three coils mounted on a common former and having a magnetic core that is movable within the coils.

Figure 1: construction and circuit arrangement of LVDT The center coil is the primary and is supplied from an AC supply. The coils on either side are secondary coils and are labeled A & B in Fig 4.1. Coils A & B have equal number of turns and are connected in series opposing so that the output voltage is the difference between voltages induced in the coils. Fig. 2 shows the output obtained for different positions of the magnetic core.

Figure 2: output obtained for different positions of the magnetic core.

With the core in its central position as shown in Fig 4.2(b) there should be equal voltages induced in coils A & B by normal transformer action and the output voltage would be zero. In practice this ideal condition is unlikely to be found, but the output voltage will reduce to a minimum. With the core moved to the left as shown in Fig 4.2(a), the voltage induced in coil A (Va) will be greater than that induced in coil B (Vb). There will therefore be an output voltage Vout = (Va - Vb) and this voltage will be in phase with the input voltage as shown With the core moved to the right as shown in Fig 4.2(c) the voltage induced in coil A (Va) will be less than that induced in coil B (Vb) and again there will be an output voltage Vout = (Va -Vb) but in this case the output voltage will be out of phase with the input voltage. Movement of the core from its central (or neutral) position produces an output voltage. This voltage increases with the movement from the neutral position to a maximum value and then may reduce for further movement from this maximum setting. Note that the phase will remain constant on either side of the neutral position. There is no gradual change of phase, only an abrupt reversal when passing through the neutral position. The Strain Gauge Transducer

Fig 3: construction of a strain gauge Fig 3 shows the construction of a strain gauge, consisting of a grid of fine wire or semiconductor material bonded to a backing material. When in use, the unit is glued to the beam under test and is arranged so that the variation in length under loaded conditions is along the gauge sensitive axis (Fig 4.5(a)). Loading the beam increases the length of the gauge wire and also reduces its cross-sectional area (Fig 4.5(c)). Both of these effects will increase the resistance of the wire.

Fig4: The layout and circuit arrangement for the DIGIAC 1750 The layout and circuit arrangement for the DIGIAC 1750 unit is shown in Fig 4. Resistors are electro-deposited on a substrate on a contact block at the right-hand end of the

assembly. The gauge is normally connected in a Wheatstone Bridge arrangement with the bridge balanced under no load conditions. Any change of resistance due to loading unbalances the bridge and this is indicated by the detector (Galvanometer).

The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is liable to give inaccurate results due to thermal changes. A variation of temperature will also produce a change of resistance of the gauge and this will be interpreted as a change of loading. To correct for this an identical gauge is used and connected. This gauge is placed near to the other gauge but is arranged so that it is not subjected to any loading. Any variation of temperature now affects both gauges equally and there will be no thermal effect on the bridge conditions. The gauge subjected to loading is referred to as the active gauge and the other is called the dummy gauge. The Humidity Transducer Fig shows the construction of a humidity transducer, consisting of a thin disc of a material whose properties vary with humidity. Each side of the disc is metalized to form a capacitor. Variation of humidity of the surrounding air alters the permittivity and/or thickness of the dielectric material, changing the value of the capacitor. The unit is housed in a perforated plastic case. The unit is connected in series with a resistor with the output taken from the resistor. With an alternating voltage applied to the input, the output voltage will vary with humidity due to the variation of capacitance of the transducer.

PROCEDURE: Characteristics of a Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Figure 5 In this exercise we will measure the rectified output using the digital multinleter on the 20V DC range and also amplify and measure it using the M.C. analog meter, as this gives a better impression of the variation of output voltage with core position 1. The circuit is connected as shown in Fig 5 with the digital multimeter on the 2V DC range to monitor the output of the Full-Wave Rectifier. The power supply is turned ON. 2. The A.C. Amplifier gain is set to 1000. 3. The GAIN COARSE control of Amplifier #1 is set to 100 and GAIN FINE control to 0.2. The OFFSET control is checked that it is set for zero output with zero input and adjusted if necessary. 4. The core position is adjusted by rotating the operating screw to the neutral position. This will give minimum output voltage. The value of this voltage is observed from the digital multimeter and it is recorded in Table. 5. The core control screw is rotated in steps of 1 turn for 4 turns in the clockwise direction (when viewing the control from the left-hand side of the D1750 unit) and the results are recorded in Table. Then, the control screw is turned in the counter clockwise direction, again recording the results in Table. 6. Plot the graph of output voltage from the analog meter readings against core position is plotted.

Figure 6 7. The circuit is changed to the circuit shown in Fig 6 to observe the effect of the polarity change in the output. Note that test points are provided at the bottom of the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer panel for connection of oscilloscope probes. 8. Note that for the L VDT considered here, unless the two secondary coils are identical, there will be non-perfect coupling between each secondary coil and the primary coil, resulting in a frequency-dependent phase shift in the output voltage (relative to the input voltage). 9. Set up the oscilloscope as follows: lock the time base to CH.1, trigger selector to AC CH.1 Amplifier on AC input, 50mV/div CH.2 Amplifier on AC input, 0.5V/div time base to 5us/div 10. Both traces are positioned on the center horizontal line of the display. 11. The power supply is turned ON and the core position is varied through its full range and the effect on the output voltage as seen on CH.2 of the oscilloscope display is observed. 12. Timebase fine control is adjusted to give 1 cycles of displayed waveform. 13. The oscilloscope waveform is sketched when the core is turned 2 turns in (+2) from the neutral position on the graticule provided. Characteristics of a strain Gauge Transducer

Figure 7 1. Connect the circuit is connected as shown in Fig 7 and Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE control is set to 100. 2. The power supply is switched ON and with no load on the strain gauge platform; the offset control of Amplifier #1 is adjusted so that the output voltage is zero. 3. All ten of the weights is placed on the load platform and the GAIN FINE control is adjusted to give an output voltage of 7.0V as indicated on the moving coil meter. 4. Note that this value of output voltage should cover all ranges of coins within the setting of the GAIN FINE control. 5. One weight (coin) is placed on the load platform and the output voltage is observed. The value is recorded in Table overleaf. 6. The process is repeated, adding further weights one at a time, noting the output voltage at each step and recording the values in Table. 7. Plot the graph of output voltage against number of coins is plotted. The Air Flow Transducer

Connect the circuit as shown in Fig and set the GAIN COURSE control of Amplifier #1 to 10 and GAIN FINE control to 1.0. Check that the pump control is set to OFF. Set the digital multimeter to the 20V range. Switch ON the power supply and allow the temperature to stabilize. Adjust the OFFSET control of Amplifier #1 for zero output continuously during this time, setting the GAIN COURSE control to 100 when stabilized conditions are approached. Set the Flow/Pressure control to FLOW. Check that the OFFSET control is set for zero output voltage.

Use the digital multimeter to note the voltages at the and + outputs from the transducer and record the values in Table.

Characteristics of a Humidity Transducer

Connect the circuit as shown in Fig, setting the Ac Amplifier gain control to 10 and the Amplifier #1 GAIN COURSE control to 10 and GAIN FINE to 1.0. Switch ON the power supply, remove the leads from the Differential Amplifier inputs and connect a short circuit between them. Adjust the OFFSET control of Amplifier #1 for zero output. Switch GAIN COURSE to 100 and make a final adjustment. Replace the connections to the inputs of the Differential Amplifier and adjust the control of the 10k carbon resistor for zero output from Amplifier #1. It may be advisable to set the course gain to 10 initially and then back to 100 finally during this process.

The bridge circuit is now balanced for the ambient conditions, the Differential Amplifier input from the 10k variable resistor balancing that from the rectifier. Note the output voltage from the rectifier circuit as indicated by the digital voltmeter. Now place your mouth near the humidity transducer and breath on it for a short time. The reading indicated by the Moving Coil Meter will change slowly.

Note the maximum value of the voltage and also the reading of the digital voltmeter.

EXPERIMENT NUMBER 4 AIM: Generate and display waveform with the help of LABview software. APPARATUS: Computer system compatible with LabVIEW. THEORY: LabVIEW (short for Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Engineering Workbench) is a platform and development environment for a visual programming language from National Instruments. The graphical language is named "G". LabVIEW is commonly used for data acquisition, instrument control, and industrial automation on a variety of platforms including Microsoft Windows, various flavors of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS. One benefit of LabVIEW over other development environments is the extensive support for accessing instrumentation hardware. Drivers and abstraction layers for many different types of instruments and buses are included or are available for inclusion. These present themselves as graphical nodes. The abstraction layers offer standard software interfaces to communicate with hardware devices. The provided driver interfaces save program development time. Many libraries with a large number of functions for data acquisition, signal generation, mathematics, statistics, signal conditioning, analysis, etc., along with numerous graphical interface elements are provided in several LabVIEW package options. Another benefit of the LabVIEW environment is the platform independent nature of the Gcode (LabVIEW programming language), which is (with the exception of a few platform specific functions) portable between the different LabVIEW systems for different operating systems (Windows, MacOSX and Linux).

PROCEDURE: We will first examine the Signal Generation and Processing VI and run it. Change the frequencies and types of the input signals and notice how the display on the graph changes. Change the Signal Processing Window and Filter options. After you have examined the VI and the different options you can change, stop the VI by pressing the Stop button. 1.Select StartProgramsNational InstrumentsLabVIEW 8.0 LabVIEW to launch LabVIEW. The LabVIEW dialog box appears. 2.Select HelpFind Examples. The dialog box that appears lists and links to all available LabVIEW example VIs. 3.On the Browse Tab, select browse according to task. Choose Analyzing and Processing Signals, then Signal Processing, then Signal Generation and Processing.vi. This will open the Signal Generation and Processing VI Front Panel. Note You also can open the VI by clicking the Open VI button and navigating to labview\examples\apps\demos.llb\Signal Generation and Processing.vi.

Front Panel 4. Click the Run button on the toolbar, shown at left, to run this VI. This VI determines the result of filtering and windowing a generated signal. This example also displays the power spectrum for the generated signal. The resulting signals are displayed in the graphs on the front panel, as shown in the following figure. 5. Use the Operating tool, shown at left, to change the Input Signal and the Signal Processing, use the increment or decrement arrows on the control, and drag the pointer to the desired Frequency. 6.Press the More Info... button or [F5] to read more about the analysis functions. 7. Press the Stop button or [F4] to stop the VI.

Block Diagram 8.Select WindowShow Diagram or press the <CtrlE> keys to display the block diagram for the Signal Generation and Processing VI. This block diagram contains several of the basic block diagram elements, including subVIs, functions, and structures, which you will learn about later in this course. 9.Select WindowShow Panel or press the <CtrlE> keys to return to the Front Panel. 10.Close the VI and do not save changes.

EXPERIMENT NUMBER 1

AIM: To study CRO and measure the phase difference,frequency ratio of two signals, voltage of a signal and current flowing in the circuit.

APPARATUS: Two Channel CRO, Rheostat, capacitor and signal generator, connecting lead, trace paper.

THEORY: Cathode ray oscilloscope is one of the most useful electronic equipment, which gives a visual representation of electrical quantities, such as voltage and current waveforms in an electrical circuit. It utilizes the properties of cathode rays of being deflected by an electric and magnetic fields and of producing scintillations on a fluorescent screen. Since the inertia of cathode rays is very small, they are able to follow the alterations of very high frequency fields and thus electron beam serves as a practically inertia less pointer. When a varying potential difference is established across two plates between which the beam is passing, it is deflected and moves in accordance with the variation of potential difference. When this electron beam impinges upon a fluorescent screen, a bright luminous spot is produced there which shows and follows faithfully the variation of potential difference. When an AC voltage is applied to Y-plates, the spot of light moves on the screen vertically up and down in straight line. This line does not reveal the nature of applied voltage waveform. Thus to obtain the actual waveform, a timebase circuit is necessary. A time-base circuit is a circuit which generates a saw-tooth waveform. It causes the spot to move in the horizontal and vertical direction linearly with time. When the vertical motion of the spot produced by the Y-plates due to alternating voltage, is superimposed over the horizontal sweep produced by X-plates, the actual waveform is traced on the screen. It is well known that the phase difference between any two port network is measured by forming Lissajous figure using an oscilloscope (C R O ). Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is a versatile tool for the development of electronic circuits and systems. The CRO depends on the movement of an electron beam which is deflected on the X and Yaxis. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) is the heart of the oscilloscope. The CRT makes the applied signal visible by the deflection of a thin beam of electrons. Oscilloscope can be used in any field where a parameter can be converted into a proportional voltage for observation, eg. biology and medicine.

Measurements by using Oscilloscope Lissajous Method

Lissajous pattern results when sine waves are applied simultaneously to both pairs of the deflection plates. More accurate phase measurement. The oscilloscope is configured in the X-Y mode with one signal connected to horizontal input, the other to vertical input. the unknown frequency (fv) - vertical plate the known frequency (fh) - horizontal plate

1) Frequency Measurement To get the Lissajous figure, set the oscilloscope to the external sweep, and switch off the sync control. To determine the frequency from any Lissajous figure, use the formula : (for integral frequencies)

 For non-integral frequencies V h f num. of vertical loops f= fh

f=

x fh

Lissajous Patterns
2) Phase Measurement Oscilloscope can be used in the X-Y mode to determine the phase angle between two signals of the same frequency and amplitude. Phase difference: sin = where : = phase angle in degrees A = Y-axis intercept B = maximum vertical deflection

PROCEDURE: (A) Measurement of Phase difference Assemble the circuit as shown in diagram. Give inputs to CH I and CH II of the CRO. Keep the CRO in XY mode. Keep the rheostat at one end and note the pattern on the screen, trace it on trace paper and do calculations as shown. Change the resistance value and repeat the previous step. Repeat the above steps for different values of resistance. Calculate the phase difference in each case.

(B)

Measurement of frequency Apply the two sinusoidal signals from two function generators to CRO. Make the ground terminals common for these two generators.

Fix the frequency of one and change the frequency of the other signal and note the various patterns on the screen. Read the fixed frequency and trace the pattern on the trace paper. Calculate the frequency of the other signals as given below

(C)

Measurement of voltage

The voltage(deflection) sensitivity band switch (Y-plates) and time base band switch (Xplates) are adjusted such that a steady picture of the waveform is obtained on the screen.
The vertical height (l) i.e. peak-to-peak height is measured. When this peak-to-peak height (l) is multiplied by the voltage(deflection) sensitivity (n) i.e. volt/div, we get the peak-to-peak voltage (2Vo). From this we get the peak voltage (Vo). The rms voltage Vrms is equal to Vo/ 2 .