1

Fluid Dynamics
Water cannon during globalization demonstration
2
The continuity equation
We dene a system as some invariant collection of
uid particles. So we can immediately write that the
system mass, M
sys
does not change
DM
sys
Dt
= 0
Now write the Reynolds transport equation (b = 1 )
DM
sys
Dt
=

t
___
cv
dV +
_ _
cvs
v ndA
System Control Volume
(a) (b) (c)
Recall that control volume and volume occupied by
system coincide when Reynolds transport equation is
evaluated.
3
The continuity equation
System Control Volume
(a) (b) (c)
Since mass is conserved

t
___
cv
dV +
__
cvs
v ndA = 0
This is the equation of continuity. What it says is
that the amount of mass owing into the control
volume must be equal to the time rate of change of
the mass inside the control volume.
In steady ow situations, there is no accumulation of
mass inside control volume, so

t
___
cv
dV = 0 ;
__
cvs
v ndA = 0
4
Conservation of mass example
Water ows through a
circular nozzle at the
end of a re hose.
Section (1) (pump discharge)
Section (2) (nozzle exit)
Flow
Control volume
V
2
= 20 m/s
D
2
= 40 mm
What steady ow rate in kg/s is required to give a
nozzle exit velocity of 20 m/s . The control volume
will contain the hose and nozzle. Now RTE is

t
___
cv
dV +
_ _
cvs
v ndA = 0
For steady ow

t
___
cv
dV = 0
This means
__
cv
v ndA = 0 . So
Flow into hose = ow out nozzle.
=
_ _
out
v ndA
= 1000 20.0 (0.020)
2
= 25.13 kg/s
Analysis assumes a uniform nozzle velocity
distribution.
5
Conservation of mass, simple description
The mass ow rate through the section of a surface
is
__
A
v ndA = m = Q = Av

Q is the volume ow rate and v

= v n is the
component of velocity perpendicular to the area A .
The average perpendicular velocity is dened in
terms of net ow rate through the surface
v

=
__
v n dA
A
=
Q
A
In many situations will choose control volume
surface so v n and will use an average velocity.
6
Simple description for steady ow
The convective term is zero
__
A
v ndA = 0
This can be rewritten as

in
A
in
v

in
=
out
A
out
v

out

in
Q
in
=
out
Q
out
m
in
= m
out
For incompressible ow,
in
=
out
so
A
in
v

in
= A
out
v

out
Q
in
= Q
out
Dierent ways to express, mass entering control
volume is equal to mass leaving control volume.
7
Conservation of mass, Laminar ow
Incompressible laminar ow develops in a straight
pipe of radius R . Velocity is uniform at (1) and
parabolic with axial symmetry at (2) . How are U
and u
max
related?
Section (1) Control volume
dA
2
= 2 r dr
Section (2)
Pipe
R
r
u
1
= U
u
2
= u
max
1 -
r

2

_

R ( ) [ ]
r
dr
dA
2
(a) (b)
Once again, this is steady ow so the equation of
continuity becomes
_ _
cvs
v ndA = 0
Flow
(1)
= Flow
(2)
Divide pipe into small annuli, radius r , width dr .
Area of each annuls is dA = 2rdr .
8
Conservation of mass, Laminar ow
Section (1) Control volume
dA
2
= 2 r dr
Section (2)
Pipe
R
r
u
1
= U
u
2
= u
max
1 -
r

2

_

R ( ) [ ]
r
dr
dA
2
(a) (b)
Flow
(1)
= Flow
(2)
_ _
(1)
u
1
dA =
_ _
(2)
u
2
dA
_
R
0
U2r dr =
_
R
0
u
max
_
1
_
r
R
_
2
_
2r dr
R
2
U = 2u
max
_
R
2
2

R
2
4
_
U =
u
max
2
The average velocity U is half the mid-stream
velocity for a parabolic velocity prole.
9
Conservation of mass, Compressible ow
Air ows steadily across two cross sections ((1) and
(2) ) in a long straight pipe of 10.0 cm diameter.
The temperature and pressure are given in diagram.
If the average air velocity at (2) is 305 m/s , what
is air velocity at (1) ?
p
1
= 680 kPa
p
2
= 125 kPa
T
1
= 300 K
T
2
= 251.7 K
v
2
= 305 m/s
Control volume
Flow
Section (1)
p
1
= 100 psia
T
1
= 540 R
p
2
= 18.4 psia
T
2
= 453 R
V
2
= 1000 ft/s
D
1
= D
2
= 4 in.
Section (2)
Pipe
Dene control volume just inside pipe surface. For
steady ow no mass accumulates inside control
volume. So m
(1)
= m
(2)
.
10
Conservation of mass, Compressible ow
p
1
= 680 kPa
p
2
= 125 kPa
T
1
= 300 K
T
2
= 251.7 K
Control volume
Flow
Section (1)
p
1
= 100 psia
T
1
= 540 R
p
2
= 18.4 psia
T
2
= 453 R
V
2
= 1000 ft/s
D
1
= D
2
= 4 in.
Section (2)
Pipe
m
(1)
= m
(2)

1
Av
1
=
2
Av
2
p
1
R

T
1
v
1
=
p
2
R

T
2
v
2
v
1
=
p
2
T
1
p
1
T
2
v
2
v
1
=
125 300
680 251.7
305 = 66.8 m/s
11
Moving control volume
An airplane moves at 971 km/hr as shown. The
frontal intake is 0.80 m
2
and the air density at
entry is 0.736 kg m
3
. An observer on the ground
observes that exhaust gases (this includes fuel
exhaust) leave the engine exhaust with an area of
0.556 m
2
and a velocity of 1050 km/hr . The
exhaust gas density is 0.515 kg m
3
. What is the
mass ow rate of fuel into the engine?
The jet engine will be taken to be the control
volume. However the control volume is now moving.
Thus is handled using the relative velocity concept.
12
Moving control volume
The relative velocity
between the control
volume and the uid is
important.
v = w+v
cv
cv
cv
v
v
v
w
v
v
cv
is velocity of control volume
v is velocity of the uid
w is velocity of the uid according to the
control volume
The uid velocity, v in Reynolds transport equation
is replaced by w .

t
___
cv
dV +
_ _
cv
w n dA = 0
13
Moving control volume
Use relative velocity between the control volume and
uid
_ _
cvs
w ndA = 0
m
fuel
w
1

1
A
1
+w
2

2
A
2
= 0
The mass of the fuel contributes to the mass ow
across the control volume surface. The equation
above has been dened with m
fuel
equal to the
mass of fuel entering the engine.
m
fuel
= +w
1

1
A
1
w
2

2
A
2
m
fuel
= 270 0.7360.80 5610.5150.558
m
fuel
= 2.24 m
fuel
= 2.24 kg/s
14
The momentum equations
From Newton II
The rate of change of the momentum of a system is
the sum of all external forces acting on a system.
Assuming an inertial reference frame
D
Dt
___
sys
v dV =
Dp
sys
Dt
=

F
sys
When control volume
and system volumes are
coincident

F
sys
=

F
coincident cv
The Force on system is
equal to force on con-
tents of coincident con-
trol volume
F
D
F
E
F
F
F
G
F
C
F
B
F
A
Coincident
control volume
System
15
The momentum equations
The linear momentum equation is
Dp
sys
Dt
=

t
___
cv
vdV +
_ _
cvs
v(v n)dA
F
cv
=

t
___
cv
vdV +
_ _
cv
v(v n)dA

t
___
cv
vdV is the rate of change of the
momentum of the contents of the control volume.
__
cvs
v(v n)dA is the net rate of change of the
momentum through the control volume surface.
F
cvc
is the net force acting on the contents of the
control volume.
16
The momentum equations, Example
The water leaking
through the hole of area
A is being replaced.
What is the sideways
force required to hold
the tank in place?
h
Q
A
Q
cv
i
j
The control volume is dened to include the tank
and water inside.
This is steady state so there is no accumulation of
momentum within the system, i.e
___
. . . = 0 .
For a free jet, v =

2gh i .
Only interested in horizontal forces and momentum
ows
_ _
cvs
v(v n)dA = 10
3
_
2ghi
_
_
2gh i i
_
A
= 10
3
2ghA i
17
The momentum equations, Example
There are gravity and
normal reaction with
ground acting in verti-
cal direction.
There is a friction force
acting in the horizontal
direction.
h
Q
A
Q
cv
i
j
N
F
F
f
g
F
cvc
=
_ _
cvs
v(v n)dA
F
f
= 10
3
2ghA i
The friction force is the correct magnitude to hold
the tank stationary.
18
The momentum equations, the nozzle
What force is required
to hold a conical nozzle
in places given a ow
rate of 0.60 liters/s .
The nozzle mass is 0.10
kg and the entrance
and exit diameters are
16.0 mm and 5.0 mm.
The distance between
(1) and (2) is 30 mm
and the gauge pressure
at (1) is 464 kPa .
g
w
1
D
1
= 16 mm
x
z
Control volume
Section (1)
h = 30 mm
Section (2)
D
2
= 5 mm
w
2
The anchoring force is the reaction force between the
faucet and threads of the nozzle. The control volume
is chosen to be the screw-on nozzle and water inside
the nozzle.
19
The momentum equations, the nozzle
Forces acting on con-
trol volume
F
A
is anchoring force
W
n
is nozzle weight
W
w
is water (in noz-
zle) weight
p
1
A
1
is pressure at
nozzle inlet
p
2
A
2
is pressure at
nozzle outlet
z is +ve in upward
direction
F
A
n
p
1
A
1
w
1
w
p
2
A
2
w
2
z
Control volume
F
A
n
w
p
1
A
1
p
2
A
2
w
1
w
2
= anchoring force that holds
nozzle in place
= weight of nozzle
= weight of water contained in
the nozzle
= gage pressure at section (1)
= cross section area at
section (1)
= gage pressure at section (2)
= cross section area at
section (2)
= z direction velocity at
control volume entrance
= z direction velocity at
control volume exit
The aim of the exercise is to determine F
A
.
__
cvs
. . . = F
net
= F
A
W
n
W
w
p
1
A
1
+p
2
A
2
20
The momentum equations, the nozzle
Nozzle weight force
W
n
= 0.10gk = 0.980k N
Nozzle water weight force. First get volume of nozzle
V
nozzle
=

3
(r
2
1
+r
2
2
+r
1
r
2
)h
=

3
(0.008
2
+ 0.0025
2
+ 0.0080.0025)0.030
= 2.84 10
6
m
2
W
w
= V
nozzle
gk
W
w
= 1000 2.84 10
6
9.8k
W
w
= 0.0278 k N
Inlet pressure force
p
1
A
1
= 4.64 10
5
0.008
2
= 93.3 N
The pressure at (2) is essentially atmospheric, so as
a gauge pressure p
2
= 0 .
21
The momentum equations, the nozzle
F
cvs
=

t
___
cv
vdV +
_ _
cvs
v(v n)dA
The
___
cv
term is zero for a steady ow. Need to
determine convective term. This needs water velocity
which will be obtained from continuity.
At outlet, volume ow rate is
Q
2
= u
2
A
2
0.60 10
3
= u
2
0.0025
2
u
2
= 30.6 m/s
At inlet, volume ow rate is
u
1
=
Q
1
A
1
=
0.60 10
3
0.008
2
= 2.98 3.0 m/s
22
The nozzle
The convective term is
_ _
cvs
v(v n)dA = 10
3
3.0(k)(3.0)0.008
2
+ 10
3
30.6(k)(30.6)0.0025
2
= 16.58 k N
F
cvs
= W
w
+W
n
+F
A
+F
Pressure
16.58k = 0.98k 0.03k +F
A
93.3k + 0
F
A
= 77.8 k N
An upward force has to be exerted on the nozzle to
hold it stationary.
23
The nozzle
Alternative evaluation of convective term
m = 10
3
0.60 = 600 kg/s
_ _
cv
v(v n)dA = mv
out
mv
in
= 600 (30.6k (3.0k))
= 16.58kN
24
The nozzle: alternative
The control volume only consists of the nozzle.
Forces acting on control
volume
F
A
is anchoring force
W
n
weight of nozzle
R
z
Force of water (in-
side nozzle) acting on
nozzle. Includes pressure
and viscous forces at
interface.
F
atm
Atmospheric pres-
sure acting on the nozzle.
F
A
n
R
z
p
atm
(c)
The atmospheric force consists of the pressure times
the projection of the area perpendicular to the z
direction, F
atm
= p
atm
(A
1
A
2
)
F
A
= W
n
+R
z
+p
atm
(A
1
A
2
)
25
The nozzle: alternative
The control volume only consists of the water inside
the the nozzle.
Forces acting on control volume
W
w
weight of water
R
z
Force of nozzle on water.
Includes pressure and viscous
forces at interface.
(p
1
+p
atm
)A
1
pressure force at
entry to nozzle.
(p
2
+p
atm
)A
2
pressure force at
exit to nozzle.
__
Convective term.
(p
1
+ p
atm
)A
1
w
R
z
w
2
(p
2
+ p
atm
)A
2
w
1
(2)
(d)
F
A
= W
n
+R
z
+p
atm
(A
1
A
2
)
26
Some comments
Solution requires combining, equation for nozzle,
equation for water plug, and evaluation of convective
term.
F
A
n
R
z
p
atm
(c)
(p
1
+ p
atm
)A
1
w
R
z
w
2
(p
2
+ p
atm
)A
2
w
1
(2)
(d)
F
A
= W
n
+R
z
+p
atm
(A
1
A
2
)
|F|
cvc
= W
w
+R
z
+ (p
1
+p
atm
)A
1
(p
2
+p
atm
)A
2
_ _
. . . dA = w
2
w
1
= |F|
cvc
27
Alternate for evaluating momentum transfer
Need to work out net transfer of momentum into and
out of the control volume. The surface integral can
be simplied if
Velocity across individual streams is uniform
Fluid density across individual streams is
uniform
Choose cv surface to be perpendicular to uid
directions
Then convective term is in the case of one stream in
and out
_ _
cvs
v(v n)dA = m(v
out
v
in
)
In the case of many streams in and many streams
out.
_ _
cvs
v(v n)dA =

i
m
out
i
v
out
i

i
m
in
i
v
in
i
28
The momentum equations, the U-bend
Water ows through a horizontal pipe with a 180
o
bend. The pipe cross section area is constant at
0.0100 m
2
, the water velocity is assumed to be 15.0
m/s . The absolute pressure at the entrance and
exit are 200 kPa and 160 kPa respectively. What
anchoring force is required to hold the pipe in place?
z
y
x
V = 50 ft/s
Section (1) A = 0.1 ft
2
V =
50 ft/s
Section (2)
Control
volume
180 pipe bend
(a)
x
u v y
w
z
p
1
A
1
v
1
v
2
p
2
A
2
F
Az
F
Ay
F
Ax
Control volume
Pipe bend
and water
(b)
Pressure Force acting on U-bend entrance
Pressure Force acting on U-bend exit
Since cv includes pipe (immersed in
atmosphere) use gauge pressures.
Momentum transport into U-bend entrance
Momentum transport out of U-bend exit
29
The momentum equations, the U-bend
F
cvc
=

t
___
cv
vdV +
_ _
cvs
v(v n)dA
Steady state ow so
___
cv
. . . = 0
Pressure forces
F
inlet
= (200 101) 0.010j = +0.99j kN
F
outlet
= (160 101) 0.010j = +0.59j kN
Momentum ow
m = 15.0 1000 0.0100 = 150.0 kg/s
m(v
out
v
in
) = 150.0 (15.0j 15.0j)
= 4.50jkN
__
cvs
v(v n)dA = 4.50j kN
30
The momentum equations, the U-bend
z
y
x
V = 50 ft/s
Section (1) A = 0.1 ft
2
V =
50 ft/s
Section (2)
Control
volume
180 pipe bend
(a)
x
u v y
w
z
p
1
A
1
v
1
v
2
p
2
A
2
F
Az
F
Ay
F
Ax
Control volume
Pipe bend
and water
(b)
The net force on the pipe bend, is the pressure force
on inlet, anchor force holding pipe, and pressure
force at outlet.
F
cvc
= F
inlet
+F
outlet
+F
anchor
4.5j = +0.99j + 0.59j +F
anchor
F
anchor
= 6.08j kN
The negative sign means the anchoring force acts to
the left.
The vertical anchoring force is equal and opposite to
weight force. There is no net anchoring force in x
direction (assumes viscosity is zero).
31
The U-bend, alternative
The cv is now
just the wa-
ter inside the
U-bend.
R is the force that the bend exerts on uid. Pressure
forces are now in terms of absolute pressures since
control volume isolated from atmosphere.
F
inlet
= 200 0.010j = 2.00j kN
F
outlet
= 160 0.010j = 1.60j kN
Momentum ow
p
inlet
= v(v A(j))
= 2.25j kN
p
outlet
= v(v A(j))
= 2.25j kN
32
The U-bend, alternative
The net force on the water in bend, is the pressure
force on inlet, force from pipe (F
pipe
or R
y
), and
pressure force at outlet.
F
cvc
= F
inlet
+F
outlet
+F
pipe
4.5j = 2.00j + 1.60j +F
pipe
F
pipe
= 8.10j kN
The negative sign means the force from pipe bend
acts to the left.
The force is large than F
anchor
since the pipe
transmits atmospheric pressure to uid.
33
Some comments
The
__
are simple for a uniform velocity prole.
Just multiply v
2
by the area. Remember it is
the projection of the area perpendicular to uid
ow.
The linear momentum is directional and
directions can be dierent for uid entering or
leaving control volume.
The

t
___
term will be zero for steady ow
and a non-deforming control volume.
When v n < 0 then mass is entering the control
volume. When v n > 0 then mass is leaving the
control volume. When positive or negative
momentum is entering control volume depends
also on co-ordinate axis directions and
momentum direction.
If control surface is perpendicular to the
direction of uid entering or leaving control
surface then the surface force exerted by uid
will be a pressure force.
34
The external forces acting on a control volume
are positive or negative depending on coordinate
axes.
Only external forces acting on the contents of
the control volume are included in the linear
momentum equation. If the control volume only
contains the uid, then the reaction forces
between the uid and its container need to be
included in the linear momentum equation. If
the uid and its container are inside control
surface, then reaction forces between uid and
container do not appear in linear momentum
equation (they are internal forces). The force
holding the container (the anchoring force) is
external and does appear in linear momentum
equation.
The force required to anchor an object will exist
in response to surface pressure and/or shear
forces and/or momentem trander on the control
surface.
35
Some comments
Whether atmospheric pressure should be
considered depends on the choice of the control
volume. As a rst rule, choosing control volume
as water plus container means only gauge
pressure needs to considered. This issue is also
inuenced by the nature of the questions that
are being asked.
36
Jet Engine thrust
Control volume
Section (1)
Section (2)
p
1
A
1
p
2
A
2
p
atm
(A
1
A
2
)
u
1
F
th
u
2
z
x u
The conditions from a test are Intake air velocity 200
m/s , Exhaust gas velocity 500 m/s , Intake area
1.0 m
2
, Intake static pressure 22.5 kPa or 78.5
kPa(abs) , Intake static temperature 268 K ,
Exhaust static pressure 101 kPa(abs)
Estimate the thrust produced by the engine.
F
cvc
=
_ _
cvs
v(v n)dA
= p
1
A
1
p
2
A
2
+F
th
+p
atm
(A
1
A
2
)
F
th
is force engine mounting exerts on cvc .
37
Jet Engine thrust
First, evaluate convective term
_ _
cvs
v(v n)dA = u
1
m
1
+u
2
m
2
= m(u
2
u
1
)
= A
1
u
1
(u
2
u
1
)
=
p
1
R

T
A
1
u
1
(u
2
u
1
)
It is u
1
m
1
because, v points to right and v n is
negative. Substituting numbers
RHS =
78.5
287268
1.0200(500 200)
= 61.2 kN
38
Jet Engine thrust: continued
Control volume
Section (1)
Section (2)
p
1
A
1
p
2
A
2
p
atm
(A
1
A
2
)
u
1
F
th
u
2
z
x u
F
cvs
= (p
1
p
atm
)A
1
(p
2
p
atm
)A
2
+F
th
(p
1
p
atm
)A
1
= 22.6 1.0 = 22.6 kN
p
2
A
2
= 0 1.0 = 0 kN
F
th
= (p
1
p
atm
)A
1
+ (p
2
p
atm
)A
2
+F
cvc
F
th
= (22.6) + 0 + 61.2 = 83.8 kN
The force F
th
, is the force of the mounting on the
engine and it is acting to the right. The force of the
engine on the mounting block is to the left, and this
is direction engine wants to go.
39
Water Jet
A 10 mm jet of water in
deected by a homoge-
neous block with dimen-
sion (15 mm , 200 mm
, 100 mm ) and weight
6.0 N . Determine the
ow rate need to knock
over the block.
0.050 m
0.010 m
0.10 m
0.015 m
Q
First, need to determine an expression for the Force
exerted on the block by the jet. Once this is done,
determine Force (ow-rate) needed to knock the
block over. Initially make some assumptions
Half the water will be directed up, the other half
will be directed down.
The block does not slide, rather it will tend to
tip about its bottom right corner.
Do not worry about viscous forces between block
and water.
Do not worry about momentum of water
dribbling away on ground.
40
Water Jet: continued
0.050 m
0.010 m
0.10 m
0.015 m
Q
_ _
entry
v(v n)dA = iv
2
(i i) 0.005
2
= v
2
0.0785 i N
m = v0.005
2
= 0.0785v kg/s
0.0785v
2
= m
2
/0.0785 kg/s
F
cvc
=
_ _
cvs
v(v n)dA
= v
2
0.0785 i =
m
2
0.0785
i N
41
Water Jet: continued
The force on the wall is equal and
opposite to Force on cvc . The con-
dition for tipping occurs when the
torque applied by the jet exceeds the
torque given by gravity. Torque ap-
plied by jet is

jet
= F
Q
L =
m
2
0.0785
0.05 Nm
F
F
Q g
L
O
w
Torque applied by gravity is

g
= F
g
(w/2) = 6 0.0075 = 0.045 Nm
Want
jet
>
g
m
2

0.050
0.0785
> 0.045 Nm
m >
_
0.045 0.0785
0.050
= 0.266 kg/s
42
Water Jet: continued
What happens if the block is sliding away from the
jet at 1.6 m/s ?
Use relative velocity for convective term
F
sys
=
_ _
entry
w(w n)dA
= (v 1.6)
2
0.0785 i N
Thereafter proceed as previously, but best to
determine critical v rst, then convert to m .
43
The sprinkler head
Which way does a water sprinkler turn when water is
pumped through it?
Will use a control vol-
ume on one of the arms
to determine sense of ro-
tation.
Dp
sys
Dt
=

t
___
cv
vdV +
_ _
cvs
v(v n)dA
For a steady state situation, the
___
term can be
ignored for steady state ow.