Academy of Management Learning and Education, 2004, Vol. 3, No. 1, 726.

........................................................................................................................................................................

A Model of Business School Students Acceptance of a Web-Based Course Management System

LUIS L. MARTINS Georgia Institute of Technology FRANZ WILLI KELLERMANNS Mississippi State University As business schools increasingly seek to incorporate Web-based information and communication technologies into the instructional process, there is a need for rigorous research into the factors affecting the successful integration of these technologies into management education. A key factor identified in prior management education research as critical to the successful implementation of such instructional technologies is student acceptance. We use the literatures on management education, technology acceptance, and change implementation to develop and test a model predicting business school students acceptance of a Web-based course management system. Arguing that such a system which transitions traditional course-management processes to the Web constitutes an instance of a process change, we examine the role played by various change-enabling factors as well as change-motivating factors in students acceptance of the system. We find that perceived incentive to use the system, perceived faculty encouragement to use the system, and peer encouragement to use the system are positively related to perceived usefulness of the system, which in turn is positively related to student acceptance of the system. We also find that awareness of the capabilities of the system, perceived availability of technical support, and prior experience with computer and Web use are positively related to perceived ease of use of the system, which in turn is positively related to student acceptance of the system. Implications for management education research and practice are discussed.

........................................................................................................................................................................
One of the most significant trends in management education today is the incorporation of the worldwide Web (the Web) into the educational process (Chen, Newman, Newman, & Rada, 1998; Dillon, 2000; Dos Santos & Wright, 2001; Green & Gilbert, 1995; Ives & Jarvenpaa, 1996). Web-based instructional technologies present both threats and opportunities for business schools. The threats come mainly in the form of potential skill obsolescence in the instructional techniques and technologies needed to educate an increasingly technology-savvy business school student population, and from increased competition for students from on-line universities offering management programs (e.g., Bilimoria, 1997; Ives & Jarvenpaa, 1996). The opportunities presented by using the Web include the potential to leverage the brand of a business school to reach students beyond a certain geographic area through online course offerings, the enhancement of traditional face-to-face courses by using the Web to virtually extend the classroom experience, and improvements in efficiency and student service (e.g., Dos Santos & Wright, 2001; Parikh & Verma, 2002; Salmon, 2000). Thus, it is no surprise that business schools have been investing heavily in new Web-based instructional technologies (Dos
7

We thank Allen Bluedorn and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on this article.

Academy of Management Learning and Education

March

Santos & Wright, 2001; Ives & Jarvenpaa, 1996; Leidner & Jarvenpaa, 1995; Shrivastava, 1999). The Web has been incorporated into management education in two principal ways. First, many business schools have started offering on-line courses, in which all or most instruction is conducted over the Web. Second, business schools are enhancing traditional classroom instruction using a Web-based course management system (CMS), such as WebCT or Blackboard. A CMS is a collection of information and communication technologies, including bulletin boards, chat rooms, content repositories, e-mail, instant messaging, and document-sharing systems, that together transform several paper-based, synchronous, and faceto-face instructional processes into paperless, asynchronous, on-line ones. The use of the Web for on-line management education has received the majority of research attention, primarily with the objectives of comparing it to traditional management education (e.g., Alavi, 1994; Scifres, Gundersen, & Behara, 1998), and of understanding the factors that lead to effective on-line instruction in management courses (e.g., Arbaugh, 2000; Salmon, 2000). However, a growing body of research is now focusing on the latter application, that of using a Web-based course management system, with the objective of advancing our understanding of the factors that lead to successful implementation of CMSs in traditional classroom-based management courses (e.g., Bilimoria, 1997; Human, Kilbourne, Clark, Shriberg, & Cunningham, 1999; Jones & Rice, 2000; Meisel & Marx, 1999; Miesing, 1998; Parikh & Verma, 2002). Developing such an understanding is important because anecdotal and research evidence suggest that this latter form of incorporation of the Web into management education will likely become a dominant concern for management educators at least in the near term (e.g., Cohen & Lippert, 1999; Dos Santos & Wright, 2001; Miesing, 1998; Parikh & Verma, 2002; Shrivastava, 1999). Management education researchers have found that purely on-line instruction is a useful but insufficient pedagogic tool for teaching the complex interpersonal, conceptual, and analytical skills that form the core of a management education (e.g., Bigelow, 1999; Dos Santos & Wright, 2001; Miesing, 1998; Salmon, 2000; Scifres et al., 1998). For example, Cohen and Lippert (1999: 745) commented that computer-based instruction may be useful for skills-based training but may not be useful for creative-thinking instruction or general management education. Thus, several researchers have suggested that rather than replacing traditional with on-line instruction, the benefits of both instructional techniques could be realized through

mixed-mode instruction in which face-to-face instruction is enhanced by using the Web (Bigelow, 1999; Bilimoria, 1997; Dos Santos & Wright, 2001; Human et al., 1999; Miesing, 1998; Parikh & Verma, 2002; Salmon, 2000). Such a mixed mode of interaction usually consists of traditional classroom instruction augmented by using a CMS that enables students toamong other things continue discussion of course concepts and cases outside the classroom using a bulletin board; conduct group work on-line through chat rooms; take tests on-line; and access taped lectures, handouts, assignments, records, and grades on-line (e.g., Bigelow, 1999; Dos Santos & Wright, 2001; Fredickson, 1999; Shrivastava, 1999). Researchers have argued that management education in particular, could benefit from the use of some of these technologies in conjunction with traditional instructional methods (Bilimoria, 1997; Dos Santos & Wright, 2001: 53; Salmon, 2000). Transferring administrative and purely informational aspects of instruction to the CMS frees up class time for students to work on interpersonal and communication skills, which are critical to success in a management career and which have been found to be best developed through face-to-face instructional methods (e.g., Bigelow, 1999; Dos Santos & Wright, 2001; Scifres et al., 1998). The use of a CMS as a supplement to traditional management courses has also been found to increase students participation in discussion of cases and course concepts and to lead to more thorough and higher quality discussion than in traditional classrooms alone (Bilimoria, 1997; Dos Santos & Wright, 2001). Management education researchers have also demonstrated that by encouraging an active learning process in which students communicate virtually and asynchronously, the use of a CMS can help develop technological and communications skills that prepare students for computer-mediated interaction in the workplace (Meisel & Marx, 1999: 719). A CMS can also be used to reduce the number of in-class lectures and face-to-face group meetings in part-time and executive MBA courses, which enroll a large percentage of the students in U.S. business schools (Dos Santos & Wright, 2001). Whereas these potential benefits have generated enthusiasm for using CMSs among business school administrators and some faculty, researchers have found mixed responses from students to their use in management courses (Arbaugh, 2000; Bilimoria, 1997; Leidner & Jarvenpaa, 1995; Miesing, 1998; Salmon, 2000). For example, in reporting findings of an experiment using a CMS to promote out-of-class discussion of concepts in a business ethics course, Miesing (1998: 763) la-

2004

Martins and Kellermanns

mented, Students did not participate as greatly as I had hoped. My vision of eager students debating outside of class never materialized. A similar lack of students acceptance of Web-based enhancements to management courses has been reported by other researchers (e.g., Scifres et al., 1998). On the other hand, Bilimoria (1997) found a high degree of student acceptance of a CMS in her required MBA organizational behavior course, as did Parikh and Verma (2002) in several undergraduate business courses. Given the mixed findings on this important success factor in the implementation of a CMS, management education researchers have called for more, and more theoretically grounded, research on the factors that affect student responses to such systems in management courses (e.g., Arbaugh, 2000; Bilimoria, 1997; Miesing, 1998). As with any implementation of a new information technology, student acceptance and use of a CMS are prerequisite to successful implementation of such a system. The acceptance of a CMS by students is not a significant issue for purely online courses, because the Web-based process is the primary, and usually only, method of course delivery for such courses. However, in the case of mixed-mode courses that use a CMS as a supplement to in-class instruction, students often have the option of reverting to the face-to-face process that the CMS is designed to replace. Thus, in mixed-mode courses, student acceptance of the system is critical to the successful transition or extension of certain activities and processes to the CMS, and thus to the successful incorporation of the Web into the educational experience (Arbaugh, 2000; Fredickson, 1999; Lightfoot, 2000; Miesing, 1998). Whereas use of a CMS could be simply mandated by a course instructor, prior research on the use of mandated information systems suggests that such an approach to implementation, while producing some use of the system, would likely not lead to full utilization of its capabilities (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). Thus, an implementation approach that is focused on not just requiring use of a CMS, but also on generating students acceptance of the system is likely to produce better overall results than a simple mandate to use the system (Agarwal & Prasad, 1997; Hartwick & Barki, 1994; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). In this study, we develop and test a model of student acceptance of a CMS which was implemented as a supplement to the traditional in-class course-delivery method in several management courses. In developing the model, we draw on the literatures on management education, technology acceptance, and organizational change. The core of the research model is an application of the Tech-

nology Acceptance Model (TAM), which has been used in prior research in management education (Arbaugh, 2000), and explains user acceptance of an information system as a function of users perceptions of usefulness and ease of use of the system (e.g., Agarwal & Prasad, 1997; Davis, 1989; Lederer, Maupin, Sena, & Zhuang, 2000; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996). We build on the TAM by using the literatures on change implementation (e.g., Bikson, Gutek, & Mankin, 1987; Judson, 1991; Kotter, 1995) and on implementation of new instructional technologies in management education (e.g., Arbaugh, 2000; Bilimoria, 1997; Meisel & Marx, 1999; Miesing, 1998; Parikh & Verma, 2002; Salmon, 2000). With the strong push by business schools to incorporate the Web into their courses, management education researchers as well as academic administrators are seeking to develop an understanding of the factors that affect the successful implementation of CMSs. Our study seeks to contribute to building such an understanding by drawing on established research streams in the areas of management education, technology acceptance, and change implementation, to develop and test a model of students acceptance of such CMSs in a management education context. Thus, it answers calls for theoretically grounded research into an often-neglected or taken-for-granted aspect of successful implementation of Web-based instructional technologies into management education, namely, student acceptance (e.g., Arbaugh, 2000; Miesing, 1998; Parikh & Verma, 2002; Salmon, 2000). The article proceeds as follows: In the next section we develop our research model and hypotheses. In the following sections we discuss our research methodology and results. In the final section we discuss our findings and their implications for future research and practice. THEORY AND HYPOTHESES In this section, we first derive predictions regarding students acceptance of a CMS based on the TAM. We then build on the TAM, using the literatures on management education and change implementation, to derive our final research model. The TAM and Student Acceptance of a CMS We based our research model on the TAM because it is a well-accepted, theoretically grounded, general model of user acceptance of new information technologies, which has also been used in prior management education research (Arbaugh, 2000). Originally proposed by Davis (1989) the TAM is an application of the theory of reasoned action (Fish-

10

Academy of Management Learning and Education

March

bein & Ajzen, 1975). It explains user acceptance of an information system as a function of two key user perceptions: the perceived usefulness of the system and the perceived ease of its use (Davis, 1989; Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989; Karahanna & Straub, 1999; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996). In TAM research, user acceptance is defined as an interlinked combination of a positive attitude toward the system, behavioral intention to use the system, and use of the system (Davis et al., 1989; Igbaria, 1993; Taylor & Todd, 1995b). Of these variables, there is relative consistency in the definition and measurement of the latter two in the literature. However, the definition and measurement of user attitude toward the system tends to vary across studies, with the most common definition as user satisfaction with the system (Compeau, Higgins, & Huff, 1999; Davis et al., 1989; Igbaria, 1993). In this study, we conceptualize attitude toward the system as a combination of student satisfaction with the system and student preference for the system over the traditional instructional processes it replaces. The additional dimension of attitude which assesses student preference for the system captures attitudes toward the system as a new process for conducting tasks relative to the traditional instructional processes it replaces, that is, it captures attitude toward a CMS as a change of process. Because a CMS transitions certain traditional instructional processes to the Web, the extent to which users prefer the system to the processes it replaces is an important aspect of attitude toward the system. According to the TAM, greater perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of a system lead to more favorable attitude toward the system, which leads to greater behavioral intention to use the system, which in turn results in greater use of the system (Adams, Nelson, & Todd, 1992; Davis et al., 1989; Lin & Lu, 2000; Szajna, 1996; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). In addition, perceived ease of use of the system is predicted to be positively related to perceived usefulness of the system. Of the links proposed in the TAM, prior research in management education has tested the relationships of perceived usefulness and ease of use with student satisfaction in several online MBA courses and found that student satisfaction was positively related to perceived usefulness but not related to ease of use (Arbaugh, 2000). Applying the TAM to the current context, we propose the following hypotheses predicting student acceptance of a CMS: Hypothesis 1: Perceived usefulness of a CMS will be positively related to a students attitude toward the system. Hypothesis 2: Perceived ease of use of a CMS will be positively related to a students attitude toward the system.

Hypothesis 3: A students attitude toward a CMS will be positively related to the students intention to use the system. Hypothesis 4: A students intention to use a CMS will be positively related to the students use of the system. Hypothesis 5: Perceived ease of use of a CMS will be positively related to perceived usefulness of the system. Change Management and Student Acceptance of a CMS in a Management Education Context As noted above, the two core predictors of acceptance of a system in TAM research are perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of a system (Davis, 1989; Davis et al., 1989; Karahanna & Straub, 1999; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996). The TAM proposes that various external variables may influence a users perceptions of the usefulness and ease of use of a system (Davis et al., 1989). Research on such external variables has extended the TAM using a variety of literatures, such as self-efficacy (e.g., Taylor & Todd, 1995b; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996); motivation (Venkatesh, 2000); demographics (Gefen & Straub, 1997; Igbaria, 1993; Venkatesh & Morris, 2000); and training (Al-Gahtani & King, 1999; Igbaria, 1993). In this study, we seek to extend the TAM using the literatures on management education and change implementation to predict students perceptions of the usefulness and ease of use of a CMS in a management education context. The introduction of a CMS migrates some traditional instructional processes to a central Web-based system. Therefore, from a students perspective, such a system constitutes a change in the instructional process. For example, a CMS changes certain activities such as taking quizzes and discussing course topics from traditional inclass processes to Web-based processes. Thus, examining a new CMS as a process change is likely to provide a fruitful avenue for extending the TAM to develop a model predicting students acceptance of the system. The literature on change implementation, including the literature on resistance to change, suggests that a change targets level of acceptance of a change is a function of the targets motivation and ability to change (e.g., Kotter, 1995; Lewin, 1951). Thus, in this study we focused on change motivating factors (change motivators) and change enabling factors (change enablers) influencing student acceptance of a CMS. As we discuss below, we propose that the change motivators will positively influence perceived usefulness of a system and that the change enablers will posi-

2004

Martins and Kellermanns

11

tively influence perceived ease of use of the system, thus affecting user acceptance of the system. Our research model is presented in Figure 1. In developing the research model, we incorporated prior research that has examined some of the change motivators and enablers in the context of implementing new information technologies in management education. Also, in selecting indicators of change motivators and enablers, we used variables that have been examined in previous studies using the TAM (e.g., Taylor & Todd, 1995a; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000) and in other studies of

information systems implementation (e.g., Griffith, 1996; Hartwick & Barki, 1994; Karahanna & Straub, 1999; Taylor & Todd, 1995b; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000) to provide ready linkages to the technology implementation literature. Change Motivators The change implementation literature suggests that several extrinsic and intrinsic factors may motivate change targets to accept a change. The extrinsic change motivators that are commonly stud-

FIGURE 1 Theoretical Model

12

Academy of Management Learning and Education

March

ied are implicit and explicit coercion, supervisory encouragement and support, and peer encouragement, along with user participation in the development of the change program (Bikson et al., 1987; Goodman & Griffith, 1991; Griffith, 1996; Judson, 1991; Kotter, 1995; Leidner & Jarvenpaa, 1995; Leonard-Barton & Deschamps, 1988; Leonard-Barton & Kraus, 1985). However, of these variables, user participation is less relevant in our research context because CMSs are developed by outside vendors, and was, therefore, excluded from the model. We used perceived incentive to use the system (Compeau et al., 1999; Henry & Stone, 1997), perceived faculty encouragement to use the system (Igbaria, 1993; Taylor & Todd, 1995b), and peer encouragement to use the system (Karahanna, Straub, & Chervany, 1999; Taylor & Todd, 1995b) as extrinsic motivators affecting perceived usefulness of the system. When a student perceives that using the system will have implications for his or her performance in a class, he or she will be likely to perceive the system as being useful, and will show greater acceptance of it. In keeping with this logic, management education researchers have suggested that in implementing a CMS, it is important for instructors to require a certain level of use of the CMS for activities such as discussing cases on bulletin boards (Dos Santos & Wright, 2001). Also, because students seek the approval of their instructors and peers, perceived encouragement by their instructor and peers to use a CMS functions as social persuasive information that may motivate students to perceive the system as useful and foster its acceptance. This line of reasoning is consistent with prior research in management education that has found that greater instructor encouragement for student interaction in on-line MBA courses was related to greater student satisfaction with the course (Arbaugh, 2000). Intrinsic factors motivating change acceptance include expectations regarding the change and intrinsic interest in the change (Griffith, 1996; Jackson, Chow, & Leitch, 1997). We captured these two constructs using a surrogate construct assessing students awareness of the capabilities of the CMS (Nambisan, Agarwal, & Tanniru, 1999). Our reasoning was that such awareness of the systems capabilities would provide knowledge of its benefits over traditional processes, thus highlighting the usefulness of the system. Consistent with this logic, prior research in management education has found that once students have used it [i.e., a bulletin board, which is a part of a CMS], they pester faculty in other courses to provide such a facility for their classes (Dos Santos & Wright, 2001: 59).

Because the extrinsic motivators may affect significant outcomes of value to a student (e.g., performance in the course, or the instructors and peers approval), and the intrinsic motivator may drive the student to view the system as beneficial, we expect these motivators to positively affect a students perceptions of the CMSs usefulness: Hypothesis 6a: Perceived performance incentives to use the CMS will be positively related to a students perceived usefulness of the system. Hypothesis 6b: Perceived faculty encouragement to use the CMS will be positively related to a students perceived usefulness of the system. Hypothesis 6c: Perceived peer encouragement to use the CMS will be positively related to a students perceived usefulness of the system. Hypothesis 6d: Awareness of the capabilities of the CMS will be positively related to a students perceived usefulness of the system. The implementation of a CMS in a course could be viewed as a case of mandatory system use. In prior research, the TAM and the theory of reasoned action have shown good predictive power in explaining user acceptance in mandatory-use settings (e.g., Agarwal & Prasad, 1997; Hartwick & Barki, 1994; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). This might be expected because even if use of a system is mandated, individuals can still vary in the intensity with which they use it. Venkatesh & Davis (2000) have shown that in mandatory-use settings, perceived social norms have a direct positive effect on users attitude toward the system in addition to their indirect effect through perceived usefulness of the system. Applying this finding to the current context, we expect that in our model perceived peer encouragement will have a direct positive effect on a students attitude toward a CMS. Hypothesis 6e: Perceived peer encouragement to use the CMS will be positively related to a students attitude toward the system. Change Enablers The change implementation literature suggests several factors that enable change targets to accept a change, focusing on access to training and support, and access to tools necessary to operate in the changed contextincluding technology, ability, and skills (Bikson et al., 1987; Compeau & Higgins, 1995; Igbaria, Zinatelli, Cragg, & Cavayne, 1997; Judson, 1991; Lederer et al., 2000;

2004

Martins and Kellermanns

13

Nambisan et al., 1999; Webster & Hackley, 1997). Essentially, these change-enabling factors facilitate user acceptance of a change by ameliorating resource-related and knowledge-related concerns that change targets tend to be faced with when a change is implemented (e.g., Griffith, 1996; Kotter, 1995). Therefore, in this research, we focused on students ease of access to the system (e.g., Lederer et al., 2000) and the perceived availability of technical support for the new system (e.g., Igbaria, 1993; Igbaria et al., 1997) as change enablers addressing students resource-related concerns; and on students prior experience with computer and Web use (e.g., Agarwal & Prasad, 1999; Jackson et al., 1997) and students perceived self-efficacy in using the Web (e.g., Compeau et al., 1999; Torkzadeh & Koufteros, 1994) as change enablers addressing students knowledge-related concerns. When a change is implemented, resource supports of change targets have been found to increase their ease of operating in a changed context (Griffith, 1996; Judson, 1991; Leonard-Barton & Deschamps, 1988), which in the current case is ease of use of a new CMS. Prior information systems research suggests that ready access to a new system and the availability of technical support to aid users in using the new system are important resource-supports that may enhance users perceived ease of use of the system (Igbaria et al., 1997; Lederer et al., 2000; Thompson, Higgins, & Howell, 1991). Similarly, prior research in management education suggests that lack of access to the right technology to appropriately utilize a CMS may inhibit acceptance of the system (Miesing, 1998), and that for a CMS to be successful, it is important to provide students with easy access to the necessary technology and training (Bilimoria, 1997; Dos Santos & Wright, 2001; Human et al., 1999). A major concern that influences change targets acceptance of a change is uncertainty about their knowledge and competencies for functioning in the changed context, which in the current case is competency in using a CMS. Prior research on information system implementation suggests that in the absence of system specific experience, users prior experience with information technology and their perceptions of competence or self-efficacy in using information technology in general are important knowledge-related variables affecting perceived ease of use of a new system (Compeau & Higgins, 1995; Igbaria, 1993; Venkatesh, 2000; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996). Similarly, prior research on management education suggests that poor facility with the Web may cause students difficulties in using a CMS (Miesing, 1998; Salmon, 2000). There-

fore, we propose that the greater a students prior experience in using computers and the Web and the greater a students perceived self-efficacy in using the Web, the greater will be his or her perceived ease of use of a CMS: Hypothesis 7a: A students access to the CMS will be positively related to the students perceived ease of use of the system. Hypothesis 7b: The perceived availability of technical support for the CMS will be positively related to a students perceived ease of use of the system. Hypothesis 7c: The extent of a students prior experience with using computers and the Web will be positively related to a students perceived ease of use of the CMS. Hypothesis 7d: A students perceived self-efficacy with using the Web will be positively related to the students perceived ease of use of the CMS. METHOD The CMS we focused on was WebCT, which is in wide use at universities and other educational organizations throughout the United States and in several other countries. Using this system, students can access course materials and assignments, take tests or quizzes, access the course syllabus, participate in discussion groups, and send private messages to other course participants. Students can also access the university library, the office of the registrar, and semester grade reports. If the instructor subscribes to supplemental course packages, the student can access them for a fee. WebCT also provides access to other resources such as job or internship information, graduate school information, and financial aid information. Instructors can manage student records and post course materials on-line, moderate on-line discussions and chats, add links to Web pages, or even set up conferences for the students to interview experts. In addition, the system enables instructors to monitor a variety of metrics such as the extent to which a student participates in on-line discussions (for a detailed description of the WebCT CMS please visit www.webct.com). Sample Data for the study were collected using a questionnaire survey administered in class to 243 students registered in nine business courses at a large university located in the northeastern United States.

14

Academy of Management Learning and Education

March

Instructors for all courses surveyed required students to use WebCT to obtain course material (e.g., readings and slides), and access course assignments and grade information. In addition to these required uses, all instructors indicated that they encouraged (but did not require) students to use the other functions of WebCT, including posting comments on discussion lists. All instructors were early adopters of WebCT at the business school in which the study was conducted. The same facilitator administered the survey in all courses. Respondents were instructed not to fill out the survey if they had already filled it out in another course (there were four such cases). We administered the survey in April 2001, one month before the end of the spring semester. To avoid time effects, we administered the survey within the same week and only in courses that did not have an exam in the prior week, which might have affected use of WebCT. Measures We measured most constructs in the research model using adapted versions of previously validated scales and constructed measurement scales for constructs that we could not find existing measures for in the literature. We assessed all measures for content validity using expert judges and for internal validity using a pilot study (Kerlinger, 1986). We modified problematic items as necessary. Factor and reliability analyses on the final measures used indicated that all measurement scales demonstrated strong internal validity (Cronbachs alpha .80 for all scales). A list of items and the Cronbachs alpha for each scale are presented in Appendix A. Except where noted, all items were measured using 7-point Likert-type scales. Perceived Usefulness and Ease of Use We measured perceived usefulness of the system and perceived ease of use of the system using scales developed by Davis (Davis et al., 1989). These scales have been validated in numerous studies on the TAM (e.g., Venkatesh, 2000). Student Acceptance of the System We measured student attitude toward the system as a composite scale made up of two subscales: satisfaction with the system and preference for the system over the traditional process. As discussed above, we used this expanded conception of user attitude toward an information system to address

the concern expressed in prior research that user satisfaction with a system alone is not an adequate assessment of attitude toward the system (Al-Gahtani & King, 1999; Melone, 1990). We measured satisfaction with the system by modifying five items from the computer attitude scale (Loyd & Gressard, 1984). We developed a new 7-item measurement scale of preference for the system over the traditional process, based on input from 40 students using WebCT, who were not participants in the study. We used expert judges familiar with TAM research to assess content validity of the scale and assessed the internal validity of the scale in a pilot study of 25 students (Kerlinger, 1986). Based on feedback from the expert judges and on the pilot test, we re-worded and deleted items as necessary to arrive at the final scale. We measured students intention to use the system using a 4-item scale comprised of items used in prior research (Davis et al., 1989; Taylor & Todd, 1995b; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996). To measure use of the system, we asked respondents to self-report the number of hours they used WebCT in an average week (e.g., Adams et al., 1992; Compeau et al., 1999; Davis, 1989). We acknowledge possible problems with self-reports of use of a system (Straub, Limayem, & Krahnna-Evaristo, 1995), but self-report measures have been found in past research to correlate highly with actual usage (Taylor & Todd, 1995b). Due to a skewed distribution, the measure of use of the system was log-transformed.

Change Motivators The scale measuring perceived incentive to use the system, which assessed a students belief that use of WebCT would influence his or her grade, was adapted from measures used by Henry and Stone (1997) and Compeau and Higgins (1995) to assess user perceptions of rewards from using an information system. Perceived faculty encouragement to use the system was measured using items adapted from studies by Taylor and Todd (1995b) and Igbaria (1990). It assesses the extent to which a student perceives encouragement to use WebCT from his or her course instructor. Peer encouragement to use the system was measured using a scale adapted from a study by Taylor and Todd (1995b). It assesses the extent to which the respondent felt encouraged by fellow students to use WebCT. Awareness of the capabilities of the system was measured using items adapted from a study by Nambisan, Agarwal, and Tanniru (1999). This assesses the extent to which a student is aware of the various functions of WebCT.

2004

Martins and Kellermanns

15

Change Enablers We measured access to the system by using four items informed by a scale used by Lederer and colleagues (2000), to assess the extent to which the student had easy and high-speed access to the Web. Perceived availability of technical support was measured using four items adapted from studies by Igbaria and colleagues (1997) and Thompson and colleagues (1991). This assesses the extent to which a student perceives the university as providing students with training, help, and support in using WebCT. In order to measure prior experience with computer and Web use, we asked students to report the extent of their use of applications such as Microsoft Word and PowerPoint, as well as the extent of their use of the Web and e-mail. We modified the items used from studies by Igbaria (1990, 1993) to adapt them to the Webbased setting. The scale measuring perceived selfefficacy in using the Web was adapted from a measure developed by Compeau and Higgins (1991, 1995). It assesses students self-efficacy in using the Web.

The Measurement Model The measurement model represents a confirmatory factor analysis of all scales used in the study. Values that exceed .90 for normed comparative fit index (NFI) and comparative fit index (CFI) are generally considered to indicate acceptable fit. Our model had an initial 2 2546 and showed a very good fit with a NFI of .943 and CFI of .971. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) for the model was .063, which is below the .08 cut-off for indicating good fit (Hu & Bentler, 1995; Mulaik, James, Alstine, Bennett, Ling, & Stilwell, 1989). Also, the 2/df ratio was 1.958 (p 0.001), which is well below the suggested 3.0 value, indicating a good fit (Kline, 1998). Overall, our measurement model indicated very good fit with the data. Due to the multidimensionality of the latent variable assessing attitude, loading all single indicators of the subscales measuring satisfaction and preference for the system onto a single latent variable is problematic (MacCallum & Austin, 2000). We therefore created two parcels consisting of the means of the multiple items that identified the two subscales, which then served as indicators of the latent variable assessing attitude (Kishton & Widaman, 1994). The standardized factor loadings from the confirmatory factor analysis are reported in Appendix A. All standardized factor loadings were greater than or equal to .45, indicating that all loadings were significant (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1995).

Post Hoc Testing for Common Method Variance Effects Because the data for the independent and dependent variables in the model were obtained from a single source, we tested for common method variance using the post hoc analysis suggested by Podsakoff and Organ (1986). The logic of this test suggests that if there is a relationship among two or more variables, a factor analysis should yield a single method factor when items measuring all variables are entered together (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). The factor analysis indicated 12 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1. The first factor accounted for 27.6% of the variance, while all factors together accounted for 75.8%. Because a single factor did not emerge, we concluded that common method variance is not a significant problem in our tests of hypotheses (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986).

The Structural Model The results of our structural equation modeling are presented in Figure 2 and Table 2. Figure 2 shows the standardized path coefficients for the relationships in our final model as well as the variance explained for each dependent variable in the model. Table 2 reports the standardized path coefficients that we used to assess support for our hypotheses. The initial structural model showed that not all predicted paths were significant. Furthermore, two paths showed loadings that our research model did not predict. Therefore, we respecified our hypothesized model. Figure 2 depicts the hypothesized paths that were found to be significant as well as the additional significant paths we found in the process of model re-specification. The results of the structural equation modeling indicate strong support for our hypotheses derived from the TAM to predict student acceptance of a CMS. All paths reported are significant at p 0.05 with critical ratios 1.96. Perceived usefulness

RESULTS We analyzed the data using AMOS 4.0 and SPSS 10.0 and used structural equation modeling with maximum likelihood estimation to test our hypotheses. Table 1 presents descriptive statistics and correlations for the variables in the research model.

16

Academy of Management Learning and Education

March

TABLE 1 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations (N 243)

Variables M SD 1.69 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

1. Incentives to 4.36 use the system 2. Faculty 5.02 encouragement 3. Peer 4.39 encouragement 4. Awareness of 3.83 capabilities 5. Availability 3.98 of technical support 6. Access to the 5.72 system 7. Self-efficacy 5.69 8. Prior 25.18 experience with computer 9. Perceived 5.70 ease of use 10. Perceived 5.01 usefulness 11. Satisfaction 5.04 12. Preference for 4.47 system 13. Intention to 4.80 use 14. System use 5.37

1.22 1.28 1.45 1.36

0.20 0.09 0.14 0.10 0.31 0.19 0.51 0.14 0.29 0.39

1.21 1.11 3.50

0.05 0.02 0.01

0.12 0.04 0.04

0.13 0.01 0.07

0.23 0.29 0.08

0.12 0.11 0.00 0.38 0.31

0.42

0.89 1.30 1.41 1.37 1.58 1.63

0.06 0.32 0.09 0.02 0.21 0.08

0.25 0.39 0.26 0.28 0.20 0.24

0.42 0.53 0.60 0.55 0.55 0.35

0.26 0.17 0.20 0.21 0.09 0.21

0.25 0.26 0.22 0.30 0.16 0.19

0.21 0.10 0.15 0.21 0.11 0.04

0.18 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.06 0.02

0.18 0.06 0.15 0.07 0.05 0.09 0.49 0.65 0.40 0.43 0.18 0.60 0.44 0.49 0.26

0.57 0.61 0.27 0.37 0.30 0.37

Correlations 0.13 are significant at p .05.

of the system and perceived ease of use of the system were significantly positively related to students attitudes toward the system, thus supporting Hypotheses 1 and 2. Further, as predicted in Hypothesis 3, a students attitude toward the system was positively related to his or her intention to use the system. Intention to use the system was in turn significantly positively related to a students reported use of the system, thus supporting Hypothesis 4. Also, perceived ease of use of the system was significantly positively related to perceived usefulness of the system, indicating support for Hypothesis 5. The results largely support our hypotheses derived from the change implementation and management education literatures to predict students perceptions regarding the usefulness and ease of use of a CMS in business courses. The predicted relationships between the change motivating factors and perceived usefulness of the system were mostly supported. Specifically, perceived incentive to use the system, perceived faculty encouragement to use the system, and peer encouragement to use the system were all significantly positively related to a students per-

ceived usefulness of the CMS, indicating support for Hypotheses 6a, 6b, and 6c. However, Hypothesis 6d, which predicted that a students level of awareness of the capabilities of the system would be positively related to his or her perceived usefulness of the system, was not supported. The variable assessing level of awareness of the capabilities of the system did not load significantly on perceived usefulness of the system; instead, as our final model indicates (Figure 2), it loaded significantly on perceived ease of use of the system. Peer encouragement to use the system was positively related to students attitude toward the system, thereby supporting Hypothesis 6e. We also found a relationship between a change motivating factor and a variable from the TAM, that we did not hypothesize in our model. Perceived incentive to use the system was significantly positively related to a students intention to use the system. The predicted relationships between the changeenabling factors and perceived ease of use of the system were partially supported. Availability of technical support and prior experience with computer and Web use were significantly positively related to perceived ease of use of the CMS. Thus,

2004

Martins and Kellermanns

17

FIGURE 2 Final Model Hypotheses 7b and 7c were supported. However, access to the system and self-efficacy in using the Web did not load onto perceived ease of use of the CMS, indicating a lack of support for Hypotheses 7a and 7d. Overall, our final model shows a very good fit with 2 2243, CFI of .965, NFI of .940, relative fit index (RFI) of .933, incremental index of fit (IFI) of .965, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) of .961, RMSEA of .073 with a 90% confidence interval (.069; .077), and a 2/df ratio of 2.296 (p 0.001). All fit indices indicate good-to-superior fit of this model (Hu & Bentler, 1995; Mulaik et al., 1989). DISCUSSION As business schools invest large sums in new Web-based instructional technologies, there is a need for research on the factors affecting the successful integration of these technologies into management education (Arbaugh, 2000; Bilimoria, 1997; Ives & Jarvenpaa, 1996; Leidner & Jarvenpaa, 1995; Miesing, 1998; Salmon, 2000; Shrivastava, 1999). Thus, in this study we developed and tested a model combining the technology acceptance model and the literature on change implementation to understand student acceptance of a CMS in a management education context. Consistent with our hypotheses, we found that change-motivating factors led to greater perceived usefulness of the system and change-enabling factors led to greater perceived ease of use of the system. Perceived usefulness and ease of use of the system were positively related to student acceptance of the system. Among the effects of the change motivators, we found that students were more likely to perceive a new CMS as useful when they perceived greater performance incentives to use the system, greater faculty encouragement to use the system, and greater peer encouragement to use the system. These findings suggest that students

18

Academy of Management Learning and Education

March

TABLE 2 Summary of Hypotheses

Hypothesis H1: PU 3 Attitude toward the system H2: PEOU 3 Attitude toward the system H3: Attitude toward the system 3 Intentions to use the system H4: Intentions to use the system 3 Usage H5: PEOU 3 PU H6a: Perceived incentives 3 PU H6b: Faculty encouragement 3 PU H6c: Peer encouragement 3 PU H6d: Awareness of capabilities 3 PU H6e: Peer encouragement 3 Attitude toward the system H7a: Access to system 3 PEOU H7b: Availability of technical support 3 PEOU H7c: Prior experience with computer 3 PEOU H7d: Self-efficacy 3 PEOU Significant, but unhypothesized paths Awareness of capabilities 3 PEOU Perceived incentives 3 Intentions to use the system .32 .17 Standardized Path Coefficients for Final Model .25 .48 .68 .39 .28 .25 .22 .38 Not supported .53 Not supported .17 .18 Not supported

Note. PU Perceived Usefulness; PEOU Perceived Ease of Use. All significant paths are significant at p 0.05 with critical ratios 1.96.

are strongly influenced by perceived performance consequences and by social influences from their instructors and their peers in assessing the usefulness of a new CMS. The performance consequences are to be expected, given that some use of the system was mandated in this context, and they validate suggestions in the management education literature that instructors should provide students with performance incentives to use a CMS (e.g., Dos Santos & Wright, 2001; Jones & Rice, 2000). In the case of the social influence of instructors, our finding points to the important role played by authority figures in influencing perceptions of a new information system by users in general (Igbaria, 1990; Taylor & Todd, 1995b), and in management education in particular (Jones & Rice, 2000). The finding also reinforces calls by management education researchers for instructors to become champions of new instructional technologies (e.g., Bigelow, 1999; Bilimoria, 1997; Dos Santos & Wright, 2001; Salmon, 2000; Shrivastava, 1999). Peer encouragement was a strong predictor of perceived usefulness of the system, and a very strong predictor of attitude toward the system indicating that students are influenced strongly by what their peers think in their assessments of a new CMS. In fact, students may be even more susceptible to peer encouragement than people in corporate settings, where also peer encouragement has been found to have a strong effect on user attitude toward a system

(Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). Our findings suggest that incorporating social group processes such as peer social influence can help expand understanding of factors affecting successful implementation of instructional technologies in management education. The fourth motivating factor we examined, namely, a students awareness of the capabilities of the system, did not load onto perceived usefulness of the system, and instead loaded onto perceived ease of use of the system. This finding is somewhat different than anecdotal reports in management education research that experience with using a system leads to greater enthusiasm for the system on the part of students (e.g., Bilimoria, 1997; Dos Santos & Wright, 2001). The finding that awareness of the capabilities of the system functions as an enabler rather than a motivator of student acceptance of the system suggests that awareness of the capabilities of a system does not in itself make students perceive the system as useful. Even though they may know what a system does, they may need convincing regarding the utility of the system for conducting the processes that the system enables. We also found that perceived performance incentives to use the system had a direct effect on intention to use the system. This finding may be a consequence of the partially mandated nature of the system and is consistent with the finding in management education research that some students use a CMS if required to do so

2004

Martins and Kellermanns

19

regardless of their attitude toward the system (Miesing, 1998: 763). Of the four change-enabling factors we predicted would influence students perceived ease of use of the system, only two were significant in the final model. Students were more likely to perceive the system to be easy to use if they believed that there was adequate technical support available when they needed help with the system, and if they had greater prior experience in using computers and the Web. Although management education researchers have not extensively discussed the issue of providing training in the use of a CMS (Salmon, 2000; Warren & Rada, 1998), our findings suggest that when a new CMS is implemented, it is important to make the users aware of the help available with difficulties in using the system. Anecdotal evidence from the management education literature suggests that students request technical support (Miesing, 1998) and cite lack of such support as a drawback in using a CMS (Salmon, 2000). The finding that prior experience in using computers and the Web led to greater perceived ease of use of the CMS is to be expected, given that the skills required to use such a system do not differ very much from those gained through general computer and Web use, and is consistent with prior research in management education (e.g., Human et al., 1999). It should be noted that prior research suggests that experience with computer use is more likely to be a strong antecedent of perceived ease of use in the early stages of the use of a new information system, and that its effect diminishes over time (Venkatesh, 2000; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996). We did not find significant effects of access to the system and perceived self-efficacy in using the Web on perceived ease of use of the system. These nonfindings were somewhat surprising, because Igbaria and Iivari (1995) have shown self-efficacy to have a strong direct effect on perceived ease of use in prior studies. However, some of these studies (e.g., Igbaria & Iivari, 1995) were conducted in corporate settings with the average age of employees at 39 years. In our sample the average age was 22 years, representing a generation that has had significantly more access and exposure to computers and the Web than previous generations. Indeed the means of these two constructs are high (see Table 1), possibly indicating that access to the system and self-efficacy in using the Web are not serious concerns for the respondents in our sample, and restricting the range on the variables. Consistent with this reasoning, researchers examining the implementation of advanced information technologies in management education have noted that student access to and competence in us-

ing the technologies is usually not a significant problem in the implementation process (e.g., Bilimoria, 1997; Human et al., 1999; Ives & Jarvenpaa, 1996). We found strong support for the basic TAM portion of our research model. Perceived usefulness and ease of use were both significantly related to attitude toward the system, which in turn was positively related to intention to use the system, which was positively related to use of the system. Therefore, our study adds to the growing body of evidence that confirms the predictive power of the TAM in nonvoluntary use settings (e.g., Venkatesh & Davis, 2000), for Web-based systems in general (e.g., Lederer et al., 2000), and for Web-based systems in management education (Arbaugh, 2000). Limitations, Contributions to Research, and Implications for Practice In interpreting the findings of this study, readers must keep a few of its limitations in mind. One is that we used a cross-sectional measurement method, thus reducing our ability to claim temporal causality in the model. Although much of the research based on the TAM uses cross-sectional data, a longitudinal data collection method would have provided a clearer basis for arguing the temporal causality implied in the model. Another limitation is our measurement of use of the system through self-report. Although self-reports of system use are commonly used in TAM research (e.g., Lederer et al., 2000; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000) and have been found to be strongly correlated with actual use (Taylor & Todd, 1995b), external validation of system use would have been preferable. In this research context, due to human participants concerns regarding tracking students use of the system, we were not able to obtain usage data directly from the system. However, in future research we encourage the use of actual system usage data whenever the context allows their collection. A third limitation is the potential for common method bias as a consequence of using a single respondent for all the variables in the model. We conducted post-hoc tests for common method bias (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986) and did not find it to be a significant concern. However, use of secondary sources for measures of variables in the model is encouraged in future studies. Last, the model explained 15% of system use, which although within a reasonable range compared to prior studies using the TAM, is on the low end of the range (Adams et al., 1992). This is probably because to a large extent use of the system was nonvoluntary. Our findings suggest that even if use of a system is mandatory, users may vary in their intensity of

20

Academy of Management Learning and Education

March

use, producing variation around a high baseline produced by the nonvoluntary nature of the use context (Hartwick & Barki, 1994). Despite these limitations, our study contributes to management education research and practice in several ways and highlights multiple potential avenues for future research. At a basic level, this study adds to research seeking to understand how new information technologies can be effectively implemented in management education (e.g., Bigelow, 1999; Bilimoria, 1997; Dos Santos & Wright, 2001; Leidner & Jarvenpaa, 1995; Shrivastava, 1999). In particular, it responds to calls for more research on the role of students and instructors in fostering the active use of new Web-based systems in management education (Arbaugh, 2000; Miesing, 1998; Salmon, 2000). Our findings suggest that instructors play a very important role in understanding student reactions to new instructional technologies. Prior research has found that the way in which instructors integrate Web-based systems in management education affects student satisfaction with the course (e.g., Alavi, 1994; Arbaugh, 2000; Parikh & Verma, 2002). Our findings also suggest that an additional avenue through which instructors can influence student responses to such systems is through their role as change agents who use interpersonal and managerial skills to actively encourage student acceptance of the systems. Future research is needed to explore this role of instructors in the implementation of new Web-based instructional technologies. Further, the importance of instructors influence on students acceptance of a system suggests that we need to first develop a good understanding of the factors that get instructors to become champions of new Web-based instructional technologies (Bilimoria, 1997; White & Myers, 2001). Several factors such as individual characteristics, considerations of professional autonomy, and contextual support, may influence instructors extent of support for a new system (Bilimoria, 1997; Ives & Jarvenpaa, 1996). More research is needed to explore these factors. By focusing on student acceptance of a CMS, the study addresses calls for more research on this critical success factor in the implementation of new instructional technologies. Whereas several studies have assessed student satisfaction with on-line courses as a dependent variable (e.g., Arbaugh, 2000; Salmon, 2000; Scifres et al., 1998), researchers have paid little attention to student acceptance of Web-based systems that are supplemental to traditional classroom-based instruction. Students in traditional classes have less need to be self-driven and in active charge of the learning

process than are students in on-line courses (Dos Santos & Wright, 2001; Ives & Jarvenpaa, 1996; Shrivastava, 1999). Thus, getting students in traditional courses to accept and use Web-based CMSs is a different challenge than that faced in on-line courses. An exploration of differences in the factors affecting student acceptance and use of Webbased instructional technologies in the two contexts is a fruitful avenue for future research. By drawing on well-established theoretical foundations in the areas of technology acceptance and change implementation, the study responds to concerns that the literature on the incorporation of the Web into management education has been based extensively on macrotheoretical approaches to delivery, . . . anecdotal examples, . . . or atheoretical empirical studies (Arbaugh, 2000: 33). Our study establishes the utility of the TAM as a theoretical foundation for examining student responses to new instructional technologies. Given the demonstrated scalability and versatility of the basic TAM model, it is a potentially useful common foundation for future research into reactions of students, faculty, and administrators to new information technologies for management education. By conceptualizing the implementation of a CMS as a change event, our study contributes a novel theoretical perspective on the implementation of such systems. We believe that the change management literature is a particularly suitable theoretical foundation for future research into the integration of Web-based instructional technologies into management education. In this study, we focused at the individual level of analysis and examined students perceptions of the change implementation context. Future research could extend our study to examine change processes at the group or organizational levels of analysis. At the group level of analysis, our study suggests that socialpsychological factors and diffusion processes promise a good avenue for future research into predictors of student acceptance of new instructional technologies (Brancheau & Wetherbe, 1990). At the organizational level, future research could examine the effects of variation in change implementation strategies across groups of students on student acceptance of new instructional technologies. Also, future research could explore the effects of student participation in the decision to use a particular CMS on student acceptance of the system. We did not include this variable in our model because the system in question had already been chosen and was in use. However, in a context in which a new system is planned for introduction, researchers should examine the effects of students

2004

Martins and Kellermanns

21

participation in their eventual acceptance of the system. Because of the versatility of a CMS, it can be used to generate different levels of change in the instructional process, ranging from alpha change in which the CMS is used to simply make some aspects of the instructional process more efficient, through beta change in which the CMS is used to enable a wider range of instructional processes, to gamma change in which the CMS is used to completely re-define the nature of the instructional process (Zmud & Armenakis, 1978; Rice & Contractor, 1990). Whereas the potential for gamma change using such systems has been highlighted in the management education literature (Bilimoria, 1997; Ives & Jarvenpaa, 1996; Shrivastava, 1999), such a change has yet to occur at most business schools; rather, anecdotal evidence suggests that the systems have been effective at generating more alpha and beta change than gamma change in management education (e.g., Cohen & Lippert, 1999; Dos Santos & Wright, 2001; Miesing, 1998; Parikh & Verma, 2002). Future research could focus on success factors in the use of Webbased instructional technologies to generate each type of change in a management education context. Our study offers several practical implications for implementers of new Web-based instructional technologies in management education. Researchers have cautioned that before rushing to adopt new Web-based instructional technologies, business school faculty and administrators should carefully consider what needs to be done to effectively integrate these technologies into the educational process (e.g., Cohen & Lippert, 1999). Our study provides some guidelines for factors that should be kept in mind when implementing new CMSs in particular, and new information technologies in general, in management education. For example, our findings suggest that in the absence of clear perceived consequences of the use of the new system on their performance, students will be less likely to accept the system. Thus, to encourage students to use a new CMS, it is important that use of the system is linked to meaningful outcomes in the courses in which it is implemented (e.g., Dos Santos & Wright, 2001; Jones & Rice, 2000). The finding of a positive influence of instructor encouragement to use the system on student acceptance of the system suggests that instructors play an important role in selling new information systems to students (Bigelow, 1999; Salmon, 2000; Shrivastava, 1999; White & Myers, 2001). As such, it may be important for implementers of a new system to first obtain faculty buy-in for the system (Bilimoria, 1997; Ives & Jarvenpaa, 1996). Student peers played a significant role in moti-

vating students to accept a new system. Prior research suggests that in the implementation of a planned change, early adopters can be used to sell the change to later adopters (Brancheau & Wetherbe, 1990). Our finding suggests that, particularly in an academic setting, in which peer encouragement might play a greater role in affecting individual behavior (Taylor & Todd, 1995b), it is important for implementers of a new information system to identify early adopters or converts among the students and use them as champions of the system. We found awareness of the capabilities of a CMS to be an important factor influencing student acceptance of the system. Implementers of such systems may often assume that the capabilities of these relatively user-friendly systems are readily apparent to students. However, it is important that the capabilities of the systems and the benefits they provide be made clear to students, and students should be encouraged to explore the capabilities of the system on their own to make themselves aware of its functions. Our findings also suggest that it is important to emphasize to students the available assistance with the system (Miesing, 1998; Salmon, 2000), as a means for increasing student acceptance of it. In conclusion, as CMSs increasingly become a standard part of the instructional process in business schools, educators need advances in theory and research to help in successfully incorporating them into management education. This study contributes to this line of research by combining the literatures on technology acceptance and on change implementation to understand factors affecting student acceptance of a CMS in a management education context. REFERENCES
Adams, D. A., Nelson, R. R., & Todd, P. A. 1992. Perceived usefulness, ease of use, and usage of information technology: A replication. MIS Quarterly, 16: 227247. Agarwal, R., & Prasad, J. 1997. The role of innovation characteristics and perceived voluntariness in the acceptance of information technologies. Decision Sciences, 28: 557582. Agarwal, R., & Prasad, J. 1999. Are individual differences germane to the acceptance of new information technologies. Decision Sciences, 30: 361391. Alavi, M. 1994. Computer-mediated collaborative learning: An empirical evaluation. MIS Quarterly, 18(2): 159 174. Al-Gahtani, S. S., & King, M. 1999. Attitudes, satisfaction and usage: Factors contributing to each in the acceptance of information technology. Behavior & Information Technology, 18: 277299. Arbaugh, J. B. 2000. Virtual classroom characteristics and student satisfaction with Internet-based MBA courses. Journal of Management Education, 24(1): 3254.

22

Academy of Management Learning and Education

March

Bigelow, J. D. 1999. The Web as an organizational behavior learning medium. Journal of Management Education, 23(6): 635 650. Bikson, T. K., Gutek, B. A., & Mankin, D. A. 1987. Implementing computerized procedures in office settings: Influences and outcomes. Santa Monica, CA: The Rand Corporation. Bilimoria, D. 1997. Management educators: In danger of becoming pedestrians on the information superhighway. Journal of Management Education, 21(2): 232243. Brancheau, J. C., & Wetherbe, J. C. 1990. The adoption of spreadsheet software: Testing innovation diffusion theory in the context of end-user computing. Information Systems Research, 1: 115145. Chen, C., Newman, J., Newman, R., & Rada, R. 1998. How did university departments interweave the Web: A study of connectivity and underlying factors. Interacting With Computers, 10: 353373. Cohen, D. J., & Lippert, S. K. 1999. The lure of technology: Panacea or pariah? Journal of Management Education, 23(6): 743746. Compeau, D. R., & Higgins, C. A. 1991. A social cognitive theory perspective on individual reactions to computing technology. Proceedings of the Twelfth International Conference on Information Systems, New York. Compeau, D. R., & Higgins, C. A. 1995. Application of social cognitive theory to training for computer skills. Information Systems Research, 6: 118 143. Compeau, D., Higgins, C. A., & Huff, S. 1999. Social cognitive theory and individual reactions to computing technology: A longitudinal study. MIS Quarterly, 23: 145158. Davis, F. 1989. Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13: 319 340. Davis, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P., & Warshaw, P. R. 1989. User acceptance of computer technology: A comparison of two theoretical models. Management Science, 35: 9821003. Dillon, A. 2000. Designing a better learning environment with the web: Problems and prospects. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 3: 97101. Dos Santos, B. L., & Wright, A. L. 2001. Internet-supported management education. Information Services & Use, 21: 53 64. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. 1975. Attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addision-Wesley. Fredickson, S. 1999. Untangling a tangled web: An overview of web-based instruction programs. Technological Horizons in Education Journal, 26: 6777. Gefen, D., & Straub, D. W. 1997. Gender differences in the perception and use of e-mail: An extension to the technology acceptance model. MIS Quarterly, 21: 389 400. Goodman, P. S., & Griffith, T. L. 1991. A process approach to the implementation of new technology. Journal of Engineering and Technology Management, 8: 261285. Green, K. C., & Gilbert, S. W. 1995. Great expectations: Content, communications, productivity, and the role of information technology in higher education. Change, 27: 8 18. Griffith, T. L. 1996. Negotiating successful technology implementation: A motivational perspective. Journal of Engineering and Technology Management, 13: 29 53. Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. 1995.

Multivariate data analysis with readings. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Hartwick, J., & Barki, H. 1994. Explaining the role of user participation in information system use. Management Science, 40: 440 465. Henry, J. W., & Stone, R. W. 1997. The development and validation of computer self-efficacy and outcome expectancy scales in a nonvolitional context. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 29: 519 527. Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. 1995. Evaluating model fit. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications: 76 99. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Human, S. E., Kilbourne, L. M., Clark, T. D., Shriberg, A., & Cunningham, B. 1999. Using Web-enhanced instruction in an interpersonal skills course. Journal of Management Education, 23(5): 584 606. Igbaria, M. 1990. End-user computing effectiveness: A structural equation model. OMEGA International Journal of Management Science, 18: 637 652. Igbaria, M. 1993. user Acceptance of Microcomputer Technology: An empirical test. OMEGA International Journal of Management Science, 21: 7390. Igbaria, M., & Iivari, J. 1995. The effects of self-efficacy on computer usage. OMEGA International Journal of Management Science, 23: 587 605. Igbaria, M., Zinatelli, N., Cragg, P., & Cavayne, A. L. M. 1997. Personal computing acceptance factors in small firms: A structural equation model. MIS Quarterly, 21: 279 305. Ives, B., & Jarvenpaa, S. L. 1996. Will the Internet revolutionize business education and research? Sloan Management Review, 37(3): 33 41. Jackson, C. M., Chow, S., & Leitch, R. A. 1997. Towards an understanding of the behavioral intention to use an information system. Decision Sciences, 28: 357387. Jones, N. B., & Rice, M. 2000. Can Web-based knowledge sharing tools improve the learning process in an MBA consulting class? Technological Horizons in Education Journal, 27(8): 100 106. Judson, A. S. 1991. Changing behavior in organizations: Minimizing resistance to change. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Karahanna, E., & Straub, D. W. 1999. The psychological origins of perceived usefulness and ease-of-use. Information & Management, 35: 237250. Karahanna, E., Straub, D. W., & Chervany, N. L. 1999. Information technology adoption across time: A cross-sectional comparison of pre-adoption and post-adoption beliefs. MIS Quarterly, 23: 183213. Kerlinger, F. N. 1986. Foundations of Behavioral Research. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Kishton, J. M., & Widaman, K. F. 1994. Unidimensional versus domain representative parcelling of questionnaire items: An empirical example. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54: 757765. Kline, R. B. 1998. Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: The Guilford Press. Kotter, J. 1995. Leading change: Why transformation fail. Harvard Business Review, 59 67. Lederer, A. L., Maupin, D. J., Sena, M. P., & Zhuang, Y. 2000. The

2004

Martins and Kellermanns

23

technology acceptance model and the world wide web. Decision Support Systems, 29: 269 282. Leidner, D. E., & Jarvenpaa, S. L. 1995. The use of information technology to enhance management school education: A theoretical view. MIS Quarterly, 19: 265291. Leonard-Barton, D., & Deschamps, I. 1988. Managerial influence in the implementation of new technology. Management Science, 34: 12521265. Leonard-Barton, D., & Kraus, W. A. 1985. Implementing new technology. Harvard Business Review, 85: 102110. Lewin, K. 1951. Field theory in social science. New York: Harper & Row. Lightfoot, J. M. 2000. Designing and implementing a fullservice classpage on the internet. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 9: 19 33. Lin, J. C.-C., & Lu, H. 2000. Towards an understanding of the behavioral intention to use a web site. International Journal of Information Management, 20: 197208. Loyd, B. G., & Gressard, C. 1984. Reliability and factorial validity of computer attitude scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 501505. MacCallum, R. C., & Austin, J. T. 2000. Applications of structural equation modeling in psychological research. Annual Review of Psychology, 201216. Meisel, S. & Marx, B. 1999. Screen to screen versus face to face: Experiencing the differences in management education. Journal of Management Education, 23(6): 719 731. Melone, N. P. 1990. A theoretical assessment of the user satisfaction construct in information system research. Management Science, 36: 76 91. Miesing, P. 1998. B-Schools on the I-Way: Avoiding potholes, dead ends, and crashes. Journal of Management Education, 22: 753770. Mulaik, S. A., James, L. R., Alstine, J. V., Bennett, N., Ling, S., & Stilwell, C. D. 1989. Evaluation of goodness-of-fit for structural equation models. Psychological Bulletin, 105: 430 445. Nambisan, S., Agarwal, R., & Tanniru, M. 1999. Organizational mechanisms for enhancing user innovation in information technology. MIS Quarterly, 23: 365395. Parikh, M., & Verma, S. 2002. Utilizing Internet technologies to support learning: An empirical analysis. International Journal of Information Management, 22(1): 27 46. Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. 1986. Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and perspectives. Journal of Management, 12: 531544. Rice, R. E., & Contractor, N. S. 1990. Conceptualizing effects of office information systems: A methodology and application of the study of alpha, beta, and gamma changes. Decision Sciences, 21: 301317. Salmon, G. 2000. Computer mediated conferencing for manage-

ment learning at the Open University. Management Learning, 31(4): 491502. Scifres, E., Gundersen, D. E., & Behara, R. S. 1998. Electronic groups in the classroom: An empirical investigation. Journal of Education for Business, 73(4): 247250. Shrivastava, P. 1999. Management classes as online learning communities. Journal of Management Education, 23(6): 691 702. Straub, D., Limayem, M., & Krahnna-Evaristo, E. 1995. Measuring system usage: Implications for theory testing. Management Science, 41: 1328 1342. Szajna, B. 1996. Empirical evaluation of the revised technological acceptance model. Management Science, 42: 8592. Taylor, S., & Todd, P. 1995a. Assessing IT usage: The role of prior experience. MIS Quarterly, 19: 561570. Taylor, S., & Todd, P. A. 1995b. Understanding information technology usage: A test of competing models. Information Systems Research, 6: 144 176. Thompson, R. L., Higgins, C. A., & Howell, J. M. 1991. Personal computing: Toward a conceptual model of utilization. MIS Quarterly, 15: 125143. Torkzadeh, G., & Koufteros, X. 1994. Factorial validity of a computer self-efficacy scale and the impact on computer training. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54: 813 821. Venkatesh, V. 2000. Determinants of perceived ease of use: Integrating control, intrinsic motivation, and emotion into the technology acceptance model. Information Systems Research, 11: 342365. Venkatesh, V., & Davis, F. D. 1996. A model of the antecedents of perceived ease of use: Development and test. Decision Sciences, 27: 451 481. Venkatesh, V., & Davis, F. D. 2000. A theoretical extension of the technology adoption model: Four longitudinal field studies. Management Science, 46: 186 204. Venkatesh, V., & Morris, M. G. 2000. Why dont men ever stop to ask for directions? Gender, social influence, and their role in technology acceptance and usage behavior. MIS Quarterly, 24: 115139. Warren, K. J., & Rada, R. 1998. Sustaining computer-mediated communication in university courses. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 14(1): 1316. Webster, J., & Hackley, P. 1997. Teaching effectiveness in technology-mediated distance learning. Academy of Management Review, 40: 12821309. White, J. T., & Myers, S. D. 2001. You can teach an old dog new tricks: The facultys role in technology implementation. Business Communication Quarterly, 64: 95101. Zmud, R. W., & Armenakis, A. A. 1978. Understanding the measurement of change. Academy of Management Review, 3(3): 661 669.

Luis L. Martins is an associate professor of organizational behavior at the DuPree College of Management at the Georgia Institute of Technology. He received his PhD in management and organizational behavior from the Stern School of Business at New York University. His current research interests include new information technologies, managerial cognition, and diversity. Franz W. Kellermanns is an assistant professor of management at Mississippi State Universitys College of Business and Industry. He received his PhD in strategic management from the University of Connecticut. His primary research interests include strategic consensus, constructive confrontation, and management of family firms.

24

Academy of Management Learning and Education

March

APPENDIX A Scale Items and Measurement Model Loadings

Completely standardized factor loading

Construct Perceptions Perceived Usefulness of the System

Items

Reliability

Using WebCT enables me to accomplish tasks for this course more quickly Using WebCT improves my performance in this course Using WebCT increases my productivity in this course Using WebCT enhances my effectiveness in this course Using WebCT makes my job easier in this course Using WebCT is useful to me in this course WebCT is easy to learn

0.698

.94

0.896 0.947 0.899 0.930 0.745 0.759

Perceived Ease of Use of the System

.91

It is easy to get WebCT to do what I want it to do My interaction with WebCT is clear and understandable WebCT is flexible to interact with It is easy to become skillful at using WebCT WebCT is easy to use Attitudes/Intentions Attitude Satisfaction I like using WebCT I am satisfied with using WebCT I would recommend WebCT to my friends I would rather not use WebCT1 I find it frustrating to use WebCT1 Preference WebCT is a better option than other (more traditional) methods for distributing handouts/ materials WebCT is a better option than other (more traditional) methods for taking quizzes and exams WebCT is a better option than other (more traditional) methods for getting grades WebCT is a better option than other (more traditional) methods for discussing course topics WebCT is a better option than other (more traditional) methods for contacting classmates WebCT is a better option than other (more traditional) methods for contacting the instructor or teaching assistant WebCT is a better option than other (more traditional) methods for teamwork I do not plan to use WebCT very often during the rest of this semester1 I do not plan to use WebCT very much during the rest of this semester1 I intend to use WebCT frequently during the rest of this semester I intend to take full advantage of WebCT during the rest of this semester

0.762 0.817 0.766 0.799 0.852 0.870

.91

0.647

.91

Intention to Use the System

0.791 0.760 0.945 0.894

.91

Use

Self-reported amount of time spent on the system in an average week (log transformed).

(continues)

2004

Martins and Kellermanns

25

APPENDIX A continued
Completely standardized factor loading

Construct Motivators Perceived incentive to use WebCT

Items

Reliability

If I dont use WebCT, my grade in this course will suffer Using WebCT improves my chances of getting a good grade in this course My grade in this course is not affected by whether or not I use WebCT1 The professor provides most of the necessary help and guidance to enable students to use WebCT The professor is keen to see that the students are happy with using WebCT The professor has explained the features of WebCT adequately in class The professor has clearly communicated to the class the benefits of using WebCT The professor is always willing to help when a student has difficulties using WebCT The professor encourages the use of WebCT for classrelated work The professor thinks that we should use WebCT as much as possible The professor encourages us to explore the various functions of WebCT The professor encourages us to use features of WebCT beyond those that are required for this course My classmates who are close to me strongly support using WebCT Most people I know in this class strongly support using WebCT My friends outside of class who have used WebCT strongly support using WebCT People whose opinion I value would strongly support my using WebCT I am fully aware of the capabilities of WebCT

0.876

.84

0.809 0.724 0.762 0.778 0.838 0.731 0.677 0.728 0.805 0.864 0.660 0.826 0.912 0.914 0.866 0.917

Perceived faculty encouragement

.92

Peer encouragement

.93

Awareness of the capabilities of the system

.82

I know all the functions that WebCT is capable of I cant say that I know all the things that WebCT can do for me1 Enablers Access to the system I usually have a high-speed connection to the Web I have convenient access to the Web I have easy access to the right technology to make Web surfing fast and easy I have no trouble accessing the Web I have received adequate training in using WebCT

0.900 0.529

0.792 0.719 0.843 0.748 .474

.85

Availability of technical support

.81

Prior experience with computer and Web use

There is a designated person that I can call or e-mail when I need help with using WebCT Assistance is readily available to help me with using WebCT When I request help with using WebCT, someone gets back to me quickly How often do you use computer applications such as Microsoft Word, Excel, or PowerPoint? How often do you use e-mail?

.780 .880 .820 0.640

.81

0.725

(continues)

26

Academy of Management Learning and Education

March

APPENDIX continued
Completely standardized factor loading 0.825 0.741 0.907

Contruct

Items How often do you use the Web for work-related or class-related activities? How often do you use the Web for other (not work/ class-related) activities? I think that I am very good at using the Web

Reliability

Self-efficacy in using the Web

.87

I can navigate easily through the Web to find any information I want I have mastered the Web I was fully able to use the Web before I began using WebCT
1

0.896 0.779 0.677

Indicates reverse coding.