19TH CENTURY 1830-1870 Simply by increasing the range and scale of the earlier inventions, there became a complete

transformation in the newly industrialized countries. New cities emerged and the population rapidly multiplied. There was a growth of industry, and new means of transportation, such as railways and steamships. old feudal relationships were destroyed and the mass of the population became laborers. economic and political initiatives belonged to the new class of capitalist entrepreneurs. The state became like what Marx said ("the executive committee of the ruling class") once property was secure, the workings of the economic system would see to it that everyone got just what he was worthy of. For the first time, science approached its present scales of activity and importance in the 19th century. As the century progressed, the new industry's range of services continually increased and was directly influenced by the dominant social forces of capitalism. In the past, science has always been a major stimulant to radical criticisms of the oppressive structures of society. Now it was felt by the scientists and non-scientists alike that as science was well established, its critical and infidel role might as well be laid aside. THE UTILITARIANS The utilitarians are the emasculated followers of the philosophies of Adam smith and Jeremy Bentham. They deliberately advocated to leave the capitalistsfree.1830-1870 - science had a small but vital and growing share in industries. capitalism brought into the existence of working class whose power was to bring down the capitalist system. the mid 19th c. was not a period of radical technical transformation compared with the 18th. it was one of the steadily improving manufacturing methods operating on danger scales. Britain literally became the workshop of the work because of the inexpensive goods like textiles, which were produced by the new machineries. The market could be met by simply multiplying and steadily improving existing types of machinery. THE RISE OF ENGINEERS the rise of engineers were made possible by the availability of cheap iron, on a larger scale. modern engineers were descendants of the millwright and metalworkers of the days of the craftsmen (e.g.) Bramah, Maudslay, Muir, Whitworth, George Stephenson. the application of science was more rapid than the growth of science itself. Richard Trevithick, George Stephenson, I.K.Brunel proceeds with trial-anderror, and imposed evolutionary technical development. RAILWAY AND STEAMBOAT railways were the products of coal mining. by putting an engine on wheels to make a locomotive was also the most successful. Through making of canals and railways, it revealed the structure of the rocks in cuttings and tunnels -and became a new interest in geology. TELEGRAPH Telegraph was a means of communication in the 19th century; Oersted invented the electromagnetic telegraph through the discovery of the effects of the electric current on a compass. Communication was used for the actual value of money of the news of the prices of the goods or stocks, and events that might affect them. The general position of science was the fact that the telegraph created the need of trained electricians. This led to the adding of departments in the universities, and new training center. In the field of chemistry, new chemical industry was rising, based on the need of expanding textile industry for soda and sulfuric acid. Aniline dye was also discovered. Agriculture was also improved through the use of artificial fertilizers. Pasteur focused on improving the manufacture of beer and wine and economically valuable silkworm. The use of anesthetics was introduced to the field of medicine, due to poverty overcrowding and laissez-faire economics; people living in the industrial countries had poor health conditions. This led to the realization for the need of sanitation and check on the practices of slum landlords. THE ORGANIZATION OF SCIENCE Science found the greatest application in England. Charles Babbage was a leader of the group of young scientist who were vocal about the failure of the Government and Royal Society to react to the new needs. He authored the Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, which pointed out that the society had become a closed corporation of officers, whose majority of the members had a little knowledge of science, and not even its general patrons.

THE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES The countries like France, England, Scotland, Germany, and elsewhere formed societies of chemical, geological, and astronaut societies to cope with the flood of specialized knowledge in the fields of science. Each of these societies had their appropriate journals. Engineers associated themselves into institutes. SCIENCE IN THE UNIVERSITIES In England, they set-up new universities and colleges in London and other manufacturing towns. Existing universities add new departments to give way to science. Davy and Faraday were professors in the universities and also popular in the Continents. They are the epitome of scientists in England. The Great Exhibition of 1851 became a symbol of the unity of science, invention and manufacture. The Royal College of Science in Southern Kensington was founded through the proceeds of Great Exhibition. It was the scientific learning center. In France they established the Ecole Polytechnique and Ecole Normale Superieure. Germany was late in scientific movement; they established the Liebegs in Giesen. Changes: vast increase in the volume of prestige of scientific work.

MIDDLE CLASS & POPULAR SCIENCE Industry & Finance gained power much faster than Science, however, Science continued to monopolize a selected part of the middle class. The birth of mechanics institute: from Count Rumfords institute for the training of mechanics to Royal Institution for the Scientific Entertainment to brilliant research laboratory. Progress is inevitable; but it has its share of unpleasant and dangerous results (some regarded science & technical innovation as a means of cutting wages & producing unemployment) THE LATE 19TH CENTURY 1870-1895 The Great Depression resulted to the Free-Trade Capitalism of Great Britain to finance Capitalist countries such as France, Germany & USA. Colonial expansion, minor wars, & preparation for larger wars were the result of the need for markets for the productive forces surplus. This transitional time proved difficult for Science, considered to be moving faster & faster yet doubted that the use of it will lead to unlimited & beneficial progress. Major applications of science during this period were Metal & Engineer Industries, Chemical & Electrical Industries, and Mechanization of warfare technology such as submarine, torpedo, high explosives & guns. THE AGE OF STEEL The Hi Converter during 1854 infused the ideology that Steel could be made cheaply on a large scale through its use, although the need for high-grade ore limited its operation. In this case, the Basic Lined Open - Hearth Furnace initiated during 1879 resulted to Steel making & increased production due to the use of low-grade ore for its operation. Phosphatic Ore Deposits of Lorraine & the Coal of Ruhr were also made available for steel making. THE RISE OF THE GERMAN INDUSTRY Germany became the center of steel production in Europe, soon equaling & surpassing Britain. Britain still lead in world markets due to colonization of underdeveloped parts of the world. THE ELECTRICAL INDUSTRIES Faraday discovered Electromagnetic induction and demonstrated the Electric Dyna - Motor in 1831. The generation of electricity by mechanical force and its use for power transmission became feasible. Gas engine is the first practical internal-combustion engine and the forerunner of the oil & petrol engines. Electric motor depended on the availability of a wide spread network of electric power supply. The electrical industry, monopolistic & scientific from the start, was the result of the developments in electricity. The electrical industry also led to the creation of industrial research laboratory such as that of Edisons Menlo Park SCIENTIFIC MEDICINE Scientific medicine did not take place until such a late date because the constitution of living organisms was so many times complicated than that of the most complex mechanical or chemical system.

THE RACE FOR COLONIES Development in methods of agriculture and in the presentation and transport of foods because of the need to import quantities of food & raw materials from Eastern Europe to answer the increasing demand on such goods as a result of the increasing population. The introduction of agricultural machinery and associated rail & steamer transport changed the relation of man to his food supply. The methods of mechanical exploitation had much in common with the mining ventures that were wide spread in that period, covering a much larger area, and have more destructive effects. Thus, USA turned into citadel of Capitalism; Russia became the first Socialist State and Japan became a model of the Native Capitalism. DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCES IN THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURY The transition of science as an academic subject to an essential and important factor in economic progress. a. In the fields of ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM, the steps leading to the ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY that can be considered as the 2nd major unifying hypothesis w/c gave 19th century science, has deceptive final characters, which are comparable with those leading to Newtons theory of GRAVITATION. b. The field of CHEMISTRY, which was previously shared between blind empiricism & mythical alchemical theory into the range of rational quantitative science. The Pneumatic Revolution, being associated with Priestly and Lavoisier, represents the 1st large-scale extension of science beyond the region cultivated by the Greeks. It is the first in which science entered in a positive and profitable way into a major productive industry such as textile industries, bleach, dyes to explosives and drugs (theme that accompanied and inspired organic chemistry in 19th C). c. In the field of Biology, Agricultural and medical preoccupations led to microbiology and to Pasteur's GERM THEORY OF DISEASE. It also gave rise to the controversy on CREATION that was lead through geology & natural history to DARWIN'S establishment of EVOLUTION as on of the greatest achievement in 19th century science for its comparable in importance to the Copernican-Galilean dethronement of earth as the center of the universe. SCIENCE IN THE AGE OF CAPITALISM From the 18th-19th century, Science and Capitalism flourished. The Steam Engine was invented and served as a motive power for an industry that was built more on a basis of traditional techniques and owed much to ingenuity and little to science but towards the 19th century, new major industries based entirely on science were arising. Science was permeating the older craft industries including agriculture and in the end, the very existence of industry was bound with science. It has affected the development of capitalism by enabling it to turn away from the individualist free competition of small-scale industry to the large monopolist undertakings with deliberately planned scientific production methods. The comparison between scientific revolution of 16th century and the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th century brings out the radical change in the kind of relationship that exists between science and economic life. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION During the First Period, call on science was on a very limited front. It focused more on Astronomy and Navigation and concerned mainly with new instruments for the collection of information about NATURE and with mathematical analysis needed to design them and interpret their results such as telescopes, microscopes, thermometers, and barometers. However, during the Second Period a whole new range of industrial activities were included such as Mechanism, transport, power, chemicals and ammunitions. Also, though instruments continued to develop and multiply, they were only part of the material products of science. New machines like steam engines, turbines, dynamos electric motors and chemical plant are products of 18th & 19th centuries. Science had changed from the passive to the active role. From the investigation of Nature to the effecting of all things possible. The transition was largely due to the development of machinery and the efforts of workmen and scientists and economically by the availability of capital.

THE WORKING CLASS AND SOCIALISM The capitalists used science for increasing their profit but are reluctant to use it for the benefit of the public. In the process to making science serve the capitalists, they had shown the way to the large-scale social mode of production that would make the profit move unnecessary. They had at the same time brought in existence a working class to whom the capitalist system stood for toil, insecurity and want. The transition of Feudalism to Capitalism has produced a working class. The effects of science, which were thought to be liberating in the beginning and contribute to the forces of progress, can no longer ignore the other effects such as the social revolution and the emergence of the proletariat. EVOLUTION AS A SOCIAL FORCE Darwin's theory of evolution introduced a historical element in the field of science--leaving very little of the book of Genesis as a literal account. Pope Pius XII said that Genesis should be understood in an allegorical sense. The theory justified everything that was going on in a capitalist world--the ruthless exploitation of man by man, the conquest of inferior by superior people--although this was the last thing Darwin himself wanted. The social evolution of humanity was obscured in favor of the purely biological one. THE SOCIAL POSITION OF THE SCIENTIST The transition of science as a liberating idea to a material force capable of changing the pattern of life was not easy. Many scientists saw that the results of their efforts were being used increasingly for private enrichment, not for the improvement of the majority. But only few denounced these developments. A.R. Wallace and H.G. Wells of Britain, Heckel in Germany, and Dreyfus in France to name a few. THE IDEAL OF PURE SCIENCE: COSMIC PESSIMISM Majority of scientists felt that if they were not personally making money out of their discoveries then their discoveries should not be used for private profit. They took refuge in the pure truths of science but this attitude colored their ideas and theories. In spite of their success in scientific ideas, they did not fail to create a picture of an unenlightened universe. Cosmic pessimism, however, was balanced by confidence about the present state and immediate prospects of science and society. THE LIMITS OF SCIENCE Many people thought that science is finite. Oddly enough, in spite of great generalizations of theory, science had become more specialized at the end of the century.