VISCOELASTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF KPEJIGAOU: A GRIDDLED COWPEA FOOD

E.O. AMONSOU1,2, F.K. SAALIA4, E. SAKYI-DAWSON1, S. SEFA-DEDEH1 and L.D. ABBEY3

1

Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Ghana Legon, Accra, Ghana

Programme Technologies Agricole et Alimentaire (PTAA/INRAB) Porto-Novo, Benin

3

Food Research Institute Accra, Ghana

Accepted for Publication July 28, 2008

ABSTRACT The viscoelastic properties of kpejigaou were evaluated, with the goal of standardizing the process. A factorial design with temperature (130, 200 and 270C) and time (5, 7.5 and 10 min) was followed to process kpejigaou. Griddled samples were subjected to compressionrelaxation tests using a TA-XT2 Texture Analyzer. Kpejigaou exhibited the properties of viscoelastic solid material at all griddling conditions. The generalized Maxwell and PelegNormand models showed the most satisfactory t (R2 > 98%) to stress data. Products made at higher griddling temperatures for longer times experienced higher moisture loss, were more rigid and dissipated energy at a faster rate. The stressrelaxation time was inversely correlated with moisture loss (r = -0.91, P < 0.05) and viscosity (r = -0.85, P < 0.01). The viscoelastic behavior of kpejigaou could be related to the spongy and porous structure of kpejigaou, starch gelatinization and the rate of moisture loss during griddling. Griddling temperature of 170C for 6 min could be recommended for the production of rm and spongy kpejigaou acceptable to the consumers.
jfpe_334 11..26

Corresponding author. F.K. Saalia, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Ghana, PO Box LG 134, Legon, Accra, Ghana. TEL: +233-243125566; EMAIL: fsaalia@ug.edu.gh

Journal of Food Process Engineering 34 (2011) 1126. All Rights Reserved. Copyright the Authors Journal Compilation 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-4530.2008.00334.x

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E.O. AMONSOU ET AL.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION Viscoelastic properties provide information that directly relate to textural and mechanical, or deformability characteristics of the product. By their nature, they are fundamental to consumer acceptability of the product. The ndings in this study show that the process variables (of heating time and temperature) are directly related to the viscoelastic properties and acceptability of kpejigaou. This provides a basis from which to begin efforts to standardize the kpejigaou process in order to limit batch to batch or processor to processor variation in product quality and acceptability. The ndings also provide clues for scale-up criteria for both medium- and large-scale production of kpejigaou.

INTRODUCTION Most foods made from our pastes display both the properties of solids and of viscous materials due to their chemistry and microstructure. The measurements of viscoelastic properties provide information that directly relate to the microstructure and conformation of macromolecules (Midoux 1985). These properties are also associated with the textural quality attributes of the food that inuence overall consumer acceptability. Mechanical characterization of viscoelastic materials consists usually of performing uniaxial tensile tests similar to those used for solids but with modications to enable observation. Three commonly conducted tests are creep compliance, stress relaxation and dynamic loading (Midoux 1985; Findley et al. 1989; Bourne 2002). Lima and Singh (2001) and Hongsprabhas (2007) reported on the modulus of deformation and viscosity for fried potato crust and mung bean starch gel, respectively, by performing compression relaxation tests using the Texture Analyzer. There was an increased modulus of deformation of mung bean starch gel when the starch concentration was increased from 10 to 14%. The maximum compression force, the stress relaxation pattern, and the stiffness and energy dissipation have also been used to describe the physical/mechanical characteristics of some foods (Guo et al. 1999; Limanond et al. 2002). The texture of masa and low-moisture tortilla were characterized using dynamic stressrelaxation methods (Guo et al. 1999). The amount of energy that was dissipated increased with increasing moisture of masa (Guo et al. 1999). Mechanical models have been developed to conceptualize the different patterns of viscoelasticity. Models based on viscoelasticity of Maxwell, Kelvin and Burgers represented by spring and dashpot have been used to visualize the behavior of different materials (Lima and Singh 2001;

VISCOELASTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF KPEJIGAOU

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Limanond et al. 2002; Telis-Romero et al. 2003; Hongsprabhas 2007). Maxwell models were found to give a good description of viscoelastic behavior of polymeric materials subjected to stressrelaxation tests. Among the Maxwell models used, the generalized Maxwell model provided the most satisfactory results by providing the best t for the experimental stress data and allowing the calculation of the viscoelastic properties (Lima and Singh 2001; Prabir et al. 2000; Telis-Romero et al. 2003). Such stressrelaxation data have been calculated as normalized stress (Peleg and Normand 1983). The various ndings have clearly demonstrated that the overall viscocelastic behavior of food is dependent on raw material characteristics, and processing and storage conditions. Kpejigaou is a nutritious food that is traditionally processed by griddling cowpea paste on a hot at stone or a molded aluminum plate (Egounleti 1994). It is popular among the ethnic tribes in the northern parts of Togo and Benin on the west coast of Africa. Kpejigaou is at, circular in shape with uniform thickness and a porous, spongy structure. The production process is fast and much less labor-intensive as compared with akara (a deep-fat fried cowpea paste) and moin-moin (a steamed cowpea paste). Unlike akara, oil is not used during kpejigaou processing and consequently, the product contains very low or negligible fat content. Kpejigaou may thus satisfy current consumers demand for low-fat products and could be promoted as such in the fast food service system. However, the traditional processing methods of kpejigaou do not provide for consistent and predictable quality as they are mainly artisanal. Kpejigaou must be rm with porous crumb structure for it to be acceptable by consumers. Griddling temperature and time are very important parameters affecting the nal texture of the product. These parameters are very difcult to control in traditional processing. Therefore, there is the need to standardize the kpejigaou process to ensure consistency of quality. Determination of the viscoelastic properties of kpejigaou will provide information that directly relates to the textural characteristics of the product and this could help predict the quality of the product as perceived by the consumers. The objective of this work was to study the effects of processing conditions on the viscoelastic behavior of kpejigaou.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Experimental Design A 3k (k = 2) factorial design for griddling time (5, 7.5, 10 min) and griddling temperature (130, 200 and 270C) was used to study the changes in viscoelastic characteristics of kpejigaou during the griddling process.

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Preliminary experiments were conducted to conrm these levels. Nine (9) experimental runs were performed from the temperaturetime treatment combinations. Each run was replicated twice. Sample Preparation Cowpea our containing high proportions (at least 70%) of medium particle size (150 PS < 450 mm) as recommended in preliminary studies was used for the preparation of kpejigaou. Samples of kpejigaou were prepared by griddling approximately 150 g of cowpea paste (32% solids) at temperatures and times provided under the experimental design. The cowpea paste was mixed for 5 min and allowed to rest for another 5 min before griddling. After griddling, the product was allowed to cool for about 10 min and then cut into small disks of approximately 18 8 mm diameter and thickness, respectively. Ten minutes (10) of cooling was found adequate to enable clear-cut disks. The cylindrical cores (disks) of kpejigaou were then used for stressrelaxation tests. Cowpea paste as referred to in the present study contained 0.07% table salt and 4% of Kanwe solution (traditionally used potash salt for food preparation, 30% concentration). These salts were added to the paste to conform to ingredient specication of the traditional process. Moisture Loss Determination in Kpejigaou The moisture content of the freshly made cowpea paste for kpejigaou griddling was rst determined by drying the sample in triplicate for about 8 h at 105C using the air-oven (AOAC 2000). Having determined the solids content of the paste, moisture loss during griddling of kpejigaou was expressed as percentage moisture lost to initial moisture of fresh paste (150 g). StressRelaxation Test The method described by Telis-Romero et al. (2003) was used. Compressionrelaxation tests were performed on cylindrical disks (18 8 mm diameter and thickness, respectively) of kpejigaou at room temperature (25C) using the Universal TA-XT2 Texture Analyzer (Stable Microcomputer Systems, Haslemere, England). Each individual disk was compressed using an acrylic cylinder probe of 25 mm in diameter and a constant deformation rate of 1 mm/min. The relaxation behavior was studied at a constant strain of 5%. The residual force measured as a function of time was continuously recorded for 80 s. The stress was calculated as force/area. Stress values were obtained using the mean of ve measurements from each treatment sample of kpejigaou. Modeling of Viscoelastic Parameters. Three models were tested to explain the viscoelastic behavior of kpejigaou as follows: Experimental data

VISCOELASTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF KPEJIGAOU

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were tted to a simple Maxwell model and a generalized Maxwell model (Eqs. 1 and 2).

1 (t ) = 0 E exp = Ee 1 1 (t ) = 0 E1 exp + E2 exp + Ee 1 2

The viscosity was estimated from Eq. (3) (Mohsenin 1986):

(1)

(2)

(3)

The stressrelaxation data were calculated as normalized stress, as suggested by Peleg and Normand (1983), and t to the following linear Eq. (4). (Steffe 1996).

0t = k1 + k2 t 0
Determination of Textural Acceptability of Kpejigaou

(4)

Kpejigaou processed at 170C for 6 min was provided to an untrained panel consisting of 30 members to test its textural acceptability. The product from this specied griddling temperature and time were chosen based on the results of viscoelastic behavior of kpejigaou at those conditions. Preliminary trials were conducted to check and ensure that processed kpejigaou was adequately cooked at the selected temperature and time. Participants were experienced and regular consumers of kpejigaou. Each panelist was asked to assess the rmness of the product by touching, pressing with the forenger, breaking and visual inspection of the crumb structure. The textural acceptability was scored using a 9-point hedonic scale (9 = like extremely to 1 = dislike extremely). Traditionally processed kpejigaou served as the control. Statistical Analyses Models were developed using STATISTICA (STATISTICA for Windows, version 5.1, 1999; from StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK). Analysis of variance was done on viscoelastic parameters estimated from the models as well as on the sensory data at 95% probability.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Effect of Griddling Variables on Moisture Loss During the griddling of kpejigaou, simultaneous heat transfer into the food and mass transfer from food (as vapor) occurred. This phenomenon is common in baking processes (Mills 1995). The extent of moisture loss in the nal product was dependent on griddling temperature and time. In general, the rate of moisture loss increased with increasing temperatures and griddling times (Fig. 1). At 5 min of griddling, moisture loss increased from 38% at 130C to 41% at 200C and 54% at 270C. The highest moisture loss (65%) was recorded at 200C and 270C when the paste was griddled for 10 min. Griddling at higher temperatures for longer periods may not be desirable as these conditions led to the production of a very dehydrated, hard and poor quality kpejigaou. Effect of Griddling Variables on Viscoelastic Parameters of Kpejigaou A typical stressrelaxation curve generated from raw stress data is shown in Fig. 2. The deformation increased linearly under constant strain rate when a force was imposed on the material. This was followed by progressive decay in applied stress. Kpejigaou thus exhibited a property known of viscoelastic material similar to foods, as reported for products like tortilla baked bread, cake and fried potato crust (Lima and Singh 2001; Limanond et al. 2002; Hongsprabhas 2007).
100 90 Moisture loss (%) 80 70 60 50 40 30 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 Griddling Temperature (C) R2 = 0.91 R2 = 0.79 R2 = 0.96 GT= 5 min GT= 7.5 min GT= 10 min

FIG. 1. PERCENTAGE MOISTURE LOSS AS A FUNCTION OF GRIDDLING TEMPERATURE AND GRIDDLING TIME (GT)

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Fo rce1 (N)
1f

1.0

0 .8

0 .6

0 .4

0 .2

- 0 .0

20

40

60

80

100

Time (sec.)

- 0 .2

FIG. 2. TYPICAL STRESSRELAXATION CURVE FROM RAW DATA VERSUS TIMES FOR KPEJIGAOU GRIDDLED AT 200C FOR 7.5 MIN

Analysis of Models. Data obtained from the stressrelaxation experiments were tted to two different nonlinear and one linear (normalized) models. Generalized Maxwell (GM2P) and PelegNormand models showed the most satisfactory t, and could explain more than 98% of the variability in the stress data (Tables 1 and 2). The simple Maxwell (SM) model was also satisfactory, with R2 values between 93 and 96%. Using the GM2P model (with R2 = 0.99), a predicted trend line was generated alongside the graph obtained from raw data at selected griddling conditions (Fig. 3). The graphs showed minimal residuals, further conrming that the model was adequate and acceptable. These results are in agreement with other reports that demonstrated that the generalized Maxwell and PelegNormand models could well be used to explain and characterize the viscoelastic behavior of biological materials (Steffe 1996; Guo et al. 1999; Lima and Singh 2001; Telis-Romero et al. 2003). The estimated viscoelastic parameters of stressrelaxation time, viscosity and modulus of deformation from tted models were signicantly affected by griddling temperature and time (P < 0.05). Summarized results from the analyses of variance are shown in Tables 3 and 4.

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TABLE 1. VISCOELASTIC PARAMETERS OF GENERALIZED MAXWELL MODEL (GM2P) FOR KPEJIGAOU l1 (s) E2 (kPa) 1.14 1.25 1.30 1.59 1.68 3.33 1.37 2.24 1.41 35.17 32.03 19.91 29.10 28.43 29.18 18.30 16.92 8.76 25.67 14.30 14.12 26.8 28.83 37.16 23.51 23.06 28.58 6.83 2.71 2.65 4.36 1.53 6.34 3 4.12 2.21 1.67 1.85 2.25 1.95 2.05 1.64 1.73 1.92 1.13 0.59 0.35 0.25 0.63 0.44 0.17 0.82 0.80 0.79 h1 (kPas) l2 (s) h2 (kPas) Ee (KPa) R-square (%) 99.91 99.92 99.92 99.68 99.63 99.84 99.84 99.91 99.89

Time (min)

Temperature (C)

E1 (kPa)

130 200 270

2.04 2.30 2.85

E.O. AMONSOU ET AL.

7.5

130 200 270

3.1 4.69 9.56

10

130 200 270

2.95 5.49 4.57

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TABLE 2. VISCOELASTIC PARAMETERS OF PELEGNORMAND (PN) FOR KPEJIGAOU Time (min) 5 Temperature (C) 130 200 270 130 200 270 130 200 270 E (kPa) 2.03 2.22 2.26 3.29 3.81 4.58 2.25 4.81 1.28 k1(s) 3.53 2.96 5.16 6.1 2.53 3.01 5.09 3.91 2.14 k2 2.28 1.81 1.67 1.95 1.53 1.51 1.80 1.56 1.38 R-square (%) 99.35 99.38 98.99 98.72 98.93 98.96 98.31 98.96 99.31

7.5

10

5.00 Observed (130C, 7.5min) Predicted (130C, 7.5min) Stress (KPa) 3.00

4.00

2.00

1.00

Predicted (270C, 7.5min) Observed (270C, 7.5min)

0.00 0 20 40 Time (s)

FIG. 3. PREDICTED AND OBSERVED VALUES OF STRESS AT SELECTED GRIDDLING CONDITIONS (GRIDDLING TEMPERATURE OF 130C AND 270C FOR 7.5 MIN, RESPECTIVELY)

60

80

StressRelaxation Time (SRT). The parameter l in Maxwell equations is the SRT. This is the time required for the applied force to decay to 36.8% of its original values (Bourne 2002). SRT increased with increasing temperatures from 130 to 200C when kpejigaou was griddled for 5 min (Fig. 4). Further increase of temperature to 270C at minimum griddling time (5 min) did not

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E.O. AMONSOU ET AL.

TABLE 3. ANOVA SUMMARY FOR THE EFFECTS OF GRIDDLING VARIABLES ON PARAMETER ESTIMATES FROM THE SIMPLE MAXWELL MODEL SHOWING F-VALUES Griddling variables Stressrelaxation time (l) 0.23 0.45 5.76* Viscosity (h) Modulus of deformation (E) 0.86* 0.94* 0.01

Griddling temperature (GTe) Griddling Time (GT) (GTe)* (GT) * Signicant parameter at P < 0.05.

4.66* 6.06* 0.65

TABLE 4. ESTIMATED PARAMETERS FORM GENERALIZED MAXWELL MODEL SHOWING F-VALUES Griddling variables Griddling temperature (GTe) Griddling time (GT) (GTe)* (GT) l1 3.40 0.18 7.07* l2 0.29 0.22 9.13* h1 11.40* 5.20* 0.03 h2 3.52 0.62 1.01 E1 1.06 2.71 0.03 E2 0.86* 0.93 0.05

* Signicant parameter at P < 0.05.

10 GT= 5 min 8 Relaxation time(s) 6 4 2 0 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 Griddling temperature (C) GT= 7.5 min GT= 10 min

FIG. 4. EFFECTS OF GRIDDLING TEMPERATURE AND GRIDDLING TIME (GT) ON STRESSRELAXATION TIME OF KPEJIGAOU DERIVED FROM MAXWELL MODEL

signicantly vary the SRT. However, griddling for longer periods (7.510 min) at 200 and 270C caused a signicant reduction in SRT. The variation in SRT of kpejigaou at minimum griddling time (5 min) could be attributed to the combined effects of the moisture present and

VISCOELASTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF KPEJIGAOU

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50 40 Viscosity (KPa.s) 30 20 10 0 120 140

GT= 5 min

GT= 7.5 min

GT= 10 min

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

Griddling temperature (C)

FIG. 5. EFFECTS OF GRIDDLING TEMPERATURE AND GRIDDLING TIME ON VISCOSITY OF KPEJIGAOU DERIVED FROM MAXWELL MODEL

gelatinization of starch. Guo et al. (1999) showed that energy dissipation was a function of moisture content in masa. SRT from the present study was negatively correlated with moisture loss (r = -0.91, P < 0.05) and viscosity (r = -0.85, P < 0.01), which indeed suggests that the rate of energy dissipation of kpejigaou was dependent on moisture component. Further increase of griddling times (>7.5 min) yielded more dehydrated and rigid products, thus explaining the reduction in relaxation times. Viscosity. The inuence of griddling temperature and time on viscosity (h) of kpejigaou was signicant (Fig. 5). The estimated viscosity decreased by 71% when griddling temperatures were increased from 200 to 270C at the minimum griddling time of 5 min. This suggests a reduction in ow properties at higher griddling temperatures. Griddling for 10 min produced kpejigaou with the lowest viscosity values. Viscosity was signicantly correlated (P < 0.05) with moisture. At lower griddling temperatures and times, the rate of moisture loss was low, and moisture was held within the matrix of the material and this could explain the predominance of viscous behavior of kpejigaou over the elastic behavior. Similar reports have established that moisture content has a strong inuence on viscosity of material (Navickis et al. 1982; Hansen et al. 1991; Mandala and Daouacha 2004). The effect of griddling conditions on viscous behavior of kpejigaou as observed, suggests that griddling conditions should be such that would adequately cook the product to a desirable texture and without completely dehydrating it. Modulus of Deformation. The modulus of deformation could be regarded as the measure of stiffness produced by cooking. This parameter was

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E.O. AMONSOU ET AL.

2.5

GT= 5 min

GT= 7.5 min

GT= 10 min

2
Modulus of deformation(KPa)

1.5

0.5

0 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 Griddling temperature (C)

FIG. 6. EFFECTS OF GRIDDLING TEMPERATURE AND GRIDDLING TIME ON MODULUS OF DEFORMATION OF KPEJIGAOU DERIVED FROM MAXWELL MODEL

estimated from models tted to the stress relaxation data. In general, the modulus increased with increasing temperatures and time of griddling (Fig. 6). A negative correlation was observed between viscosity and modulus estimated from SM (r = -0.85, P < 0.0). The increase in stiffness as griddling progressed could also be attributed to the increased rate of dehydration of kpejigaou. Higher values of stiffness correspond to harder (rmer) and solid-like material (Findley et al. 1989). Therefore, increasing the griddling temperatures (130 200C) and times (>7.5 min) of processing produced a more solid-like kpejigaou that might not be acceptable to consumers. Textural Acceptability of Kpejigaou Consumers prefer kpejigaou that is rm, with porous crumb structure. Based on the viscoelastic behavior of the product at the griddling conditions in this study, processing kpejigaou at 130200C for a period of less than 7.5 min could help impart desirable textural properties. To validate this recommendation, processed kpejigaou at 170C for 6 min was subjected to a sensory panel to test its textural acceptability. Processed kepjigaou under controlled griddling conditions and the traditional kpejigaou are shown in Fig. 7. Results from the acceptability test showed that processed kpejigaou at a specied temperature of 170C for 6 min was very much liked for its rmness and crumb structure (Fig. 8). Processed kpejigaou under controlled griddling conditions showed a higher acceptability score (8.5 out 9) as compared with the traditional kpejigaou (7.4 out of 9).

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Molded aluminum plate employed in traditional processing of kpejigaou using charcoal as source of fuel

Cooking pan coated with granite used for controlled cooking process

FIG. 7. TRADITIONALLY COOKED KPEJIGAOU (A) AND PROCESSED KPEJIGAOU AT 170C FOR 6 MIN (B)

10

8.6
8

7.4

Texture acceptability scores

0 Traditional kpejigaou Processed kpejigaou under controlled conditions

FIG. 8. TEXTURAL ACCEPTABILITY OF TRADITIONAL KPEJIGAOU AND PROCESSED KPEJIGAOU UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITIONS (170C FOR 6 MIN)

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CONCLUSION Kpejigaou processed at higher griddling temperatures and times showed higher moisture loss, were more rigid, possessing less viscous properties and dissipated energy at faster rate. The viscoelastic behavior of kpejigaou could be attributed to the spongy and porous structure of the product, starch gelatinization and the rate of mass transfer (Moisture loss) from the product. The predominance of any of these events at a particular griddling condition determines the viscous or elastic behavior of the product. The Maxwell models and the PelegNormand models may be recommended for the prediction of changes in viscoelastic properties as inuenced by griddling variables of temperature and time. Griddling temperature of 170C for 6 min could also be recommended for the production of rm and spongy kpejigaou that is acceptable to consumers when cowpea paste of 32% solids is the starting material.

NOMENCLATURE h E s l e t k1 and k2 E1 and E2 l1 and l2 h1 and h1 Ee viscosity (kPas): modulus of deformation (kPa) stress (kPa) stressrelaxation time (s) strain of the material at (mm) time (s) constants related to stress decay rate and to residual stress at the end of the experiment, respectively 1st and 2nd elements of the generalized Maxwell model times constants for 1st and 2nd elements of the generalized Maxwell model viscosity for the 1st and 2nd elements of the generalized Maxwell models equilibrium modulus

ACKNOWLEDGMENT We sincerely acknowledge the contribution of USAID Funded BeanCowpea Collaborative Research Support Program (CRSP) Project of the Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Ghana, for funding this research.

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