Quantication of stability improvement of a dump

through biological reclamation

S. K. CHAULYA*, R. S. SINGH, M. K. CHAKRABORTYand
B. K. SRIVASTAVA
Central Mining Research Institute, Dhanbad, 826 001, India (e-mail: dhanbad@yahoo.com)
(Received 25 August 1999; accepted 3 August 2000)
Abstract. An integrated study on biological stabilisation of a dump slope has indicated that
biological reclamation with grass and tree species should be considered for long term stability
of this coal mine dump in India. The grasses have greater soil binding capacityand help to control
soil erosion and improve dump stability. Native grasses such as Bamboo (Dendrocalmus strictus)
and Kashi (Saccharum spontaneum) are the important constituents of grass species which
can stabilise the dump slopes. Field observation of growth performance of grasses have indicated
that mean grass height, root depth and below-ground root biomass are185 cm (68), 45 cm (5)
and467 g m
2
(170), respectivelyafter threeyears ofgrass growthonMudidihoverburden dump
slope in India. The growth performance of tree species, namely Sisum (Dalbergia sisoo) and
Subabool (Leucena lecocephala), in terms of height, diameter increment, below-ground biomass
and root depth have shown mean values of 219 cm (94), 48 mm (6), 4.0 kg m
2
(1.5)
and 1 m (0.1), respectively. This acts as biological fertility which helps in root proliferation
and enhancement of dump stability. From the numerical modelling it is suggested that roots
of these grass and tree species have signicantly enhanced the factor of safety of dump from
1.4 to 1.8 and therefore have a positive role in maintaining long term stability.
Key words: biological reclamation, numerical modelling, overburden dump, slope stability.
Introduction
Opencast mining operations involve removal of huge quantities of overburden,
dumping and backlling of the excavated area. Substantial increase in rate of
accumulation of waste materials in recent years has resulted in greater height of
dumps to minimise ground cover area. Consequently, this has given rise to the
danger of dump failures, gully erosion and various associated environmental prob-
lems (Campbell, 1992).
Most mine dumps made by dragline result in intermediate slope angles equal to the
angle of repose. Poor handling practice has resulted in many overburden dumps
which are extremely difcult to revegetate. Mine spoil poses adverse conditions
for soil microbe and plant growth, due to its low organic matter and unfavourable
soil chemistry, poor structure (either coarse or compact) and high isolation from
vegetation (Singh et al., 1996).
* To whom correspondence should be addressed.
Geotechnical and Geological Engineering 18: 193^207, 2000. 193
# 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
Some of the disposal methods such as conical dumping by dragline have resulted in
poor conditions of the dump and are subjected to gully erosion and dump slope
failure in India (Chaulya, 1993). This results in air and water pollution, reduced
aesthetic values, blockage of pit access and lling of sumps, and thereby problems
of water pumping leading to ooding of the working area during rainy months.
In the rainy season, soil often creeps down due to the sandy loam texture of certain
overburden dump materials and prevents the establishment of early and late suc-
cessful plant species (Chaulya et al., 1999). Therefore, environmental management
of waste dumps is a challenging geotechnical and ecological problem to achieve
sustainable development of mining areas.
Revegetation is one of the widely used techniques for controlling erosion and
stabilisation of dump slope (Akers and Muter, 1974; Singh et al., 1996), and thereby
maintaining ecological equilibrium in the area (Jorgensen, 1994). The role of veg-
etation growth on dump slopes can be described as hydrogeological and mechanical
actions (Cherubini and Giasi, 1997). With respect to the hydrogeological action,
the roots of vegetation play an important role in enhancing dump stability by con-
trolling interception of rain water and evapotranspiration and the resulting pore
pressure reduction (Blight, 1987; Hussain, 1995). Mechanical action on the other
hand, reinforces the dump material by roots and enhances the shear strength of
the dump material. This action is closely related to root density, depth and strength
(Greenway, 1987; Jha, 1989; Suyama, 1992; Hall et al., 1994). However, quantitative
evaluation of biological stabilisation is still poorly understood and the subject
requires further study.
Therefore, to understand the stabilisation of dump by plant roots and to quan-
tify the improvement in stability, numerical modelling technique has been applied.
It is a more accurate method and has the exibility to assign various material
properties for different layers to simulate eld conditions (Naylor, 1982). The
present study deals with slope stabilisation through revegetation of a coal mine
overburden dump in India for the long term improvement of the degraded coal
mining environment.
Study Site
LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION
The site is located in Katras area of Bharat Coking Coal Limited. The dump is
situated in Dhanbad district of Bihar state of India with longitude and latitude
of 86

18
/
E and 23

48
/
N, respectively. The topography of the area is undulating.
The dump was formed by backlling in 1984 with a shovel-dumper combination.
Earlier mining operation was opencasting and now it is worked by underground
mining. Maximum dump height and slope angle are 30 m and 35.5

, respectively.
Figure 1 shows a 3D view of Mudidih dump on which the study has been con-
ducted.
194 S. K. CHAULYA ET AL.
CLIMATE
The climate of the area is dry tropical and a year can be divided into the cold winter
(December to February), a very hot summer (April to June) and a rainy season (July
to September). Mean minimum daily temperature within the annual cycle ranges
from 10^28

C and mean daily maximum temperature varies between 26

C and 45

C.
The average annual rainfall is 1376 mm of which 1107 mm occurs between late June
and September.
GEOLOGY AND SOIL
This site is located in the Jharia Coaleld, which is a member of the Damodar Valley
coal belt, occurring as an `outlier' in the Archaean basement area. The bedrock is
formed of medium to coarse grained sandstone and clay stone with ferruginous
bands and carbonaceous shales. The soil surface layer is 10^11 cm thick grey brown
to very pale brown sandy loam to clay loam with subangular blocky structure.
Ferromanganese concretions and clay content are found in the sub soil. The over-
burden consists of alluviul loose sand, gravel, shale and sandstone.
Methods
The methods adopted for the eld and laboratory studies are systematically pre-
sented in Figure 2. The dump selected for the study was surveyed by electronic
Figure 1. 3D view of the Mudidih dump.
QUANTIFICATION OF STABILITY IMPROVEMENT OF A DUMP 195
distance meter (EDM) for measuring dump geometry. Field and laboratory
studies were conducted to determine the physico-chemical properties of dump
material by standard methods (Table 1). In situ shear strength properties of
the dump material (before and after revegetation) were carried out by jack shear
test as described by Anand and Rao (1967) and Hribar et al. (1986), and sub-
sequently studied by Singh (1992) and Chaulya (1997). These tests have been
repeated ve times for both barren dump and reclaimed dump (separately for
dump material with grass roots and tree roots). The summary of the laboratory
test results of physico-chemical properties of dump materials is given in Table
2. The dump material consists of coarse sandy soil having a bulk density of
18.6 kN m
3
and the dump material lacks in nutrient content. Results of in-situ
Figure 2. Flow chart of the methods adopted for the study.
196 S. K. CHAULYA ET AL.
Table 1. Standard procedures adopted for dump material testing.
Variables Procedures References
Physical Parameters:
. Grain size distribution . Sieve analysis Jumikis (1995)
. Moisture content . Measurement of weight Desai (1986)
. Bulk density . Measurement of weight and volume Lambe (1977)
. Dry density . Constant weight method Afanasyer (1976)
. Specic gravity . Pycnometer Desai (1986)
. Void Ratio . Measurement of weight and volume Punmia (1987)
. Porosity . Measurement of weight and volume Jumikis (1965)
. Liquid limit . Liquid limit test apparatus Desai (1986)
. Plastic Limit . Thread (3 mm) test Desai (1986)
. Permeability . Falling head test Desai (1986)
Chemical Parameters:
. pH . Glass electrode AWWA (1992)
. Electrical Conductivity . Glass electrode AWWA (1992)
. Organic Carbon . Walkley-Black method Jackson (1958)
. Available-N . Devarda's alloy method Bremner (1965)
. Available-P . Olsen method Sparling et al. (1985)
. Available-K . Microkjeldahl method Jackson (1958)
. Heavy metals (Fe, Cu, . Atomic absorption AWWA (1992)
Mn, Zn) spectrophotometry
Table 2. Physico-chemical properties of dump materials.
Variables Unit Value
Physical Parameters:
Grain Size distribution (b4.75 mm Separated)
^ Sand % 71
^ Silt % 22
^ Clay % 7
Moisture Content % 3.95
Bulk Density kN m
3
17.26
Dry Density kN m
3
16.87
Specic Gravity 2.44
Void Ratio 0.52
Porosity % 34.21
Permeability cm sec
1
11.810
6
Chemical Parameters:
pH 7.52
Electrical Conductivity mmhos cm
1
0.073
Organic Carbon % 1.22
Available-N kg ha
1
89
Available-P kg ha
1
8.1
Available-K kg ha
1
131.2
Heavy metals
^ Fe mg g
1
6.5
^ Cu mg g
1
1.84
^ Mn mg g
1
10.05
^ Zn mg g
1
2.58
QUANTIFICATION OF STABILITY IMPROVEMENT OF A DUMP 197
shear (jack) tests are presented in Table 3. The results indicate a summary of ve
tests. It can be seen that grass and tree roots have signicantly enhanced the
shear strength properties of the dump material. The major change is in the
cohesion intercept from 64 kN m
2
to 108 and 134 kN m
2
with grass and trees,
respectively. Utilising the measured dump geometry and physical properties, stab-
ility analysis of different portions of dump slopes was carried out using Sarma's
(1979) limit equilibrium method. From the analysis, certain unstable portions
of dump slope were identied for regradation. The regradation was done through
manually terracing and benching as per the required design for stable dump
analysed by Sarma's (1979) limit equilibrium method and numerical modelling.
Then the regarded area was revegetated by grass species on the slope and tree
species on the at portions as per the methodology described below to analyse
the enhancement in long-term stability by the proliferation of roots in the dump
material.
Reconnaissance was carried out in and around the dump site for selection of suit-
able grass and tree species for biological reclamation of dump slope and at portions,
respectively. Dalbergia sisoo (Sisum) and Leucena leucocephala (Subabool) were
selected as the two best native leguminoseae tree species for planting on at portions
of the dump. These species were selected after seeing the best growth performance
and root development by pot experiments on the overburden dump material. Five
seeds of each tree species were each sown in polythene bags at 1.5 cm depth in
the rst week of May 1993 in the nursery to see the germination potential of
the seeds. A single plant was subsequently grown in each polythene bag for trans-
plantation on the at portions of the dump. Pits were dug on the at portions
of dump with a spacing of 22 m and the size of the pits was 303050 cm.
Top soil from the surrounding area was brought and mixed with farm-yard-manure
with a ratio of 5 : 1 and each pit was lled with this mixture. Tree saplings were
collected from the nursery and transplanted to the prepared pits after the onset
of rain during July 1993. Height and diameter increment have been measured after
3 years, i.e. July, 1996. The plant biomass (above and below ground) was also esti-
mated after three years by the harvesting technique (Jha, 1989). It was dried in
an oven at 80

C till the weight became constant. Growth performance of the tree

and grass species was analysed by statistical methods following Scedecor and
Cochran (1968).
Table 3. Results of in situ (jack) shear test.
Dump material with
Parameters Unit Natural dump material Grasses Trees
Cohesion kN m
2
64(4) 108(6) 134(8)
Friction Angle degree 32(1.5) 33.5(2.2) 34.2(2.7)
198 S. K. CHAULYA ET AL.
Dendrocalmus strictus (Bamboo) and Saccharum spontaneum (Kashi) which are
the two dominating native grass species were selected for revegetation of the dump
slope after pot experiments. Both the grasses have good soil binding capacity by
their roots. Grass tillers were collected from the laboratory plant nursery and trans-
planted on the dump slopes (0.250.25 spacing) after the onset of rain during July,
1993. Grass root biomass was estimated by digging monoliths (Jha, 1989) of
0.50.50.5 m at the time of peak biomass, i.e. October 1996. Physico-mechanical
properties of the dumps was also studied again in the month of October, 1996
in the laboratory for index and shear strength properties. To get the in situ shear
strength of the dump materials (with and without grasses and trees) in situ jack
shear tests were carried out at Mudidih site by the standard method (Anand
and Roa, 1967; Singh, 1992; Chaulya, 1997). Two models were formulated to simu-
late the eld conditions (with and without grasses on slope and trees on at portions
of the dump) and analysed by the Finite Difference Method (FDM).
Numerical modelling was carried out by assigning the dumps geometry, material
properties and boundary conditions to the simulated models. It was assumed that
the dump formation gravity loaded and no external load applied on the model.
Nodal displacements (i.e. movement of an element due to gravitational loading)
for each zone was calculated rst. From the nodal displacements, strains were cal-
culated and from the strains maximum shear stresses calculated. By utilizing the
Mohr^Coulomb constitutive relation, the factor of safety (FOS) was calculated
for each zone. Contours of FOS were drawn by the Kriging method for the whole
domain (Davis, 1973).
NUMERICAL MODELLING
Numerical modelling for the problem was simulated by the Finite Difference
Method (FDM). In this method, the whole domain is discretised into small
two-dimensional zones (elements) which are interconnected with their grid points
(nodes). Over each zone the differential equation of equilibrium is approximated.
This result in a system of simultaneous equations which are generally solved by
iteration methods. A two-dimensional FDM package, FLAC version 2.27
(developed by Itasca Consulting Group Inc., USA) was utilised for the analysis.
CONSTITUTIVE MODEL
The Mohr^Coulomb Plasticity Constitutive Model was used to represent the behav-
iour of dump materials. This model assumes an elastic, perfectly plastic solid
in-plane strain which conforms to a Mohr^Coulomb yield condition and non-
associated ow rule.
The yield surface is given by:
f = s
I
x
f
s
P
P(x
f
)
IaP
(1)
QUANTIFICATION OF STABILITY IMPROVEMENT OF A DUMP 199
and the plastic potential function is given by:
g = s
I
x
c
s
P
P(x
c
)
IaP
(2)
Where,
N=Rankine co-efcient where x
x
= (1 sin x)a(1 sinx) [x = f or c]
c=cohesion
f=friction angle
c=dilation angle
s
1
=major principal stress
s
2
=minor principal stress
The strain increments are assumed to be composed of elastic and plastic parts:
De
I
= De
e
I
De
p
I
(3)
De
P
= De
e
P
De
p
P
(4)
The plastic strain rates are given by the non associated ow rule:
e
p
I
= l dgads
I
= l (5)
e
p
P
= l dgads
P
= lx
c
(6)
where l is the multiplier which is determined from the stress state.
SHEAR STRENGTH PROPERTIES
Shear strength properties of dump material play a vital role in dump stability. Deter-
mination of reliable shear strength values is a critical part of any dump slope design
and small variations in strength can result in a signicant change in the dump slope
stability. For most of the evaluation regarding the stability on dump slope, the
Mohr^Coulomb failure law was used. This is expressed as:
t = stnf (7)
Where,
t = Shear strength, kN m
2
;
c = Cohesive strength, kN m
2
;
s = Normal stress, kN m
2
and
f = Angle of internal friction, degree.
200 S. K. CHAULYA ET AL.
FACTOR OF SAFETY
The critical approach for evaluating the stability of slopes is to evaluate the factor of
safety (FOS). The factor of safety is generally dened as the ratio of available shear
strength of the dump material to the shear resistance required to maintain
equilibrium. The factor of safety is then expressed as:
FOS =
Shear strength available to resist sliding
Shear stress mobilized along failure surface
(8)
FOS may also be dened as that factor by which the shear strength parameters must
be reduced in order to bring the potential failure mass into a state of limiting
equilibrium. When the material has both cohesion (c) and friction (f), it is usual
to apply the same factor to c and tan f. Denoting the reduced parameters by
an asterisk (*) and the factor by l:

+
= al
tn f
+
= tnfal
l=FOS, when c* and f* are associated with incipient failure.
FORMULATION OF MODELS
Stability analysis by the limit equilibrium method (Sarma, 1979) had revealed that
the dump was unstable in its original geometry at the place demarcated in Figure
1. Total height of this portion of this dump was measured to be 26 m with an average
overall slope angle of 35

. The factor of safety (FOS) for the portion of the dump had
calculated to be 1.15. Therefore, the unstable portion of the dump was regraded by
terracing and benching as shown in Figure 3. Overall dump slope angle of the
benched portion was 31

while the individual slope angle and the height of the

two benches were 33

and 13 m, respectively with a berm width of 3 m.

Observation in the eld had indicated that the average maximum depths of grass
roots and tree roots were 0.5 m and 1 m, respectively after 3 years of revegetation.
To study the effect of grass on slopes and tree plantations on at portions of
the regraded dump area the following two models were formulated and run
separately:
(i) The whole domain was assigned with same properties as measured in the eld to
simulate the natural dump material, i.e. without grasses and trees (Figure 4); and
(ii) A modied layer with c and fvalues as measured in the eld of 0.5 m thick along
the slope and 1 m along the at potions of the dump have been assigned to rep-
resent dump with grasses and trees (Figure 5).
Geometry of the regraded portions of the dump has been considered as input model
for numerical modelling (Figure 4). Base length of 90 m has selected considering
QUANTIFICATION OF STABILITY IMPROVEMENT OF A DUMP 201
Figure 3. Geometry of the regarded portion of the dump.
Figure 4. Geometry of the dump used for numerical modelling with boundary conditions.
202 S. K. CHAULYA ET AL.
the geometry of the dump and inuence of stress. Whole domain has been discretised
into two different size of two-dimensional elements. Near the slope (area of interest)
small elements of 0.50.5 m size and for the rest area 0.52 m size elements have
been selected. The boundary conditions applied include roller boundary (i.e. dis-
placement in vertical direction is allowed and horizontal direction is xed) along
the rear side of the dump and xed boundary (i.e. no displacement by horizontal
and vertical directions) along the base which are shown in Figure 4.
Results and Discussion
The main input parameters for the study were dump material properties (e.g. c and
f), dump geometry and boundary conditions. All these parameters have been gen-
erated by eld study as described earlier. Among all the parameters, determination
of actual eld data for critical dump material properties (c and f) are very difcult
and results of the stability analysis is very sensitive to the accuracy of the input
Figure 5. Area of interest with dierent dump material properties.
QUANTIFICATION OF STABILITY IMPROVEMENT OF A DUMP 203
parameters. The overall factor of safety calculated by the nite different method of
modelling was 1.4. This compares with a value of 1.5 obtained using Sarma's (1979)
limit equilibrium method.
Field study of growth performance of grasses has indicated that mean grass height,
root depth and below-ground root biomass are 185 cm (68), 45 cm (5) and
467 g m
2
(170), respectively after three years of grass growth on the dump slope.
The root biomass was calculated for total depth of roots. As mentioned earlier,
the development of roots helps to stabilise dump material by hydrogeological
and mechanical actions, which are closely related to root density, depth and biomass
(Cherubini and Giasi, 1997). The value of below-ground biomass is within the range
of 455 g m
2
(43) which is reported from the natural succession of plant species on
a 12 year old dump slope of a dry tropical coal mine spoil in India (Jha, 1989). Root
length and below-ground biomass of tree species varied from 0.75 to 1.1 m and 2.5 to
5.5 kg m
2
, respectively.
Growth performance of trees has indicated that Sisum and Subabool are the
fastest grown tree species in Mudidih site after three years of growth. Sisum has
contributed 5.4 kg (0.6)/tree as a dry weight plant biomass, while the Subabool
has contributed only 2.3 kg/tree of plant biomass. This plant biomass will also con-
tribute to the fertility of the soil and ultimately productivity of the revegetated over-
burden dump. Consequently the proliferation of roots takes place on the dump
which ultimately enhances the stability of the dump.
Results of the present numerical modelling study have indicated that maximum
displacement of elements (up to 9 mm) occurred near the crest of the dump i.e.
the top portion of slope. Therefore, any dump deformation monitoring programme
should be planned near the crest of the dump slopes as dump failure generally occurs
after signicant movement over a long time (British Columbia Mine Waste Rock Pile
Research Committee, 1991). Thus for large dump with large slope angle and height,
continuous monitoring of dump deformation is essential and wireline extensometer
with continuous recording facility may be used for this. Wireline extensometer is
the simplest type of equipment having easily readable and adjustable features
(Chaulya, 1997).
From the stress analysis of the dump slope it was obsevered that grass and tree
roots have reduced the stress concentrations near the surface of dump slope in com-
parison to barren slope. Contours of Mohr-Coulomb FOS is illustrated in Figure
6 for the dump without and with vegetation. Figure 6 shows that the FOS was
enhanced from 1.4 to 1.8 due to plantation of grasses on the dump slope and trees
on the at portions, and thereby enhancement of shear strength of dump material
by the root matrix. The path of critical failure surface has also been changed. This
is because of the mechanical action of the tree and grass roots, which reinforces
the dump material by roots and enhances the shear strength of the dump material
(Cherubini and Giasi, 1997; Hall et al., 1994). Therefore, binding of the dump sur-
face together with vegetation and increases in shear strength have lead to an
enhanced factor of safety at depth. The depth of critical failure surface (i.e. the sur-
204 S. K. CHAULYA ET AL.
face along which dump failure occurs) increases for the case of the slope with grasses
and trees compared to the barren slope. This is also an important factor for main-
taining long term stability of a coal mine overburden dump.
Conclusions
It may be concluded from the analysis that grass and tree roots play a very crucial
role in the stabilisation of coal mine overburden dump slopes. It creates mechanical
reinforcement of dump material by the proliferation of roots. Shear strength of
the dump material is also enhanced by the root matrix which in turn increases
the long term stability of dump slopes. The factor of safety was enhanced from
1.4 for the barren slope to 1.8 for the case with grass and trees planted on the slope.
On most occasions mine dump failure occurs after signicant deformation with
prior warning signals. Results of numerical modelling analysis of slope stability have
indicated that the maximum deformation occurs near the crest region. Therefore,
any deformation monitoring programme should be conducted near the crest of
dumps.
Figure 6. Factor of safety for the barren and reclaimed dump.
QUANTIFICATION OF STABILITY IMPROVEMENT OF A DUMP 205
Acknowledgements
Authors are thankful to Director, Central Mining Research Institute (CMRI),
Dhanbad, for giving permission to publish this paper. Thanks are also due to
Dr. B. K. Tewary, Dr. M. Prasad and Dr. V. K. Singh, Scientists, CMRI, Dhanbad,
for their immense support during the eld study and laboratory analysis. Grateful
acknowledgment is also due to the Ministry of Coal, Government of India, New
Delhi, for sponsoring this research work under the project entitled `Environmental
Management of Overburden Dumps'. Finally, the help and cooperation extended
by the management of Mudidih mine during the eld study is sincerely
acknowledged.
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