iy Dr.

Mae,

avidow

THE ABACUS MADE EASY

A
Simplified Manual
for

Teaching the Cranmer Abacus

by

Mae

E. David ow, Ed.D.

Teacher of Mathematics Overbrook School for the Blind 64th Street and Malvern Avenue
Philadelphia, Penna. 19151

Published By

OVERBROOK SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND

Copyright, 1966

OVERBROOK SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND

All rights reserved.
in

No part

of this

book may be reproduced

any form without permission in writing from the author, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages in connection with a review written for inclusion in a magazine or newspaper.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Davidow has been a teacher
for the Blind since 1935.
at

Overbrook School

This gifted teacher, however, first

came

to

Overbrook as

a student, having lost

her sight

at the

age of 10.
for

She received a B.A. from

New Jersey

College

Women, now Douglas

College, part of Rutgers University.

a Master's

Temple University granted her

and then a doctorate in I960.

Degree

in

1949

Here

at

Overbrook, Dr. Davidow was instrumental

in establishing the use of the

Cranmer Abacus

as a part of

the regular curriculum.

Her enthusiasm

for this pioneer

to follow

method

of teaching
In

mathematics led others

her

eagerly.

her role as coordinating teacher, she worked

of the

with the
results

members

Mathematics Department and the

Hopeful that this success
at

Were highly successful.

Overbrook might be experienced by many teachers elsewhere,

she was encouraged to write the following manual.

We
Dr. Davidow

are indeed appreciative of the unstinting effort of

in

presenting Abacus Made Easy.

Joseph

Kerr

Assistant Principal

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in

2012 with funding from

National Federation of the Blind (NFB)

http://www.archive.org/details/abacusmadeeasysiOOmaee

11

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
In the writing of this

manual

have received invaluable

students with

aid and suggestions

from

the

many teachers and

whom;

have worked on the abacus.

I

owe a great debt

of gratitude to the

administrators
to delve

of the

Overbrook School for

the Blind

who encouraged me
it

more deeply
sible for

into the study of the

to attend the first

abacus and who made

Institute

posin

me
I

Abacus

ever held

America.

appreciate the opportunity that was given to

me

to

work with

the instructors of

mathematics as they were teaching

In this

the use of the

abacus to their students.

manner both

teacher and student learned the language and method of operation,

I

feel

it is

appropriate to acknowledge with gratitude

text,

the

work

of

Fred Gissoni whose

Using the Cranmer Abacus,

helped lay the foundation and groundwork which enabled

write this manual.
I

me

to

wish

to

express

my

special thanks to the

many

volun-

teers

who gave

unstintingly of their time to

work

directly with

me

in

compiling this manuscript.

Ill

CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
ii

Foreword
Introduction to the Tool
Setting

v
1

Numbers

Addition Addition of
Subtraction
Multiplication

Two

Digit

Numbers

11

14
21

Treatment

of the

Zero

27

Multiplication of

Two

Digits

29
31

Division.

Long Division
Addition of Decimals
Subtraction of Decimals.
Multiplication of Decimals

35

43

.............

46

48
50 54

Division of Decimals

Fractions

IV

Addition, of Fractions

56

Subtraction of Fractions
Multiplication of Fractions

60
63

Division of Fractions

67 69
71

Per Cent
Square Root
Conclusion

76

FOREWORD
Using the Cranmer Abacus
ten by
is

an excellent text writof

Fred L. Gissoni

of the

Bureau

Rehabilitation Ser-

vices, Kentucky Department of Education, at Lexington,

Kentucky
In

1964

attended the Abacus Institute

of

at the

Univer-

sity of

Kentucky, held under the direction

Mr. Gissoni.

This was the first such institute ever conducted in America.

We were

also privileged at that time to have with us Professor

of the

Paske, an instructor
in

abacus

at the

School for the Blind

Copenhagen, Denmark.
In the

past two years,

have taught the Cranmer

Abacus using Fred Gissoni's

of the
to

text.

However, as an instructor
I

abacus

to both

teachers and students.

at

found

it

desirable
this

have a simplified manual

I

our fingertips.

During

period

have made, with Mr. Gissoni's permission, adaptaThis has been done while working with

tions of his text.

teachers and with children from second grade through high

schoolIt is

my

hope that this manual will make the teaching

of the

and the learning

and teachers.
I

abacus more meaningful

to both students

shall attempt to explain in the simplest,

most

VI

concise manner how to add, subtract, multiply, divide,

handle decimals, fractions, percent and square root.

The method
class
is

of instruction for

an individual or for a
to teaching the

essentially the same.

The approach

abacus

is

likewise the

same

for a second grade student, a

senior in high school, a college student, a teacher, a parent,

or any interested person, either blind or sighted, who wishes
to learn the abacus.
all

When we

first

examine the abacus, we

learn about the tool in the same manner.

We must move

slowly; the language

must be simple; every step must be

child,

understood.

The slow learner, as well as the gifted

learns the abacus in the same manner.

However, after

the

learning has taken place, and the individual knows how to

manipulate the tool, then each one operates

speed.
In

it

at his individual

teaching the use of the abacus, one must be very

the language level of the individual.

patient.

One must use

is

The abacus
learned,
it

studied one step at a time.

As one step

is

must be practiced again and again.

One takes
his time

Then one may

it

move

to the next step.

and learns

thoroughly.

INTRODUCTION TO THE TOOL

The
first lesson consists of handling the abacus.

One

must become acquainted with

frame
is

the tool.

We

notice that the

oblong

in

shape.

There are thirteen rods, or columns.,

five

attached to the frame.

On each column there are

There
is a

beads

which travel up and down.

separation bar which

cuts across all thirteen columns, approximately two-thirds

the distance

from

the

bottom

of the

frame.

This bar separates

four of the beads or counters

from

the fifth bead.

its

We
ting position.

shall

now examine

the abacus in

proper operain the

The abacus will always be on our desk

position which is about to be described.

rates the one bead
to left.

The bar which sepa-

from

the other four beads runs

is

from

right

The section containing the single beads

on the upper

part of the abacus, and the four beads are toward the bottom
of the

frame

First let us run our fingers along the face of the

lower edge

of the

frame.

Here we

find a dot at the end of each

column.

In addition to

these dots,

we

will find a short., verti-

cal line between every third column.

The dots are

to help

us locate our place, and the lines, which are called "unit

marks"

or

commas

in

writing numbers, can also serve as a

decimal point.

These same dots and lines are found on the

separation bar between the four beads and the one bead.

Now

let

us place the index finger of our right hand

of

on the dot to the extreme right, on the bottom

our frame

This dot corresponds with the column to the extreme right.

It

is

the units column.

is

Moving from right

to left, the next

column

the tens

column and

the next is the hundreds column.

Then we touch
the hundreds

the line between the

columns which separates

Next we

column from

the thousands column.

have the thousands column, ten thousands, hundred thousands, separation line, millions, etc.
,

up to one trillion.

As our fingers move along

left

the frame, the index finger of our

left of the

hand

is

always immediately to the

hand.

index finger

of the right

The position

of our

hands

is

extremely

important

in all of

our operations as we manipulate the abacus.

of the

The keyword, while learning the fundamentals

Agacus,
is

Cranmer

patient repetition.

SETTING NUMBERS
When we
we write
it.

put a

number on our abacus, we do

not say

In

abacus language we use the word "set."

When we want
we ^clear"
it, it.

to

remove

number

or erase

it,

we say
rr

that

As we move a bead toward

the bar or

set"

it

takes on a value.
it,
it

When we move
its

it

away from the bar,

column we can

or "clear"'

loses

value.

On a

single

show the ten

digits

from zero

to 9-

When
is in

there are no beads

moved toward
to write
1
,

the bar, the

set one

column

a zero position.

Then

we

bead by pushing

it

up to the bar.

To

write

2,

we

set another bead; then

we

set a third bead, and

4.

we

have

3;

set a fourth

bead and we have

Each one
of one.

of the

beads below the separation bar has a value

The single

bead above the bar has a value

Let us now write from
separately.

of five.

to 5 --writing

each number
of the

To

set the

number

we would move one

To

beads on a column up
2.

to the

separation bar.

set the

number

we would
3

set 2

beads up to the bar.

To

set 3,

we would
all 4

move

beads up

to the bar.

To

set 4,

we move

beads

up to the bar.
to the bar,

To set

5,

we would move

the upper bead

down

However.,

we must be sure
To

that there are no beads

below the bar on that column.

set the

number

6,

we would

move
the
5

the upper bead down, and

move one lower bead up

equals
6.

in

same column.
2

Five plu$

To

set 7,
2

we

set a
7.

and then set

set 8,
5

on the same column.

Five

and

equals
set 9.

To

we

set 5

above the bar and

l's.

below.

To

we

set the

bead and the four

In setting 9

we see

that all

the beads on a
sible.

column are moved as close

to the

bar as pos-

Much time must

be devoted to setting numbers.

the right index finger, or
is

As

we write our numbers with

index finger, our
left

thumb and

index finger

always resting on the

Let us

column immediately
write 12. while the

to the left of the right hand.

The right index finger sets a

left

in the tens

column

index finger rests on the hundreds column.

to the right

Then both hands move

and the right index finger

in the units

and thumb push up or set two beads

practice
is

column.

Much

needed

in

writing and reading numbers.

Little

children can write how

many desks
etc.
,

there are in the classroom;

etc.

how many sisters they have,

Each teacher gives

Older children can

numbers according

to the level of

her group,

write their phone numbers and then have a classmate read them.

When

the student can set and read

numbers quickly, then he

is

ready to begin addition.

ADDITION

We
itself a

will start our addition by adding the

of

number

to

number

times.

We

will place the index finger of

the right hand on the

extreme right column on

The
left

the abacus.

This

is

the units column.

is

hand, as we mentioned

before,

immediately

to the left of the right

hand on the

tens column.

We

set the

number
is

by moving one of the lower

of the

beads up to the bar.

right hand.

This
1

done with the index finger

This
is

Next add

to this 1.

done

in the

same
another

manner with
1
.

the index finger of the right hand.

Now add

Now add
It

another
is

We now

have four beads in our unit

if

column.
easier.
it

permissible to use the thumb

if

one finds

it

We

find that

we want

to

add

more, we cannot add

to

directly.

There are no more lower beads

move up

to

the bar.

Since there are no

in

more

rf

ones ,r to add to the four

beads that we have

our units column, our right index finger

moves above

the bar and sets a 5.

5

We

only wanted to add

figure out

more, but we added

more.

We must now

how

many more beads were added than

There are several ways

the one bead that

we wanted.

that this can be done.

Each teacher

figures out according to her grade level which method to use.

One teacher might say,

"I

asked you

to give

me

one cent and

you gave

me

a nickel,

how much change should

that
1

give you"?

The student figures out

four pennies.

from

5 is

and he must return

We

can think

of the four

beads that we have set

on the abacus as four pennies and when we clear the four

beads, we are returning the four pennies.
indirect addition.

This

is

known as
this

There are many different ways

can be

explained.

This depends on the age of the student and his

of

understanding

numbers.
to this indirect

One second grade teacher refers

addition as working with partners.

The child learns

that

if

he

wishes

to

add

to 4,

and there are no more beads on the bot5.

tom

of the bar,

he must go to the top of the bar and set a

of 5

The child learns that the partners

are 4 and
1.

when you add

If,

to 4

So the child clears the

4 to
1
,

4.

on the other hand,

a 5

we were adding

the child

would set

and clear and

its

After the student learns the relationship

of the 5

partner
motion.

1,

he can set the

slide the 5

and clear the 4

in

one continuous

We

bead down

to the bar,

move our

finger

down across
the bar.

the bar, and slide the four lower beads

this

away from

By doing
digit 5

we have added

to the 4
In

and we now
order
to

have the
to this 5,

showing on the units column.

add

we continue as we did before.

We move

one lower

counter up to the bar.

1

We now

have a

above the bar and a

1

bead or counter below the bar.

1

Five plus
1

equals

6.

Then
8.

we add
Add
1

to 6

and we have

7.

Add
9-

to 7

and we will have

to

to 8

and we will have

We want

add

more

to 9

and we find that there are no more beads on the unit column
to

add directly,

Our

left

index finger that has been resting on the

to the left of the right

column immediately

hand (on the tens

column) now comes into play.

finger as the "helping finger."

We

can refer to that index

When we can add no more

left

beads with the right index finger, the

play and assists.

hand comes into

The

left

hand will set one bead on the tens

This one bead has a value of

column (push
10 since
it is

it

up to the bar).

in the tens

column.

We

only wanted

more, but
figure

the left index finger gave us 10

more.

Now we must

out

how many extra we have.

This can be done again
in

several ways:
10; let

(1)

We

had

9,

we wanted

more; our

left

hand gave us
is 9-

us see

how
many,

many

extra

we have.

One from 10
9-

We

have

9 too

so our right hand will clear the

tens

We now

have a ten

in the

column and

a zero in the units column.

This gives us a
(2)

value of 10.

We

see then that

9 plus 1

equals 10.

We

can

speak

of

it

in

terms

of

money.

We want

a penny to add to

9-

We

received a dime.
10
is 9(3)

We must

give 9 cents change.

to

One The

from

Again we can refer

1

our partners.

partners of
indirectly.

are

and

9-

Here again, we have added

As we continue
unit

to

add more

I's,

we add them

in the

column with

the right index finger, or thumb, as

to 10 gives us the digits 11.

mentioned

above.

One added

When we add
Thus, one 10
,

another bead in the units column, we have 1Z.

and one

gives us 11; one 10 and two l's give us 12, etc.

1

etc.

We

continue adding

until

we have

44.

Then with

the right

pointer finger we set

tinue to add
1

5,

clear 4, and we have 45.

49-

We

con-

until

we have

Then with our

5,

left

index fin-

ger (our helping hand) we set the

right index finger clear the
9-

clear

4,

and with our

We now
find

have 50.

We
1

continue

adding

until

we have

99-

We

we cannot add
left

more

with the right hand; neither can the

giving us another
1

hand assist us by
So the
left

in the tens

column.
in the

hand

reaches over and gives us a 10

hundreds column.
But we now have

(This ten has the value of ten 10's or 100.)

nine extra 10's,. so with our left index finger

we clear

the nine

10's and the right index finger clears the nine units.

Although

we wanted
9

to

add only

more, we added 10 more and thus had

extra to clear.

A good
is to

addition exercise to introduce in the beginning

to 45.

add from

First add

to zero..

Begin with the

hands

in starting position- -the right

left

hand on the units column

it

and the

hand immediately

to the left of

on the tens

column.

With the right index finger we set

1.

Then with our

2

pincher fingers (the index finger and the thumb) we set

more beads.
see that there
set 5.

We
is

are now ready to add

only
1

more beads.
5.

But we

bead.

So we must turn to the

We

How many
we have
2

extra did we set?

Three from

5 is 2.

Since

too

many, we

will clear 2,

We check

our

abacus and find that we have

sets of 3

6.

We

have learned that two

makes

6,

so

we are sure

that the abacus is right.

We

will

now add

more.

We

find that

we

only have

beads,

so our left hand will help us.

10.

The

left

index finger will set a

child has learned

What

is

4's partner to

make 10? The

it

is 6.

So he will clear 6 with the right hand.

10,

Or we may say
too

we gave
did
is

but

we wanted

only 4 more;
is 6,

how much
6.

many
6

we give?

Four from 10

so

we clear
add
5.

The

cleared with the right hand.

We now

That can be
6

added directly.

Now we add

6.

We

cannot add
10.

directly.
6

Here again,

the left

hand sets another

One says,

from

10

10 is 4; so

we must clear

4.

We

cannot clear 4 directly

5

with the right hand; so the right hand clears a

and sets

Here again figuring

a
1
.

from

5 is

tells us

we must

give back
a

We wanted

to take

away

4 pennies; but

we took away

nickel, so

we owe

cent.

We

give back

1.

We now

have 21 on the abacus.

5

We

add

7.

This can

be added directly by setting

and

more.

We now

have 28.
left

We

are ready to add

10.

8.

We

cannot add
is 2;

8 directly,

so the

hand sets a
2.

Eight from 10
9-

so the right hand clears

We now

add

This cannot be done directly.

Here again

the left hand sets a 10.

Nine from 10

is 1,

so the right hand

clears

1.

We now

have 45.
is

This same exercise

setting
1

continued by starting out by

1,

on the units column and then adding

9.

2,

3,

etc.
is

through
46.

When we

start with

on the abacus, our answer

When we

start with 2 on the abacus, our

answer

is

47, etc

Following are some one -digit addition examples for

practice:
2 +

2=
1=

3 +

5=

7 + 2 =

6 +
2 +

4 +
2 +

5=
3=

5 +

=
=

5=
1

3+4

4 +

11

ADDITION OF TWO DIGIT NUMBERS

Addition on the abacus

is

done from

left to right.

When
carry
3;

addition

is

done from

left to right,

we do

not have to
set a

Let us add 36 plus 27,

On

the tens
6.

column we

then on the units column we set a

Since

we were going
The

to write 36,
left

we

put our right hand on the tens column.

to the left of the right

hand

is

immediately

hand resting
to the
fol-

on the hundreds column.

right to the units

Then

the right hand

moves
left

column

to write the 6.

The

hand

lows the right hand, and when the right hand

6 in the units

is

writing the
3 in

column, the

left

hand

is resting

on the

the

tens column.
it is

For low vision students and sighted teachers,

helpful to keep the pointer fingers on the lower part of

the
this

columns instead

of resting the fingers on the

beads.
set;

In

manner we do
it

not cover the

numbers we have

thus

making

possible to read with the eye what

we have

written.

We

are now ready to add 27.

2.

We
we do

place our right hand

not have 2 beads,
3.

on the tens column and add

Since
so

we must add
right hand

5.

Two from

5 is 3,

we clear

Then our
left

moves

to the units
to

column (followed by the

7.

hand) and

we are ready

add
10.

We

cannot add a

directly,
7,

so the

left

hand will set a

Since

we

only wanted

we

12

will say 7

from

is 3.

We

will clear
3

with the right hand

in the units
5.

column.

We

cannot clear

directly, so
5

we clear

Three from
3,

5 is 2.

Since
2

we cleared

and had to take

away

we took away

extra beads.

We

will give

back

with our right hand.

The answer
is

is 63.

Direct addition

not difficult and in the beginning,

one should give the student simple problems such as 123 plus
321.

Here we
(the left

set

in the

hundreds column with the right

to the left of the right

hand
hand)

hand being immediately

Both hands move to the right and the right hand sets

the 2 in the tens column.

Then both hands move

to the right

and we write the

the hundreds

3 in

the units column.

We

then go back to
3 in

column and

the right hand sets the

the

hundreds column.

Then both hands move

to the right

and the

right hand sets the 2 in the tens column.

We move

again to
right hand,

the right and set the

in the units

column with our

Our answer
right hand.

is

444.
let

Our

left

hand did not have

to assist the

Now

us add 789 to 444.

We We

place our right

hand on the 4

in the

hundreds column.

cannot add a

7 to

the 4 directly, so the left hand will give us a 10 in the thou-

sands column.
only
7

This 10

is

equal to

hundreds, but we wanted

3

more hundreds.

Therefore, we must clear

hundreds

13

(7

from

10 gives us

3)

Both hands move

to the right

and we are ready

to

add

tens.

We
left

do not have

tens, so our left hand will

1

assist.

The

hand will give us 10 tens or

bead

in the

hundreds column.
clear
ones.
2 tens.

We

have added

tens too many, so

we
9

We now move

to the units

column and add

We

do not have
10.

9 units,

so our left hand assists again

9,

by setting a
say
9

Although we only wanted

1.

we add

10.

We

from

10 is
is

We

then clear a

in the units

column.

Our answer

1233.
in

Exercises
23 + 25 =
71 + 16 =

two- and three-digit addition:

52 + 17 =
81 + 8 =

34 + 15 =
62 + 20 =
72 + 16 =

24 + 65 =
25 + 23 =

12 + 72 =

653 + 230 =

825 + 162 = 873 + 34 =

907 + 52 =

425 + 23 = 473 + 192 =

892 + 532 =

769 + 25 =

395 + 232 =

439 + 123 =

14

SUBTRACTION
Subtraction, can be introduced at the

same time
1

that
1,

addition

is

being taught.

For example, when we add

1

to

we have

2.

Now

let

us take

away, or subtract
1

1.

What do

we have

left?
2

We
and

find that
2.

we have
4.

left.

Clear the abacus.

subtract
2.

Then we add
have
in
2 left.

We

have

Now

let us

We

In setting

beads and clearing, we must always keep

mind our hand

position; the left

hand always follows the

right.

Let us set 32 and subtract 21

in the tens

We

set the 3 of the 32

column with
and set the

the right hand.

2 in the units

Then we move our hands

to the right

column.

From

this

we

wish

to subtract 21.

Here again, as

in addition,
3 in

we work from
the tens

left to right.

We

place our right hand on the

2

column

of the 32

and take

away, leaving a
to the right

in the tens

column.

Then both hands move

1

and the right hand clears a

in the units

column from

the 2.

Our answer

is

1 1

This

is

subtracting directly.

For every addition problem,

can be given.
1.

a subtraction

example

We

start by saying let us add

to zero.

We
to

set

Let us subtract

from

1.

Our answer

is

zero.

Now

15

zero add

Let us add two more.

Subtract
2

We

have

3.

Subtract

We
add
3

have
2

2 left.

and we have zero.

We

set

1.

We

more.

Let us add

more.

We

find that
the-

we cannot add
5

directly, so

we

set 5
2

and we recall that

partner of

and
1.

3 is 2.

So we clear
1

and our answer

is 5
.

is 6.

We now

subtract

We

clear
6

and our answer

In other

words, the difference

3

between

and
I

is 5.

We

could also have said that you had

cents and

will give you 3

more.

But since

do not have

cents

will give

you a nickel.

Then how much money must you

give back to

me? The

child will return 2 cents and have 6

remaining

To continue with

the subtraction

example, we took
2

from

and have

remaining.
but

Let us take away

clear
so
5.

more.
is

We

cannot clear

2 directly,

we can
it

What

the part3.

ner of

and 2?

We

recall that

is 3,

we return
5.

We

wanted

to subtract 2

from

5.

We

subtracted
3

How

many-

extra did

we

take

away?

We

took away

too
2

many.
5

So we
a

return

3.

Now we
of 3
,

see that when

we took

from
5

we have

remainder

or the difference between

and
2.

2 is 3.

We

now have
directly.

3 left

on the abacus.
is
1

We

subtract
1.

This can be done

There

left.

We

subtract

This can be done

directly and our answer

is

zero.

16

We now
more.
wish
to

start
3.

from

the beginning and add

set 5

Then

Then we add
add
left

We must
it

and clear

2.

We now

4.

We

cannot do

directly with the right hand,

so our
10, but

hand will help us.

4

The

left

hand sets

10.

We

gave

we only wanted
is 6,

more; how much too many did we give?

6

Four from 10

so

we clear

with the right hand.

is 4's

In

working with partners, we can also ask what

partner to

make 10?

It

is 6.

We

set a 10 with the left hand, clear 6

with the right, and find that the

sum

of 6

and 4

is

10.

Now we
we have
column.

turn again to subtraction; 10 minus

1.

Since

to subtract a 1,

we

put our right hand on the units

Since there

is

a zero in the units column,

we turn
10.

to

the left hand to assist us.

Our
1
.

left

hand will clear a

to see
is 9-

But

we only wanted
extra

to subtract

We check
1

how many

we took away.
9-

We

say,

from 10

We must
9

there-

fore return
5

So our right hand will give back

in the unit

by setting a

and 4 more

column.
have

We now We

wish

to subtract 2.
3.

We We

clear 2 directly.

We
3

7 left.

wish to subtract

cannot subtract
5.

directly, but our right index finger can

to subtract 3.
3

clear

We wanted
have
4.

So we clear
4.

and set

2.

We now
5

Seven minus

gave us

The partner
5.

of

and

3 is 2,

so

we gave back

2 after

clearing the

We now

17

subtract

more.

This can be done directly.

subtract 4.

Let us add
left.

more

to the 2.

Now

We
from

have zero
1

We
3,

start again and add

7 8,

to 45

by adding

1,

2,

4,

5,

6,

and

9-

We now

have 45.

We now

subtract

Our

right hand is on the units

column and

the left

hand

is

on the tens column immediately to the

left of the right

hand.

We

cannot subtract
5

directly, so

we say

from

5 is 4;

we

cleared

and set

4.

We

subtract 2 directly by clearing 2

beads with the right hand.

We

are now ready to subtract

3,

3.

The right hand cannot subtract a

us.

but the left hand can help

We
10

subtract a 10.
is 7.

How many

extra did we clear?

7

Three

from

That means that we cleared

7.

too
7.

many, so we

must return
5

The right hand will give back

have
9 in

We
3 in

will set
the tens

and

2.

We now We

the units
is

column and

column.

subtract 4.

This

done directly.
5.

We

clear 4

with the right hand.

with the right hand.

We now We

subtract

This

is

done directly
6

are now ready to subtract

6

from
zero

30.
in

The right hand cannot subtract a

the units column,

because there

is a

so the left hand

must assist

us.

The

left

hand clears a
10.

10.

We wanted

to subtract 6

and we subtracted

How many
1

extra did

we subtract?
so

Six

from

10 is 4; or

the partner of

and

6 is 4;

we give back

4 leaving us 24.

18

Now we

are ready to subtract

7.

Since

we have only
The

4 in the

units column,

we must go

to the tens

column.
3

left

hand

will subtract a 10.

to subtract 7,
7

We

have taken away

10,

too

many.

"We

wanted

but

we subtracted

so

we check by saying
3

from

10

is 3.

That means we took away

3 in

too

many, so we
3

must give back

directly, but

the unit column.

We

cannot give back

2

we can
2

give back a

5.

We

gave back
17.

too many;
8.

so

we must clear

beads.
8,

We now

have
10.

We

subtract

We
too

cannot subtract

so

we clear

We

have taken away

Eight from 10

many, so
2.

the right hand returns 2 beads.

gives us

We now
9-

have

beads on the abacus.

We

are
is

ready to subtract
zero.

We

do this directly, and our result

For the next exercise,

start by setting
8,

on the abacus.

To

this

add

1,

2,

3,

4,

5,

6,

7,

and

9-

We now

have 46

on the abacus.
1,

We
6,
7,

subtract in the
8,
9-

same manner,
1

starting with

2,

3,

4,

5,

We

have

left

on the abacus.

Then

we

set

more bead and

start out with 2 on the abacus.

1,

Now
and
9

we continue as before by adding

2,

3,

4,

5,

6,

7,

8,

When we
This
is

get to 47

we begin subtracting

1,

2,

3,

etc.

etc

an excellent exercise for addition and subtraction.

Let us examine a few subtraction examples.

We

shall

19

set 64 on the abacus.

We

write

with the right hand in the tens

left of
it.

column and

the left

hand

is

on the rod to the

Both

hands move to the right to set the 4

While the right hand sets the

in the units

column.

4, the left

hand rests on the tens

place the right hand on

column.

We

will

now subtract

46.

We

the 6 in the tens column.

To subtract

4,

we

find

we cannot

subtract
set
1

it

directly, so

we clear

a 5 with the index finger and

Z in

with the thumb.

This leaves a

the tens place.

to subtract a 6

Both

hands move to the right and we are ready

the 4 ones.

from
hand

Since

we cannot take away

left

from

4,

our

left

must help

us.

The

pointer finger will take away a 10

6,

and since we only wanted to subtract

is

we

will say 6

from 10

4 and give

back
5.

4 ones.

We

cannot give back 4 ones directly,

so
5,

we give back
so

But we had to give back 4 and we gave back

1

we have given back

is
1

too many; therefore,

we clear

1.

Our answer

8.

Now

let

us subtract 89

from

182.

We

put our right

the 8.

hand on the tens column

to subtract the 8

from

We move

both hands to the right to subtract the Since we cannot take

9

9 in the units

column.

from

2,

our

left

hand will help us.

There
the

is

a zero in the tens column, so our left hand will go to

1

hundreds column and clear

bead which

is

equal to

1:0

tens.

20

Since

we wanted

to clear only

ten,

we

will return 9 tens in

is
1

the tens column.

in the units

We now

say

from 10

and return a
is

column with

the right hand.

Our answer

93,

Subtraction Exercises:
24
-

12 31 =

124 275

93 =

46
76 82
97

184 =

35 = 19 =

378 500 328

179 9 =

68 =

29 =

21

MULTIPLICATION
Since multiplication
is a

rapid

form

of addition, the

teacher can introduce multiplication whenever she feels

fits into

it

her mathematical curriculum.

The second grade

if

teacher
to

may wish

to

demonstrate
2

to

her class that

4.

we want

add

two times, we can say

1

twos are

And

the child

can set first

the

set of 2

and then another set

of 2 at

and see that

an earlier
2,

answer

is 4.

The child may have learned

age to count by 2's, but now he sees how he gets

etc.

4,

6,

8,

The mathematics becomes meaningful.

that 2 x
1

The teacher then

,

shows the child

let

is 2,

2 is 4,

etc.

etc.

Now

us examine

how

this is set up on the abacus.

The student must learn

cation
all

that

each part

of a multipli-

problem has

name.

We

learn these names so that we

is

speak the same language.

the multiplicand.
is

The number which

multiplied

is

The number by which

the multiplying is

done

the multiplier.

These two together are called the

is

factors.

The answer

called the product.

Let us multiply
the

3x6.

The multiplier
left

3 is

placed

all

way

to the left on the

extreme

column.

Now we go
where
the

to

the right hand side of the abacus to figure out

22

multiplicand should be placed.

We

count up how

many columns

are used

in the multiplier,

how many are used

in the multipliin

cand and add one column for the abacus.

For example,
1

the digit 3 there is one place; in the digit 6, there is

place
the

and we add one for the abacus giving us

places.

From

extreme

right,

we count

in 3

places - -first column units, second

-

column
left

tens, and third hundreds

is

-there

we place our

6.

The

hand

immediately

to the left of the right hand.

3

With

the right hand on 6,

the right
left

we say

6 is

one eight

As we say one,
1
.

hand moves

to the right of the 6

and sets the

1

The

hand follows the right hand and as we write the

hand rests on the
1,

with the

right hand, the left

or the column
to the right

where

the 6 is.

After we have set the

move

and set

the 8 as

we say

it.

As

the right hand has

it

moved
and
is

to the right

to set the 8, the left

hand has followed

the
1

resting on

the

1,

or the

column where
6.

is.

We
18.

then pick up the right

hand and clear the

Our answer
7

is

Let us now multiply

plier 7 to the

x 43.

We

will write our multi-

extreme

left.

We must now We

figure out

where

to

write the 43 of the multiplicand.

1

count up our digits:

digit in the multiplier,

2 digits in the

multiplicand and add

one place for the abacus.

We

go in 4 columns from the extreme

23

right

column and write, or

set, 43.

(The 4

is set in

the

thousands place, and the

3 in

the hundreds place.)

We now

must check and see how many empty columns we have after
the
3 of

the 43.

There should be 2- -one for the

digit in the

multiplier and one for the abacus.

ply.
left

We

are now ready to multi3 of the

With our right index finger on the

43 and our
7

index finger resting on the 4 of the 43

2 in

we

say:
it),

3 is

two (setting the

the tens

column as we say

then we
it

move

both hands to the right as

we say one, and

set

in the

units column.

We

pick up the right hand and clear the

7

3.

We
is

now place

the right hand on the 4 of the 43 and say

to the right as

x 4

two (the right hand moves

left

we

set the 2

and the
to the

hand follows

it,

resting on the 4).

Then we move

right and are ready to write the 8 of the two eight with the 2
in the tens

column.

The

left

hand

is

now resting on

the 2

that

was

just written in the hundreds column.

2

Since the right

hand cannot set an eight with the

the left hand can help us.
It

already in the tens column,

will give us 10

which

is

equal to

10 tens in the hundreds column.

Because we added 10 when we

wanted only
since 8

8,

the right hand will clear the 2 that is there;

is 2

from

10

and we have added

the tens place.

too

many,

the right

hand clears the

2 in

We

pick up the right hand

24

and clear the

4.

The answer or product

is

301.
it

There should
will always be

be no difficulty in reading the answer because

on the extreme right side of the abacus.

Let us now multiply 43 x

the multiplier to the

7.

We

will set the 43 as

extreme
7.

left

and we shall determine where

2 digits for the

to set the multiplicand,

We

count

multi-

plier, one for the multiplicand and one for the abacus.

That

means we go
7 in

in 4

columns from right

to left

and we write the

7

the thousands column.

left

We

put our right hand on the

and the
7 is

hand

to the left of

it,

and we say.
to the right

4 of the 43 x

two, and

we move our hands

and write the

to the

2 in the

hundreds column.

Then we move both hands

right and set the eight in the tens column, (our left

hand resting

on the

2 of the

hundreds column)

We

hold the hands in that

7 is

position while
2

we

say:

3 (of

the 43) x

two, (and

we

set the

where

the right
2

hand

is

resting, with the 8).

Since

we cannot
The
left

write a

where

the 8 is, the left

hand will help us.

2,

hand will give

is 8,

10.

Because we wanted only

and
it

from

10

the right hand will clear the 8 on

to the right
left

which

was resting.
1

Then we move both hands

in the units
of the tens

and set the

(of the 21)

column.

The

hand

is

now resting on
Ijand

the zero
7.

column.

We

pick up the right

and clear the

25

We now

read the product, 301.

When we

multiply 43 x

7,

we

must remember

to multiply the 7 by the digits of the multi-

plier in the order of their occurrence.

said,

For example, we

first

4x7,

and then we said

3x7.
is to

We

might mention here that when a zero

in multiplication,

be re-

corded on the abacus

we press

the rod or

column gently or touch know our position.

will set the 5 to the

it

and hold the hand there so that we

let

For example,
extreme
left

us multiply

x 47.

We

and count 4 columns from

digits

right to left to set the 47.

that

By counting up our

we

find

we have
7

and
5

for the abacus.

We

place our right hand

to the

on the

and say:

7 is

three (we

move our hands

right and set the 3 in the tens place).

to the right

We

then say five,

move

and set

it

in the units place.

We

pick up the right

4.

hand and clear the

7.

Place the right hand on the

5

With

our right hand on the 4 we say:

x 4

is

two (our right hand

moves

to the right

and sets the

2 in the

hundreds place).

As

we say zero
3

(for the

zero

of 20),

our right hand rests on the

which

is

already

in the tens

place and
the zero.

we

give the

a little
the

touch as

if

we were recording

Then we pick up
is

right hand and clear the 4.

The answer or product

235.

Let us multiply 4 x 32.

Place the 4 to the extreme

26

left;

then count in 4 places

from

the

extreme
and

right and set the

32, putting the 3 in the thousands place

2 in the

hundreds

place.

We

are now ready to multiply.

Place the right hand on

8.

the 2 and the left hand on the 3.

"We say 4 x 2 is zero

As

we say zero, our hands move

is

to the right

and our right hand

on the tens column as we record the zero by touching the

bar.

Then both hands move

to the right

and our right hand

that

sets the 8 in the units column.

(We must learn

whenever

we multiply one
2 digits.
If it is

digit

by another digit, our answer will have

it

an

8,

is

zero eight.)

We

pick up the right

3

hand and clear the

4 x 3 is one two.
setting the
1

2.

We

put the right hand on the

and say:

As we say one, both hands move

to the right of the 3.
2 in the

to the right

immediately

We

then

move

both hands to the right and set the

tens column.
is

We

pick up the right hand and clear the

Multiplication Exercises:
17 x 14 =

3.

The answer

128.

25 x

37 x 6 =

43 x

7 =

63x5=

82 x 7 = 95 x 3 =

49x9=
56 x 8 =

71x6=

28

tens place;

we move our hands

to the right

and set the

2 in

the units place.

We
912.

pick up the right hand and clear the

3.

The product

is

Let us now multiply 4 x

3 02.

We

will put our right

hand on the

and say:

4 x 2 is zero eight.

Our

right

hand

moves

to the right

and touches the rod on the tens column as

to the right

we say

zero.

Then we move

and the right hand

sets the 8 in the units column.

We

pick up our right hand and

3

clear the

2.

We

then put the right hand on the

and say:
1

4 x 3 is one, (moving to the right and setting the

in the

thousands column)

and we say two as the hands move to the

right and set the 2 in the hundreds column. right hand and clear the 3.

We

pick up the

The product

is

1208.

Multiplication Exercises Using Zeros:

5

x 302 =
3 =

703x4
204 x
7

902 x

809 x

5 =

207 x.14 =
107 x 36 =

805 x 32 =

608 x 24 =

506 x 203 =

29

MULTIPLICATION OF TWO DIGITS

Let us take the example 45 x 67,

Write 45

to the

extreme

left.

There are two

digits in the multiplier, 45, and

67, giving us four digits, then
it

two digits

in the multiplicand,

we add one more place

for the abacus, making

left

places.

We

count

rods from right to

and set 67
7 in

(the 6 being

placed
.

in the ten

thousands place, and the

3

the thousands place)

to the

This leaves us

empty columns or rods

extreme

right.

We

are now ready to multiply.

With our right pointer finger on the

and the

left

hand pointer finger on the

6,

we

say.

4 x 7 is two eight.

We

set the 2 to the right of the 7 and then set the 8 to the right of

the 2.

The

left

hand follows the right hand.

left

We

hold our right

say:

hand on the
5

and our

hand

is

on the
3

2.

Now we

7 is

three five.

We

write the
3

where our
the 8
7,
is;

right hand is

on the

8.

We

cannot write a

where

so our left hand

3

adds a 10 and our right hand clears a

is
7.

because

from

10

Then we move our

The

right hand to the right and set a 5 in

the units column.

left

hand rests on the

in the tens
7

column.

Pick up the right hand and clear the

from

the 67.

30

Place the right pointer finger on the

6 is

and say:

4 x

two four.

Set the 2 to the right of the

5

and add 4

to 3,

We

add 4 by setting
7

and clearing
left

1,

and we hold the right

2.

hand on the
is

and the

hand on the
3

Then we

say:

5x6

three zero7.

We

write the

where our

right hand is holding

the

Since

we cannot write

a 3

where

the 7 is, our left

2 is

hand will help us by adding 10 where the hand will clear

7,

and our right

because

from

10 is

7.

Then we move our

1

hands to the right and set the zero where the

the zero by touching the
right
1

is.

We record
pick up the

with the right hand.

We

hand and clear the

6.

Our answer

is

3015,
is

Multiplication of two digits by three digits

a similar

done

in

manner.

Multiplication by three or

more

digits is

done

in the

same manner.

Exercises:
34 x 29 = 103 x 42 =
98 x 56 =

235 x 74 =
104 x 36 =

206 x 18 =
87 x 45 =

246 x 39 =

342 x 58 =

234 x 125 =

31

DIVISION

As we begin

division,

we must acquaint ourselves

with the names of the different parts of a division problem.

The number
The number The answer

that does the dividing is called the divisor.

into
is

which

it is

divided

is

called the dividend.

if

the quotient.
6

For example.,

we would
is

divide 6 into 48. the

would be the divisor, the 48

the quotient.

the

dividend, and the 8

In setting

is

up an example in division on the abacus, we

set the divisor to the

extreme

left of the

abacus.

The divi-

dend

is set to the

extreme right on the frame.

to the left of the dividend.

The quo-

tient will

appear

In short division,

we have one

digit in the divisor

and as many digits as we wish

the divisor into one or,
if

in the dividend.

We

then divide

necessary, more digits in the diviis

dend.

This results in a quotient figure which

entered on
in the quotient

the abacus.
is

The figure which has been entered

then multiplied by the divisor and the product resulting

this multiplication is subtracted

from

from
.

the dividend.
first

Let us now

work an example
Our divisor

Our
is 4;

example
is

will be 792 divided by 4.

our dividend

32

792.

We

will set our divisor to the

extreme
right.

left.

We

will

set our dividend,

792, to the
7 of

extreme

We

put our

right

hand on the

the

92 and ask:

4 will go into 7

how many times, or how many

one time.
tient,

4's in 7?

Four

will go into

The question arises where

to place the first

quo-

digit 1.

We examine
If

the divisor, 4, with the first

digit in our dividend.

the divisor is equal to, or smaller

than, the first digit in the dividend,

the left of the dividend and set the
1

we skip one column

in

to

our quotient.

Four
1

went into

one time.

We

skip one

column and
hand on the
x 4
is

set the

with

the right hand.

left

Then with our

it,

right
1

and the

hand

to the left of

we

say:

zero four.

As

we say zero,
the

the right hand a zero.

7

moves

to the right

and rests on
right

column with

Then as we say four, our

4.

hand moves to the

ing 5 and setting
1

and subtracts

We

subtract 4 by clear-

with the right hand.

say:

We

are then ready to

divide again, and

to place the 9?
in the dividend.

we

4 into 39 will go 9 times. the divisor with the first

is

Where
number
the divi9,

We examine

Our divisor 4
is

larger than the

3 in

dend.

Since

it

larger,

we

will write the quotient digit,

immediately
right

to the left of the 3 in the dividend.

Now, with

the

hand on the

9,

we

will say:

x 4

is

three six or 36.

As

33

we say three,

the right

hand leaves the

9,

moves
it.

to the next
to

column where there

the right and say 6.
in the dividend,

is a 3,

and subtracts
is

We move
the

The right hand

6.

now where
3

9 is

and we subtract

This leaves
3Z.

and we
say:

examine the dividend and see

4 into 32 goes 8 times.
the
3 in

that

we have

We
is

Since 4, the divisor,

will write
it

larger than
to the left
left

the dividend,

we

immediately
8

of the 3.

Now, with

the right
it,

hand on the

and the
is

hand

immediately
32.

to the left of

we

say:

x 4

three two or

We move

to the right

and the right hand

it.

falls

on the

of the 32.

As we say three, we clear

say two and clear

Then we move

the

right hand to the 2,

it.

We
the

are now ready to read the answer.

of the

We

go to

extreme right

abacus and count

off

one column for

the digit in the divisor, and one for the abacus.

to the left of that is quotient.

Everything

Our quotient

is 198,

We

can

now check
tient.

the division by multiplying the divisor by the quo-

We

place the right hand on the

and the

left

on the

We

say:

4 x 8 is three two or 32.

3 in

We move
then

to the right to the right

and set the

and write
clear the

the tens place.

We We

move

2 in the

ones place.

pick up the right hand and

9

8,

We

place the right hand on the

and say:

4x9

34

is

three six or 36.

9,

As we say three, we put

the 3 to the

right of the
6

then

move our hand

to the right

and set the

where the

3 is in

the tens column.

9-

We

pick up the right

hand and clear the

and say:
1

Then we place

the right

hand on the
the

x 4

is

zero four.

As we say zero,

hand
1

moves
to

to the right

and touches the column next to the

record the zero.

We move
3,

on to the right and the right

it

hand sets the 4 with the

hand and clear the
1.

making

7.

We

pick up the right

is

We now
we

have 792.

This

what we

had

in the

dividend when
is a

first started to divide 4 into 792.

to

It

good policy
is

do the same problem over and

It is

over until the process

well established.
it

also good

practice to divide and then check

tion.
In this

through by multiplica-

way we have

the practice of dividing, subtrac-

ting, adding

and multiplying.

Exercises:
255
f

5 =

357

7 =

8199 2418
3936
9876

9 = 6 =

2112
896 812
t

6 =

8 = 6 =

4 =
s

2348

9 =

35

LONG DIVISION
Long division
is

the process by
is

which a dividend

made up

of

any number of digits

divided by a divisor

made

up of two or more digits.

We

set

it

up on the abacus in the

same manner

as

we

set up the short division

example.

Let us take an example with a divisor of 45 and the

dividend of
3

015.

We

write our divisor to the extreme

left.

We

write our dividend 3015 to the extreme right.

When we

divide with

more than one

is

digit,

we look
that

for a trial divisor.

Since 45
.

close to 50

we say

our

trial divisor should be 5

have found that when dividing

from 43

to

49

it

is

a good idea to use 5 as a trial divisor.

We

are now ready to check and see how

many times
of the

the trial divisor, 5, will go into the first two

numbers

dividend.

Since

it

would not go into the

first digit of 3,

we

say that
digit of

5 will

go into 30 six times.

We check

the first

our divisor with the first digit of the dividend and we

find that the 4 in 45 is larger than the 3 in 30.

So we write

the 6

immediately
6

to the left of the 3 in 30.

6

With our right

hand on the
right

we

say:

x 4

is

two four.

As we say two, our

2

hand moves

to the right

and we subtract the

from

the

3.

36

Then our hands move

right

to the right

and as we say four our

Since we cannot

hand touches the column with a zero.

take 4

from zero, we subtract

a 10 with the left hand.

We
so

wanted

to subtract only 4 but the left

hand cleared a

10,

the right hand will return 6.

Our

right hand

remains on
it,

the 6 and the left hand is on the zero to the left of

and

we

say:

6 of the quotient

times the second digit

in the

divisor, which
right hand,

is 5,

is

three zero.
6 will

As we say three,
3

the
5

which
2.

is

on the

subtract a

by clearing

and setting
zero.

Then both hands move

to the right as

we say
the
1,

As we say zero,

the right hand,

which

is

now on

records the zero by pressing the rod.

divide again.

We
5,

are now ready to

into 31

We

take the trial divisor,

and we

see that

5 will

go into 31 six times.

3 of the 31 in

Since the 4 in the divithe dividend,

sor

is

greater than the

we write

the 6 immediately to the left of the 3 of the 31

right

And with our

hand on the
is

we

say:

times the

first digit in the

divisor, 4,

two four.

As we say two, the right hand

slides over to the 3 and

we subtract
4;

2.

Then both hands

move

to the right as

we say

and since the right hand cannot

subtract 4

from

1,

the left hand assists by clearing a 10.

Now we wanted

only 4 and the left hand cleared 10.

That

37

means we took away

a 6.

6 too

many; so the right hand will return

7

With our right hand on the

left of it,

and the

left

hand on the

zero to the

we
6

say:

by going back to the last digit

5 in the

we have
zero.
5

in

our quotient

times the

divisor

is

three

As we say three we subtract

2.

it

from

the 7 by clearing

and setting

"We

move

to the right
of the

and with the right

hand record the subtraction

zero by pressing the

column where

the 5 is.

We

are now ready to divide again.

We

look at our divisor and we examine our dividend.

We

see that

we have 45

left.

Then we say

that 45 will go into

45 one time.

Since the 4 in the 45

is the

same

as the 4 in

the divisor and the second digit in each are the

same, we
1

must skip
with the
6.

a space

from

the 4 in the dividend and set the

We now

multiply again, the

1x4

giving us
left

zero four, the right hand moving to the right and the
following.
four.

We

say zero, then

four,

move

to the right

and say
both

As we say

we subtract
the right

the 4.

We move
in the

hands to the right.

As

hand rests
1

column

where we cleared
zero
clear
five,

the 4,

we

say:

5 is

zero

5.

As we say
5

we move

to the right

and when we reach the

we

it.

We

are now ready to read the answer.

In

order to

38

read our answer we must figure out how many spaces we

must go

in

from

right to left before

of digits in

we read

it.

First
2;

we
then

count the

number

our divisor- -we have

1

we add

column for
3

the abacus-- 2 and

left.

is 3.

So we will
is

count in
quotient.

places from right to

Everything after that

Our quotient

is

67.

We

can now check our answer by multiplying the

quotient 67 by the divisor 45.

In

examining how the example

is set

up at this

moment, we

find that the quotient, 67, is located in the

proper position for multiplication.

5

The

6 of the

67

is in

spaces or rods from right to

left.

We

can check and see

2 for the

that there are 2

columns for the multiplier,

multi-

plicand and

for the abacus.

Every division example should be checked by

multiplication; and every example that is multiplied should

be checked by division.

These are excellent exercises and the student

requires continual practice.
Let us
division
is

work an example with

a remainder.
let us

The

done in the same manner, but

see where the

remainder will be and how we should treat

it.

39

Let us take the simple example of 4 into 1234.

set the 4 to the

We

extreme

left.

TThen

we
3

set the 1234 to the

2

extreme
the
1

right.

We

say:
is

there are

fours in

Since

in the

dividend

smaller than the 4

in the divisor,
left of the 1.

we

place the

3 of

our answer immediately to the

3

Then we

say:

x 4

is

one two or 12.

As we say one, we
1.

move

the hand to the right and subtract

When we

say two,

we move
Then we
divisor

the right hand to the right and subtract the 2.

say:

4 into 34 will go 8 times.

3 in

Since the 4 in our

is

larger than the

the dividend,

we
x 4

set the 8
is

immediately
or 32.

to the left of the 3.

We

say:

three two
3.

We move

the right

hand

to the right

and subtract

Then we move
subtract 2

the right
4.

hand

to the right as

we say two and

column.

from

This leaves a
2,

2 in the units

Since 4 will not go into

the 2 is our remainder.

We
count

are
off

now ready

to

check our answer, or quotient.

We

one place for the divisor, one place for the abacus --this

makes
answer

places from right to

left.

We
2.

read our answer.

that

Our

is

308 and a remainder of

Any figure

would be

in the last

columns would be remainders.

let us

Now

check our answer.

We

will multiply the

quotient by the divisor.

We

will put our right hand on the 8

40

of the quotient

and say:

x 4

is

three two.
3;

As we say three, we move our

remainder

we move our hands

to the right

and add

then

hands to the right as we say two and add

that is already in the units place.

2 to the

We pickup

the right hand

3

and clear the

3

8.

Then we place our hand on the

and say:
to the

x 4

is

one two.

As we say one, we move our hands

1.

right and set the

to the right

When we say
2.

two,
3.

we move our hands

and set the

This
is

Clear the

We now

have

in

our

answer 1234.

what we had when we started.

We

divided 4 into 1234.

This

is

an excellent exercise for division.

Start

out by dividing 2 into 1234.

Then try

into 1234,

and so on.

Both young people and teachers should do the same

example over and over.

traction as
it

This

is

as true in addition and sub-

is in

division and multiplication.

if

We

will notice in division that

we have
trial

not esti-

mated correctly
the dividend,

the

number

of

times our

divisor goes into

we can always
the divisor is

divide another time as

we go

along.

When

compared with

the dividend and

found to be smaller than the first digit in the dividend, we

skip a column.

At this time the correction

If

is

added

to the

estimated quotient.

we have

not put

down

the correct

41

answer

in

each part

of the quotient,

we correct our answer

as

we go

along.

Let us divide 225 by 26,

let us

Since 26

is

greater than 22
3

use

for a trial divisorit

We compare

with the 22
is

of

225 and find that

will go 7 times.
7

Since 26

greater

than 22, we set the quotient

22.

immediately

to the left of the

7,

We

multiply the estimated quotient figure,

2 is 14;

times 26.

Seven times
is 8.

subtract the 14

from

the 22; the difference

6 is 42,

We now

have 85 on the abacus.

is

Seven times

and the difference

43,

We

note that the remainder, 43,

is

greater than the divisor, 26.

too low.
4.

Hence, our estimate

3,

of 7 is

We

will take our trial divisor,

1

and divide

it

into

The answer will be

1

Since 26

is

smaller than 43, we

the quotient
8.

skip

rod and add the

1

to the 7,

making

We
43,

multiply the

just added times 26 and subtract this

from

leaving us 17.
In

Our quotient

is 8

and 17 remaining.

Mr. Gissoni's

text,

Using the Cranmer Abacus,

he refers to this as "upward correction."

He also discusses
examples and

"downward correction" and how

to

work
if

the

make our corrections.

duced early,
correction
it

find that

a trial divisor is intro-

will not be necessary to

make

downward

42

Examples:
444
ft

12 =
-

9734

*.

18 =
-

56883
33456

38 =

73983

72 =

272 =
11

63345
27615
9826
t

ft

123 =
95 =

4933
25025

25 =

64 =

43

ADDITION OF DECIMALS
The fundamentals
are the same as those
of adding

and subtracting decimals

in the

addition and subtraction of

whole numbers.

The

comma

or "unit

mark"

is

used as a
decimals.

decimal point

in both addition

and subtraction

of

When we have
the

one, two, or three decimal places in

first

example, we use the

decimal point from right

3

to

left.

Should there be more than

the

places in the decimal,

left.

we

must use

second decimal point from right to

That

becomes our decimal

For example,

point for that particular example.

let

us add
is

3.

plus

2.

04 plus 2, 005,
3

Since the smallest decimal

places.

thousandths, we need

decimal

Therefore, we will put our first whole number to

the left of the first; decimal point.

Going from right to

left,

we

find our first

decimal place and set the whole number,

it.

3,

immediately

to the left of

Immediately
1

to the right of the

decimal point we will

add
2. 04.

set our

tenth.

We
2,

are now ready to

We

add the whole number,

to the 3
5.

which

is to

the left of the first decimal.

This gives us

Next we place
is to the right

the 4 hundredths in the hundredths place

of the tenths place.

which

This

is 2

places to the right of the

44

decimal place.

Now we
whole number
5.

are ready to add

2.

005.

We

add

2 to the

T hen we add
is 3

005 by setting the

5 in the

thousandths place which

places to the right of the deci145.

mal

point.

Our answer

is 7.

Let us now look at an example with

more than

decimal places,

i.e.

more than
0005 +
2.

3 digits in

the decimal.
3

Example;
10. 3 + 1. 00002.

4.

006 +

000002 +

05 +

Since there are

more than

digits in

some

of

our

decimals; we must use the second decimal point, or unit

mark, from right

cular example.

to left as our

decimal point

in this parti-

First

we

set the

whole number 4
left)
.

to the left of the

second decimal point(from right to

Since

ten thou-

sandths requires 4 places after the decimal point, we touch

the first three

columns for the zeros, and then we

006 by adding 2 to the whole
6.

set the 5.
4,

We

then add

2.

number

making

the whole

number

We now

go

in 2

places for the zeros

after the decimal point and write the 6 for 6 thousandths.

We

add

and
it

millionths by adding the whole

number

2 to the 6,

making

8;

and the

millionths

is set in

the sixth place

45

after the decimal point.

the 8,

We now

add
5

3,

05 by adding the
in the

3 to

making

it

1 1

and setting the

hundredths

hun-

dredths place.

Now add
3

10.3 to the 11, making

it

21 in the

whole number and set

1

tenths in the tenths, place

1

Then add
making
it

and

hundred thousandths by adding

to the 21,

22, and set the 2 in the

5

hundred thousandths place, which

is

places after the decimal.

Our answer

is

22,356522.

Examples:
3.

86 +

2.

06 =

6.446 +
7.678 +

6.

002 =
085 =

4. 09 +

6.29 =

9.

3.2+9-934=
67. 5932 + 84. 000945 =

2.3367+15.00245=
7,

003456 +15. 3274 =

69-93574 + 182.37095 =

21.7765 + 19-329 =

46

SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS
We
decimals
is

have already mentioned that the subtraction

of

done

in the

same manner

as the subtraction of
to place in

whole numbers.
the decimal.

However, we must determine where

follow the

We

same procedure

as

we did

addition of decimals.

Let us examine a subtraction example:

5.

354

2. 13Z.

Going from right to

of the first

left,

we

set the

whole number

5 to

the left

decimal point.

Then

set 354 thousandths to the

right of the whole

2. 132.

number.

We

are now ready to subtract

From
2.

the whole
3.

number
3

subtract the whole

1

number

This leaves us

From

tenths subtract
5

tenth and this

3

leaves us with

2 tenths.

From
2

hundredths subtract

hun-

dredths and that gives us

hundredths.

From

4 thousandths

subtract 2 thousandths and we have 2 thousandths.

is

Our answer

3.222.

Let us now
than
3

work

a subtraction
7.

example
-

that has

more

places in the decimal:

674598

5.

342165.

The whole number

decimal place from right

7 is

set to the left of the second

to left.

The next six digits

of the

in the

decimal are written to the right

whole number

7.

From

47

the whole

number
3

subtract
3

5,

leaving

2.

From
7

6 tenths

subtract

tenths, leaving

tenths.

From

hundredths sub4 thousandths

5

tract 4 hundredths, leaving 3 hundredths.

From

subtract 2 thousandths, leaving 2 thousandths.

From

ten

thousandths subtract

ten thousandth leaving 4 ten thousandths.

From

the 9 hundred thousandths subtract 6 one

3

hundred thou8 millionths

is

sandths leaving
subtract
5

one hundred thousandths.

3

From

millionths, leaving

millionths.

Our answer

2.332433.
Indirect addition and subtraction examples are done in
the

same manner with decimals as they are done with whole

.

numbers

Examples:
6.42
-

4. 01 =

9-

173

4.

152 =
=

67.081-42.931=
89-573
-

78.403-57.132
62.7193
=
-

48.374
-

54.0347 =
-

49-2339

19-8745
-

123.73092
548. 85357

54.39705 =
528 78538 =

784. 03964

522. 7432 =

48

MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS
In the multiplication of

decimals, we set the multithe abacus as

plier and multiplicand in the

same manner on

we

set whole

numbers when we learned

the process of multi-

plication.

After we have completed our multiplication, we

point off as

many places

in

our product as there were places

In

in the multiplier

and multiplicand combined.

in the multiplier

other words,

we

add up

all the

decimal places
off that

and multipli-

cand and then point

counting

many places

in

our product by

from

right to left.
let

For example,

us multiply
left.

tenths by 37 hundredths.
in 4

We

will set our 5 to the

extreme

Then we count

rods

from

right to left and set the 37.

Now we
7

are ready to multiply.

left

With our right hand on the

and the
3

hand on the
to the

3,

we

say:

7 is

three five.
5

Set the

as

we move

right,

and then set the

as

we move
7.

to the right.

We

pick up

our right hand and clear the

3

We
Move

put our right hand on the the right hand to the right,
it

and say:

3 is

one five.

followed by the
right hand.

left

hand, and as we say one, set

to the right

with the
5

As we move

and say five, set the

3.

with
is

the 3.

Pick up the right hand and clear the

Our product

49

185.

Since we had one decimal place in the multiplier and two

in the

decimal places
get three.

multiplicand,
off 3

we add them together and

places in our product

Then we must point

from

right to left.

Our answer

is

.185.

Let us multiply
to the

2 tenths

by 4 tenths.

We

set the 2
4,

extreme

left.

Then
for the

in

order to know where to set the

digit in the

we count one place

1

multiplier one for the

That

digit in the multiplicand,

3

and

place for the abacus.

gives us

places.
4.

We

count in

columns from

right to left
2

and set the

With our right hand on the 4 we say:

the zero,

x 4

is

zero eight.

As we say

we move our hands

to the

right and press the bar to the right of the 4 and

move both
Then clear

hands
the 4.

to the right as

we say

eight and set the

8.

Since there was one decimal place in the multiplier and

one decimal place in the multiplicand, we will point off two deci-

mal places.

Thus our product

is

08.

Examples:

.4x9-7=
.6x5.32=
7.2x9-85=
.24 x
9-

63.2 x 14.43
2. 71

x 82.

8.6 x 54. 35 =
7.

38 =

65 x

9-

326 =

50

DIVISION

OF DECIMALS

In

our practice with division of decimals on the abacus,

if

we

treat the division as

we were working, with whole num-

bers.

Then we subtract

the
of

number

of

decimal places

in the

divisor from the

number

decimal places

in the dividend.

The difference indicates the number

the quotient.

of places to point off in

However,

if

we do

not have any decimal places in the

dividend and we do have one or

as

more

in the divisor,

then add
in

many zeros

to the dividend as there are

decimal places

the divisor and divide as in

working with whole numbers.

Since we have changed both divisor and dividend to whole

numbers, there are no places

to point off.

Let us take the example .4 into 8.4.

4 to the extreme
left.

We

will set our

Our 84

is

written to the extreme right.

is

Four

into 8

goes

times.

Since the 4 in the divisor

smaller

than the 8 in the dividend,

we

will skip a rod, and write the 2.

2,

Then with our

right

hand on the

we

say:

2 x 4 is

zero eight.

As we say zero we move

to the right,
8.

press the column, move

on tp the right and subtract the

We

then say:

4 will go into 4 once.

Since the 4 in the

51

divisor

is

equal to the 4 in the dividend,

1

we

will skip a

column

placing the
quotient.

immediately
say:
1

to the right of the 2 in the

answer or

We

x 4

is

zero four.

We move

our hands to
the 4

the right, touch the

column as we say zero and subtract

Since there
is

when we say

four.

one digit in the divisor and

to

one for the abacus,

left.

we count

in

two columns from right

Everything to the
Since

left of this is the

answer.
in

we had one decimal place

our divisor, and

1

one decimal place in our dividend, we subtract.

from

and

we get zero.

We

do not point
is

off

any places in our answer.

Our answer or quotient

21.

Let us use the example .3 into 96.

Since we have one

decimal place

in the

divisor and no places in the dividend,

in

we

will add as

many zeros

our dividend as there are deciis

mal places

in the divisor.

There

one decimal place in the

divisor, so the divisor

becomes

a whole

number and our

96

becomes
dend by
1

960.

This done by multiplying both divisor and diviis

when there

one place in the divisor.

If

there are

two places

in the divisor, then

we

multiply both divisor and divi-

dend by 100.
2

This clears the decimal in the divisor and gives

zeros in the dividend.

Hence, there are no decimal places

in the quotient.

52

We
in

divide 3 into
is

and

it

will go 3 times.
9 in

Since the

our divisor

smaller than the

the dividend,

we

will

skip a

column and place

the 3 and say;

3x3

is

zero nine,

moving

to the right, touching the

column for the zero, moving

9

on to the right and subtracting the

say:
3

as

we say
It

nine.

Then we Here

will go into
3 is

how many times?

6 in the

will go twice.

again the

smaller than the

dividend.

So we skip a

column and place the

2 to the right of the 3 in the

answer.
six.,

And

with the right hand on the

the hands in the proper

2,

we

say;

3 is

zero
the

moving
Since

manner and subtracting

6.

there

is

one digit in the divisor and one for the abacus, we

count in two places

of

from
is

right to

left,

and everything
is

to the left

these

columns

the answer.

Our answer

320,

There

are no decimal places in our quotient.

Fred Gissoni,

in his text,

Using the Cranmer Abacus,

describes a completely different method for locating the deci-

mals
that

in both

the product and the quotient,

The writer hopes

fully

when

the contents of this

manual are

examined by
a

interested people in the field,

we may perfect

more

simplified

method

of locating the

decimal point.

Exercises:
.205
* .5

.189-* 3 =

53

.279

.9 =
*

330

7 =
3

25.25

2.5 =

96.3

.11 ^

6.66

1.8 =
*

370. 37

43.56

.71 =

27.24

.32 =

54

FRACTIONS
A
fraction
a

is

numeral such as 1/2 or 3/4.

In the

introduction of fractions
the

we must learn

to distinguish

between

numerator and the denominator.

fraction 1/2,
1 1

For example,
2 is

in the

com-

mon

is

the

numerator and

the denominator.

The numerator
taken.

indicates the

number

of fractional units

The denominator

2 tells into

how many equal parts

the unit is supposed to be divided.

The whole number

example, 2/2
=
1 / 1

may
1

take
=
1
;

many forms.
4/4 = 1/1 =
1,

For
etc.
It

3/ 3 =
If

/ 1

may have many names.

keep
all 6,

you divide a pie

of

into 6 parts
all of it.

and
If

you will have 6/6

your pie, or

you
all

divide

it

into fourths

and keep

all 4,

you will have 4/4 or

your pie.
1

Nine-ninths, 2/2, 3/3, 100/100 are all

all the

names

for

because we have

parts into which the

number

is di-

vided.

Any number divided by

own value.
Seven
t
1

or multiplied by
is 3;

keeps
This

its

is 7; 3

1/2 x

is 1/2.

will be true no matter what

name

is

used for

Let us check this on the abacus.

tor
2 to the

We

set the

numera-

extreme

left,

skip two rods and set the denomina-

55

tor 2.

In

order to reduce 2/2 to

its

simplest form, we must

first find the greatest

common

factor of the numerator and the

to 2, the

denominator.
2, the

The factor
is 2.

common

numerator, and
factor 2

to

denominator,

We

divide the
it

common

into the

numerator

and change

to

1;

we

divide the
it

common
have 1/1

factor 2 into the denominator 2 and change

to 1.

We

which equals the whole number

Let us find the simplest name for 4/8.

Set the

numerator 4
denominator
8?
It

to the
8.

extreme
is

left,

skip two rods and set the

What

the largest

common

factor of 4 and
is
1

is 4.

Dividing 4 into the numerator 4

We

change
2.

the 4 to

Dividing 4 into the denominator 8 gives us

8 to 2.

We

change the
cess
is

Thus, the simplest form

is 1/2.

This pro-

commonly referred
Examples:

to as the reduction of fractions.

3/6 =

5/10 =
10/16 =

7/14 =
3/9 =

4/12

6/15 =

8/14 =
7/21 =

2/18 =

56

ADDITION OF FRACTIONS
In the addition

and subtraction

of fractions

we

divide

the abacus into three sections.

One section

is

for the whole

number, the second section

third section
is

is

for the numerator, and the

for the denominator.

Since a

common denominator
we

is

necessary

in the addi-

tion and subtraction of fractions,

shall first determine

what

it

will be, and then place

is

it

in the

denominator section.

The common denominator

The whole number
or the second unit
If

placed to the extreme right.

left of the

is

placed to the

second comma,

marker from

right to left on the abacus.

it

there

is

one digit in the whole number,

is

placed on the

seventh column from the right.

The numerator

is

placed to the
left).

left of the first

comma,

or unit marker (from right to

The denominator, as
If

mentioned before,

is

placed to the extreme right.

3 digits

the de-

nominators should be

or more, a system must be

worked

out

whereby
in

the three sections are

moved

to the left

and arranged
another.

such a manner that they do not run into one

Since we generally need a

common denominator

in

57

the addition of fractions,

we

shall get the

common denominator
Then place
of the
f

by multiplying the two denominators together.

the

common denominator
We

in the

denominator section

abacus.
5

are now ready to work an example:

4 5/6

7/9.

We must
One way
9,

first find the lowest

is to

common

denominator.
is

to

do this
it

take the largest denominator, which

and multiply
the other

by 2

Two x
6 will

9 is 18.

Then we check
If it

to see

if

denominator

go into 18.

does, we will

use the

18; if nbt,

we would multiply
is 3,

the 9 by the next

number
the

higher than

2,

which

etc

(Many times we multiply

two denominators and thereby find the

In this

common

denominator.)

case

it

is 18;

so
is

we place

the denominator 18 to the

extreme

right,

which

the section for the denominator.

We

are now ready to

of the 4

work

the
it

example
in the

We

take the

whole number 4

5/6 and set

whole number

section, which is to the left of the second unit

marker or

comma

(the 7th

column)
In

We

are now ready to change the 5/6

to 18ths
9

to eighteenths.

order to change 5/6

we

set the 5

to the

extreme

left,

skip a space and set the 6.

We

divide the

denominator

6 into the

common denominator
numerator
5

18 and

we

get

3,

Then we multiply

that 3 by the

and we get 15.

58

We

set the
is to

numerator

15 in the

numerator section

of the

abacus,

which

the left of the first unit

the student

marker or comma.
how

For
to

who

is

learning for the first time

change a fraction to a

common

denominator, the following

method might prove

the 5/6 to 18ths.

helpful.

In this

example we are changing

The student sets the numerator

left;

5 to

the

extreme
6.

then he skips a space and sets the denominator

With

the right hand on the the

denominator
18

6,

he asks:

6 will

go into
3

common denominator
He clears
the
5

how many times?

6

It

will go

times.

denominator
5

and places his right hand

on the numerator

and says:
1

3 is 15.

Then he clears

that 5 and places the

5 in

the

numerator section.
15,

He now

has the whole number

tor 18.

4, the

numerator

and the denomina-

We

are ready to add the

7/9

We

add the

5 to the

4 in the whole
9-

number

section.

We now

have the whole number

We must

change the 7/9 to I8ths.

Nine into 18 will go

twice; Z x 7 is 14.

We
We

shall add 14 to our

numerator

in the

numerator section.

have 29

in the

numerator.

We

examine our numerator and denominator and

find that the

numerator

is

larger than the denominator, so, we divide the

59

denominator
once.
in the

into the

numerator.
1

Eighteen into 29 will go

9

Then we add the

to the

whole number
say:
1

and get a 10

whole number section.

1

We

x 18

is 18.

We

subtract the

from

the 2 in the 29; and subtract the 8

from

the 9 in the 29-

This leaves us

1 1

in the

numerator.

As we look
10 11/18.

at the three sections

we read our answer:

Examples:
3

1/3+4

5/6 =

1/5+2

3/5 =

2/7+4
3/8 +
7

4/7 =
7/8 =

12 2/9 + 11 4/9 5

2/3+4
5/7 +
3

5/6 =

3/5+4 2/5+3

3/4 =

5/8 =
7

4/9 =

11

5/6 +

4/9

60

SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS
Subtraction examples are set up as in addition.

Again, we divide the abacus into three sections- -whole num-

bers to the

left of the

second unit marker; numerator to the

left of the first unit

marker; and the

common denominator

to

the

extreme

right.
7

Let us work the example;

First we find the
the two

5/8

2/3.

common denominator
3.

by multiplying
"We will set
7

denominators

and

Eight x

3 is

24.

the 24 to the

extreme

right.

We

are now ready to write

5/8

We

will set the 7 in the whole

number section which

is to

the left of the second unit

marker (from

right to left).
24.

Then

we change our 5/8

to the

common denominator

To change 5/8
the 5 of the 5/8 to the
8.

to the

common denominator
left.

24, set

extreme

Skip a space and set the

With the right hand on the

times
.

8 of the

5/8 say:

8 into

24 goes

Clear the

and put the right hand on the

5

and say:
left.

3 is 15.

Clear the

and set a 15 to the extreme

Now we

have changed our 5/8 to 15/24.

Clear the 15 and set

the left of the first

the 15 in the

numerator place which

is to

comma.

61

We
from

are now ready to subtract the whole number

the 7 which leaves 2.

We

then subtract the 2/3 from the

15/24.

However, since we cannot subtract thirds from 24ths,

.

we

will change the 2/3 to 24ths

3

Set the 2 to the

extreme

left.

Skip a space and set the

3

With the right hand on the

3

3 say:

into 24

goes

times.
2

Clear the

and say
to the

x the numerator
left.

2 is 16.

Clear the

and set the 16

extreme

We

now have 16/24,

We

will subtract the 16/24

from 15/24.
will have to

Since we cannot take 16 from 15,

we
2.,

borrow

a whole one
1

from

the whole

number

which

"will

leave us a

in the

whole number section.

Since the whole

number

has 24/24, we will add that tothe 15/24 and this

gives us 39/24.

We

are now able to subtract the 16 in the

39, and

numerator from the

1

we have 23/24,

Our answer

is

23/24,

Addition and subtraction must first be done with

simple examples with

common
to

denominators.

At this

moment

we are demonstrating how

tors.
In the

work with lowest common denominawork

the

beginning of fractions, one should

examples with direct addition and subtraction.

Examples:
7

4/5-2

2/5 =

5/7-5

3/7 =

62

15. 5)56

-4
-

1/6 =
9

23 7/9
8

12 5/9 =

18 11/15
9

8/15

3/5-2
-

4/7 =
7

4/9-7
-

3/4 =
11

14 1/2
13 3/7

8/9 =
=r

17 7/8

2/3 =

12 3/4

63

MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS
In the multiplication of fractions,

we again divide
numerators on

the abacus into sections.

We

will place our

the left side of the abacus and our denominators will be

placed on the right.

Let us take the example 1/2 x 3/4,

We

will set the

numerator,

1, to

the

extreme
right.

left.

Then place

the

denomina-

tor, 2, to the

extreme

Since we are multiplying that

3,

by 3/4, we will place the numerator,

right of the first

two columns to the

numerator,
two columns

We

will then place the

denominator,

4,

to the left of the

denominator
the

2.

On
numerators
1

the left side of the abacus

we now have

and

3;

and on the right section we have the

2.

denominators 4 and

The student learns that

tions

in the multiplication of frac-

we multiply numerator by numerator, and denominator

by denominator.
tor
1

We

place our right hand on the first numera(the

and say:

1x3

second numerator)
1

is 3.

As

the
3,

right

hand moves from the numerator

1,

to the

numerator
3,

the left hand is placed on the

and as we say
3

the left

hand clears the

and the numerator

remains.

64

Then we
and say:
tor 4 and

put our right hand on the denominator, 4,

4 x 2

is 8.

As

the right hand leaves the

2,

denomina-

moves

to the

denominator

the left hand is placed

2 is 8, the left

on the denominator 4, and as we say 4 x

clears the
4,

hand

and the right hand sets an

where

the 2 was.

Our answer
or 3/8.

is 3 in the

numerator and

8 in the

denominator,

Let us now take as an example

1/2 x

1/7,

Three

and one -half

set the

is

changed to an improper fraction, or 7/2.

7 to

We

numerator

the

extreme

left.

We
1

set.

the

denomina-

tor 2 to the

extreme

right-

Then we change

1/7 to 8/7.
7

We

skip two columns after the first

8.

numerator

and set the

numerator

Then we place the denominator

denominator
2.

two columns

to the left of the

We check

to see if

we can

cancel.

This example calls for an introduction to cancellation.

We check

to see

if

there

is a

number

that can be divided

evenly into one of the numerators and one of the denominators.

We

put our right hand on the first numerator, which is a

left

7.

Then we place our

checks
in the

hand on that

7 ^yhile

the right hand

denominator section for a number that can be

divided by

7.

The right hand sees another

7.

Seven will go

65

into 7 one time.

The right hand changes that

left

7 to

1.

The
goes

right

hand returns to the

hand and we say:

1
.

7 into 7

once; and change that

7 to

The right hand checks the second numerator.

an
8.

It

is

The
to

left

hand

is

placed on the

while the right hand

first

moves
a
1

check the denominators.

is

The
a 2.

denominator

is

and the second denominator

2

What number

will go

evenly into
into 2 once.

and 8?

Two

will go into 2 and 8.

2 to a
1

Two
.

will go

The right hand changes the

8

Then the

right

hand returns to the

and we say:

2 into 8

goes 4 times

and we change the

8 to a 4.

We

are now ready to multiply.

1

The right hand

say:
1

is

placed on the numerator

as

we
1

x 4

is 4.

As

the right

hand leaves the numerator hand

is

and moves to the numerator

4, the left

placed on the
1

numerator

1,

and as we say 4 the

left

hand clears the

and

the 4 remains.

Then we put our

say:
1

right hand on the first de-

nominator and

is

As

the right

hand leaves the

denominator
left

and moves to the second denominator _l the

1
.

hand
1

is

placed on the first denominator

the left hand clears the
1 1

As we

say:

is 1,

and the right hand re4 in the numerator and

4-

mains on the other

1

Our answer

is

in the

denominator, or the whole number

66

Examples:
1/3 x 4/5 -

2/5 x 5/6 =

3/4 x 7/9 = 3/8 x 4/9 1

7/8 x 4/7 =
2

1/2 x 4 1/3 =

1/7x1
3/4 x
2

1/8 =
1/5 -

1/3x1

2/7 =

11/6x2

2/5 =

67

DIVISION OF FRACTIONS

Division, of fractions is done in

he same

manner

as

multiplication.

The only difference

is that

we
of

invert the divi-

sor and proceed as we did in multiplication

fractions

i.e.

multiply numerator by numerator and denominator by deno-

minator

Since division of fractions

plication of fractions
3

is

the inverse of the multi-

we can refer

to the division of fractions

as multiplying the dividend by the reciprocal of the divisor.

The inverse
fraction.

of a

number

is

a reciprocal of a

number

of

any

For example.,

the reciprocal of 2/3 is 3/2.

We

rewrite each division example as a multiplication example

and then find the answer.

1/5.

For example

let

us divide 2/3 by
2 to

Of the dividend 2/3, we set the numerator

leftj

the

extreme

and the denominator

3 to

the

extreme
;

right.
is

We

then multiply this by the reciprocal of l/5

which

5/1,

Of the 5/l
the

we

set the
2 of

numerator

two rods removed from

1

numerator

the dividend

The

of the

denominator

is

set on the third rod to the left of the 3,

We

then proceed as in

multiplication of fractions, by multiplying the numerators

(2

5)

giving us

in the

numerator, and the denominators

68

(1x3)

giving us
is

3 in

the denominator.

Our answer

is

10/3.

Since 10/3

an improper fraction, we will divide the dethe

nominator

3 into

numerator

10,

and our answer

is 3 1/3,

Examples:
1/2
*

3/4 =
2/3 =
*
1

4/5

1/2 =

5/9
1

4/5
2

2/5 *

1/2

1/3 =

1/2

5/9 =
1/4 =
2.

1/4*1

2/7 =
2/5 =

11/8*
3

2/3*1

1/3

1/2 .=

69

PER CENT
Since per cent

means hundredths,

it

should be easy
If

for us to write per cents as fractions or decimals.

we

were
or
.

to say 15%,yOf 125,

we would change

the

15%

to

15/100

15 and multiply
in the

15 x 125/1.

This would set up on the

set up .15 x 125.
fifth

abacus

same manner as we
extreme
the
left

We
and

would

set the 15 to the

and on the sixth,

right,

fourth rods
multiply.

from

extreme

we would

set 125 and

The answer would be 1875.

is

We
the

then point off two

places in our answer since per cent

same as hundredths

The answer

is 18, 75.

When

the per cent has a simple fractional equivalent,

it

such as 25% =1/4, or 33 1/3% =1/3,

would be quicker

to

revert to the multiplication of fractions.

33

For example:

1/3%

of 129-

Instead of multiplying .33

1/3x129, we
the

could multiply 1/3 x 129-

This would set up as follows:

to the

numerator

of the 1/3
3

would be placed
to the

extreme

left

and the denominator

extreme

right.

We

skip two

rods from the numerator

1

and set the 129is

The denominator
left of

(of the

whole number 129)

placed two rods to the

the denominator 3.

We check

for cancellation and find that

70

will go into 129 forty-three times (changing the 129 to 43); will go into the denominator
1

one time, changing the

3 to

We

then multiply the numerator by the numerator and

the denominator by the denominator, and our

answer

is

43/1 or 43.

Examples;

17%

of 215 =
of

23%
33 87

of

368 =
of 912 =

9%

420 =
of 47 =
of 103 =

1/3% 1/2%
of

12.3%
6.

of 168

05%

25%

210 =
1

0%

of 1232 =

62 1/2% of

84 =

71

SQUARE ROOT
We know
that the square root of a

number

is

one of
of

the two equal factors of the

number.

The square root

16=4
many
at

since 4 x 4

is

16,

or 4 squared = 16.

Though there are

tables of squares and square roots, they are not always

In this

our fingertips.

manual we

shall discover

how

to

extract the square root of a

in

number by

division.

This

is

done

much

the

same way as

in long division, but the divisor

changes with each step.

this

Instead of doubling the divisor, in

manual we

shall halve the dividend, thereby

in

working with

smaller numbers

our dividend.

Let us extract the square root of 1225.

We
We

will

move

places from right to

left

and set 1225.

separate

our digits into groups oi two from right to

the decimal point.

left starting

from

We

will have as

many

digits in the square

root as

we have groups

in the original

number.

We
,

here have
take the

two groups, 12 and 25.

For the

first trial divisor

is

square root of the largest perfect square which

the first group (12).

less than

First we will extract the square root of the 12 and

say:

what

is

the greatest square in 12?

The greatest square

72

in 12 is 9

and the square root

of 9 is 3.

We proceed

as in
3

division by dividing; multiplying and subtracting.

Set the

immediately
Subtract
in half,
9

to the left of
12.

in the 12

group.

Three x

3 = 9

from

We now

have 3255.

We

divide the 325

and this gives us 162.

We

divide 3 into 16 and

get 5.
15

Set the 5 to the left of the 16.

16 leaving us
1.

Five x

=15.

Subtract

from

We now

have 12.5.

We

square the

5 of

the 35.

Five x

=25.

Divide the 25 by 2 and the answer

is

is

12.5.

Since the remainder on our abacus

of 5,

exactly 1/2

of the

square

we know

that 1225 is a perfect square and

the square root of 1225 is 35.

Let. us extract the

square root

of 86.

Since we know

that 86 is not a perfect square,

to a

we

shall carry our

set the

answer

out

decimal place.

After the 86
t

we

decimal and carry

it

out to

two more groups

it

thus adding 4 zeros after the

decimal and dividing

into

groups

of

two from

left to right

from

the decimal point.

The greatest square

9 to the left of the 8 in the 86.

in 86 is

9(9x9

= 81).

Set the
86 and

We
5.

subtract 81

from
5.

the

answer

is 5.

We now
2.

have

0000.

We

divide

0000

in half

and we get
2
(
.

5000.
.

We now
.

divide 2.5 by 9 and

we

have

2 X.9 =

8)

Place

2 in the quotient to the right

73

of the 9-

We

subtract the 1.8

from 2,5 and

divide 92 into

the difference is

7.

We now

have

7000.
7.

We

7000 and we
9-2 and our

have approximately

Place the

7 to the right of

answer

is

9-

27

Let us take the example 7396.

We

separate the

number from
73 and 96.
8 (8

right to left into groups of 2.

in the first

Our two groups are

group, 73,
9-

The greatest square

is

8 = 64).

We

subtract 64

from

73 giving us

We now

have 996.

We

divide that

number

in half

and we have 498.

= 48).
18.

When we
that
6

divide 8 into 49,

1.

we

get

6(8x6
have
*

We

subtract

from 49 leaving us
it

We now

We
8)
.

square the

and divide

in half (6 x 6 = 36; 36
is

2 =

We

have 18

on the abacus and that

see that 7396
86.
is

1/2 of the square of

6.

Again we
it

a perfect square and the square root of

is

Let us extract the square root of 841.

841 into two groups

We

divide

from

right to left giving us 8 and 41

For

the first trial divisor, take the square root of the largest
is

perfect square which

less than the first group (8).

8 is 4.

The

greatest perfect square in Since the trial divisor

2 is

The square root

8,

of 4 is 2.

smaller than

we

skip a place

from

the 8 and set the 2.

We

square

2(2x2

=4) and subtract

74

it

from

the 8 leaving us 4.

We now

have 441

We

divide

it

in half giving us 220. 5.

Let us divide the trial divisor

2 into

22.

Although 22

Z is 11,

we

still

must have but one

digit

to place next to the 2 in the quotient.

We
it

take the highest

possible one -digit

us 29us 4.

number

(9)

and place

next to the 2 giving

it

We

multiply

9x2(18) and
5.

subtract
9

from

22, leaving
it

We now

have 40.
*

We
.

square the

and divide

in

half (9 x 9 = 81; 81

2 = 40. 5)

Again we see that

this is a

perfect square

Here
square root
s

is

a five -digit

number- - 1 7689-

To

find the

we
-

divide 17689 into three groups moving 76

-

from

right to left (l
first

89).

We

extract the square root of the

of 176 is 13.

two groups 1-76.

The square root

Place

that figure to the left of 176.

We

square 13 which gives us

7,

169.

We We

subtract

69 from 176 giving us

We now

have

789-

halve that, giving us 394.5.

We

divide 13 into 39

giving us 3 (3 x 13 = 39).
4. 5

We

subtract 39
j3

from 39 leaving us
of 133 in the

on the abacus.

We We

square the final

halve the
9

quo-

tient, giving us 9-

giving us 4.53 in

Since

this is half of the

square of the final

our quotient, we

know

that 17689 is a perfect square and that 133 is the square

root of 17689-

75

Examples:
9801
4 96

6889
1936
6241
-

15Z1

864 9

7744
8649

1849

76

CONCLUSION
The foregoing manual
is

offered to both teachers and

students in order to advance the use of the

Cranmer Abacus
of this tool

The writer has found that mastery

been
of

has

of inestimable help in increasing the

speed and accuracy

at the

mathematical computation among her students

Overbrook School for the Blind.

in the

This manual was written

it

hope that these step-by-step explanations will make

easier for each teacher to learn the procedure, as well as

to facilitate the teaching of the operations to the student.

The enthusiastic teacher will find a ready response

from

the students to

whom

new world

of

mathematics

is

opened through the use

of the

Cranmer Abacus.

E&rUBwfiaBfl

PRINT 511.2
D

DAVIDOW, Mae E. The abacus made easy.

flni

Copy 11

DATE DUE
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