Ministry of Mines and Industries of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan Afghanistan Geological Survey

Geology and Mineral Resources of Afghanistan

Book 1 Geology

Report Series Published by BGS 2008

Ministry of Mines and Industries of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan Afghanistan Geological Survey

Geology and Mineral Resources of Afghanistan

Book 1 Geology

Editors in chief SH Abdullah, V. M. Chmyriov Executive editor V. I. Dronov

Report Series Published by BGS 2008

BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

The full range of Survey publications is available from the BGS Sales Desks at Nottingham, Edinburgh and London; see contact details below or shop online at www.geologyshop.com Kingsley Dunham Centre, Keyworth, Nottingham, NG12 5GG 0115936 3100 e-mail: sales@bgs.ac.uk www.bgs.ac.uk Murchison House, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3LA 0131667 1000 e-mail: scotsales@bgs.ac.uk Maclean Building, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, Oxfordshire OX10 8BB 01491838800 Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD 0207589 4090 e-mail: bgslondon@bgs.ac.uk Forde House, Park Five Business Centre, Harrier Way, Sowton, Exeter EX2 7HU 01392445271 Geological Survey of Northern Ireland, Colby House, Stranmillis Court, Belfast BT9 5BF 0289038 8462 Columbus House, Greenmeadow Springs, Tongwynlais, Cardiff CF15 7NE 0292052 1962

Bibliographic Reference Abdullah, Sh and Chmyriov, V M (editors in chief). 2008. Geology and Mineral Resources of Afghanistan. 2 Volumes. British Geological Survey Occasional Publication No.15. Printed by Halstan & Co. Ltd., Amersham, Bucks, England BGS Production Team: Compiler, Amanda Hill, Illustrations, Paul Lappage and Henry Holbrook, Print Production, James Rayner

Editorial Board: Sh.Abdullah, N.Azimi, A..Arsalang, M.Girowal, V.I.Dronov, A.Kh.Kafarsky, A.Salah, N.Sobat, K.F.Stazihilo-Alekseev, G.I.Teleshev, M.Hamid, A.Hashmat, V.M.Chmriov

CONTENTS
PREFACE PREFACE TO THE 2008 VERSION INTRODUCTION (V. I. Dronov) Chapter 1 OUTLINE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AFGHANISTAN. Orography. (V.I. Dronov, D.A. Starshinin) Hydrography. (E.P.Malyarov) Climate. (E.P. Malyarov) Chapter 2 Chapter 3 HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL STUDIES. (V.I. Dronov, D.A. Starshinin, V.M. Chmyriov) THE MAIN FEATURES OF AFGHANISTANS GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE. (V.I. Dronov, V.M. Chmyriov) Regions of Hercynian Folding. Epi-Early Cimmerian Platform. Regions of Middle Cimmerian Folding. Median Masses. Regions of Alpine Folding. Chapter 4 STRATIGRAPHY. (V.I. Dronov) Archean. (V.I. Dronov, V.P. Feoktistov) Proterozoic. (V.I. Dronov) Lower Proterozoic. (V.I. Dronov, V.P. Feoktistov) Middle Proterozoic. (V.I. Dronov) Upper Proterozoic. (V.I. Dronov) Paleozoic. (V.I. Dronov) Vendian-Cambrian. (V.I. Dronov) Cambrian. (V.I. Dronov) Ordovician. (V.I. Dronov, A.Kh. Kafarsky) Silurian. (V.I. Dronov) Silurian-Devonian. (V.I. Dronov, A.Kh. Kafarsky) Devonian. (V.I. Dronov) Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous. (V.I. Dronov) Carboniferous. (V.I. Dronov, A.Kh. Kafarsky) Carboniferous-Lower Permian. (V.I. Dronov) Permian. (V.I. Dronov, A.Kh. Kafarsky) i xii xiii 1 2 2 7 12 14 19 19 21 23 24 27 31 31 37 37 48 50 55 56 58 59 62 64 65 69 74 88 91

Permian-Triassic, undifferiented. (V.I. Dronov) Mesozoic. (V.I. Dronov) Triassic. (V.I. Dronov) Trias-Jurassic, undifferentiated. (V.I. Dronov) Upper Triassic-Middle Jurassic. (V.I. Dronov) Jurassic. (V.I. Dronov) Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous. (V.I. Dronov) Cretaceous. (V.I. Dronov) Maastrichtian-Paleocene. (V.I. Dronov) Cenozoic. (V.I. Dronov) Paleogene. (V.I. Dronov) Neogene. (V.I. Dronov, D.A. Starshinin) Quaternary. (V.I. Dronov, D.A. Starshinin, V.M. Chmyriov) Chapter 5 IGNEOUS ROCKS. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev) Archean Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.I. Dronov) Proterozoic Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.I. Dronov) Early Proterozoic Intrusions. Middle Proterozoic Intrusions. Late Proterozoic Intrusions. Late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.I. Dronov) Early Carboniferous Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev) Permian Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.I. Dronov) Late Triassic Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.I. Dronov) Late Mesozoic-Cenozoic Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.I. Dronov) Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.I. Dronov) Early Cretaceous Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, M.A. Chalyan, V.I. Dronov) Late Cretaceous-Paleocene Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, M.A. Chalyan) Eocene Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.I. Dronov) Eocene-Oligocene Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.I. Dronov) Oligocene Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, M.A. Chalyan, V.I. Dronov) Miocene Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.I. Dronov) Early Quaternary Intrusions. (K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.M.Chmyriov) ii

109 111 111 128 130 130 156 160 194 200 201 214 221 234 234 236 236 238 240 242 243 246 248 257 257 258 265 269 272 273 297 303

Chapter 6

STRUCTURE. (V.I. Dronov, V.M. Chmyriov) Regions of Hercynian Folding. (V.I. Dronov, A.Kh. Kafarsky, V.M. Chmyriov) North Afghanistan Platform. (V.I. Dronov, I.M. Sborschchikov, V.M. Chmyriov) Regions of Middle Kimmerian Folding. (V.I. Dronov, I.M.Sborschchikov, V.M. Chmyriov) Median Masses. (V.M. Chmyriov) Regions of Alpine Folding. (V.I. Dronov, I.M. Sborschchikov, V.M. Chmyriov) Major Faults. (V.I. Dronov)

308 309 318 340 358 377 385 394 429 466

Chapter 7

THE MAIN STAGES OF THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE AFGHAN TERRITORY. (V.I. Dronov)

ILLUSTRATIONS REFERENCES

APPENDICES AND ANNEXES 1 to 19 (located in a separate folder at the back of this volume).

iii

List of Figures
Figure 1 Figure 2 General Map of Afghanistan. Orohydrographical Sketch Map of Afghanistan (Compiled by V.I. Dronov).

Figure 3 Main Topographic Regions of Afghanistan (Compiled by V.I. Dronov). Figure 4 Areas Mapped by German Geological Mission (FRG) (Compiled by V.I.Dronov).

Figure 5 Areas Covered by Geological Survey at a scale of 1:200,000 Undertaken by Soviet and Afghan Geologists (Compiled by V.I. Dronov). Figure 6 Areas Covered by Geological Survey, Scale 1:500,000, Undertaken by Soviet and Afghan Geologists (Compiled by V.I. Dronov). Figure 7 Sketch Map of Tectonic Zoning of Afghanistan (Compiled by V.I. Dronov).

Regions of Hercynian Folding: Figure 8 Unconformable occurrence of Upper Tournaisian Visean limestone on Lower Proterozoic gneiss at the upper reaches of the Tagobe Nimdasht Valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 153). Figure 9 A portion of section through the Jaway Zone at the upper reaches of the Darrah-i-Jaway Valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky). Figure 10 Cross section of a syncline located at the watershed part of the West Hendukush Ridge, east of the Salang Pass (after A.Kh.Kafarsky - 148). Figure 11 A character of folding in Ordovician (?) and Silurian (?)-Devonian beds at the right-hand slope of the Darya-i-Broghil intermittent stream (after A.Kh.Kafarsky - 200). Figure 12 A character of folding in Oligocene (?) beds at the right-hand slope of the Tash Kuprok Valley (after A.Kh.Kafarsky - 200). Figure 13 A principal cross section through the North Afghanistan Platform along the Tagab-i-Mohammed Khan Valley (after K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. - 159). Figure 14 A principal cross section through the North Afghanistan Platform along the Darya-i-Tagab Laman River (after K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. -347). Figure 15 The Share Naw structural pattern (after I.M. Sborshchikov - 147).

Figure 16 Relationship between Cretaceous and Proterozoic rock units north of Chaghcharan (after I.M. Sborshchikov - 147). Figure 17 Upthrusting of Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene limestone onto Neogene rocks in the Kotlesh area, upper reaches of the, Hari Rod River (after I.M. Sborshchikov - 147). Figure 18 Geological section across an imbricate structure zone at the upper reaches of the Hari Rod River, Kotlesh area (after I.M. Sborshchikov - 147). Figure 19 Geological section across, an imbricate structure zone at the upper reaches of the Hari Rod River, Katawak creek area (after I.M. Sborshchikov - 147). Disharmonic folds and southerly turns of structures are well apparent. Figure 20 The Bamyan type of Carboniferous-Permian deposits in the southern part of the Balkhob Uplift (Shahdar area) unconformably overlain by Cretaceous-Paleocene Sedimentary Cover deposits (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 148). Figure 21 Unconformable occurrence of Rhaetian volcanics on Ordovician schist in the northern part of the Balkhob uplift (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 148). iv

Figure 22 A character of folding in the Middle-Upper Triassic basement and Sedimentary Cover of Cretaceous-Paleocene age in the Duob-Uluswali area (after I.M. Sborshchikov - 154). Figure 23 Geological sketch map of the type (tectonotype) locality of the Nalbandan Zone (Compiled by V.I. Dronov (152)). Figure 24 Geological sketch map of the eastern part of the Nalbandan Zone, upper reaches of the Gawmazar River (Compiled by V.I. Dronov (152)). Figure 25 Geological sketch section through the Warw Zone and the Amurn Zone of imbricate structures along the watershed of the Darrahe-i-Begaw and Darrahe-i-Ghumay rivers (after I.M. Sborshchikov - 154). Figure 26 Geological profile along the Nakhchir Par River valley (after I.M. Sborshchikov - 154).

Figure 27 A character of bedding in the Norian-Middle Jurassic sequence at the watershed between the Krunj and Panj rivers (after Sh.Sh. Denikayev - 151). Figure 28 Location diagram of late orogenic and repeated-orogenic superimposed basins in the western part of Middle Afghanistan (after V.I.Dronov - 152). Figure 29 Geological map of the Middle Afghanistan. type locality (interfluve of the Hari Rod, Rode Tagab Eshlan, Sharak and Tarbolaq rivers) notable for the presence of imbricate structure zones (Compiled by V.I. Dronov and S.M. Kalimulin (152)). Figure 30 Principal profiles across the type locality of nappe structures of Middle Afghanistan (after V.I. Dronov - 152). Figure 31 Geological map of the Kohe Taraka and Kohe Qaftarkhan ridges (Compiled by V.I. Dronov and S.M. Kalimulin (152)). Figure 32 A series of narrow compressed folds in Ordovician-Lower Silurian beds in the Shahrist area (after I.M. Sborshchikov - 154). Figure 33 Disharmonic folding it Lower Silurian sequence at the left-hand bank of the Panj River (after V.M. Moraliov et al. - 351). Figure 34 A portion of disharmonic fold in Lower Silurian limestone at the left-hand bank of the Panj River (after V.M.Moraliov). Figure 35 A character of folding in Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence at the upper reaches of the Darya-i-Qara-Jelga River (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 200). Figure 36 A character of folding in Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence at the right-hand slope of the Darya-i-Uchraw River valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 200). Figure 37 A character of folding in Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence at the upper reaches of the Darya-i-Warm River valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 200). Figure 38 A character of folding in Carboniferous-Triassic sequence at the upper reaches of the Darya-i-Bagharak River valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 200). Figure 39 A character of folding in Carboniferous-Triassic sequence at the right-hand slope of the Darya-iSarhad River valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 200). Figure 40 A character of folding in Norian-Rhaetian sequence at the watershed part of the Wakhan Ridge (after A.Kh Kafarsky - 200). Figure 41 Unconformable occurrence of Lower-Middle Jurassic rocks on the Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence at the right-hand slope of the Darya-i-Tegermensu River valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 200). Figure 42 Unconformable occurrence of Lower-Middle Jurassic rocks on the Carboniferous-Triassic sequence at the upper reaches of the Darya-i-Andemin River valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 200). v

Figure 43 Unconformable occurrence of Eocene-Oligocene volcanics on Carboniferous-Lower Permian. sequence at the left-hand slope of the Darya-i-Warm River Valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 200). Figure 44 An intrusive contact between Early Cretaceous granodiorite of the Wakhan Complex and Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence in the drainage basin of the Wakhan River (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 200). Figure 45 An intrusive contact between Oligocene granite of the Muntagh Complex and CarboniferousLower Permian sequence in the Akau River's drainage basin (after A. Kh. Kafarsky - 200). Figure 46 A principal geological cross section through the south-western termination of the Tiring Kandahar and Argandab zones (after Yu.M. Dovgal et al. - 144). Figure 47 Unconformable occurrence of Vend-Cambrian sequence (Zargaran Formation) on Upper Proterozoic rook unit (Chaman Series) within the Malakhel Arch (after Yu.M. Dovgal - 144). Figure 48 Unconformable occurrence of Upper Devonian rocks (Kundalyan Formation) on Upper Proterozoic sequence (Chaman Series) within the Malestan Arch (after Yu.M. Dovgal - 144). Figure 49 Unconformable occuremce of Upper permian rocks (Chohan Series) on Upper Proterozoic sequence (Chaman Series) within the Malakhel Arch (after Yu.M. Dovgal - 144). Figure 50 Disharmonic folding in Silurian shale within the Choka area (after Yu.M. Dovgal - 144).

Figure 51 Transgressive occurrence of Barremian-Aptian rooks (Anogay Formation) on Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sequence (Yangala Series) 6 km. south-east of the Anogay Village (after Yu.M. Dovgal - 144). Figure 52 Conformable occurrence of Upper Permian rocks (Chohan Series) on Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence (Sholkalay Series) in the Logar Zone (after Yu.M. Dovgal - 144). Figure 53 Geological sketch map of the Pushte Sabz Ridge in the Anor Daxa Zone (after V.I. Dronov - 152).

Figure 54 Geological cross section through the Pushte Sabz Ridge in the Anon Dara Zone. A sharp angular unconformity is traceable between Barremian-Aptian and assumingly Vend-Cambrian rook units (after V. I. Dronov - 152). Figure 55 A tectonic slab of Coloured Melange in metamorphites of assumingly Middle Proterozoic age south of Kalat (after I.M. Sborshchikov - 371). Figure 56 A generalized geological section across an imbricate structure zone in the Altamur Ridge and adjacent areas (after I.M. Sborshohikov - 371). Figure 57 Structural pattern of the Mukur-Chaman Fault Zone near the Abdulkadyr Village (after I.M. Sborshchikov - 371). Figure 58 Geological cross sections through the Katawaz Trough: A-Along the Urgun--Shkin line; B-Along the Mashorei line (Compiled by I.M. Sborshchikov (371)).

vi

List of Tables
Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Water resources of Afghanistan's main rivers. Chemical composition of Lower Tournaisian volcanics from the Jaway Zone. The chemical composition of the Lower Tournaisian Darrae Takht volcanics.

Table 4 Chemical composition of Namurian volcanic rocks from the Andarab and Labghard drainage basin. Table 5 Chemical composition of Lower Carboniferous volcanics from Hazrat Sultan Zone.

Table 6 Chemical composition of the Rhaetian volcanics exposed in the Khenjan and Andarab drainage basins. Table 7 Table 8 Chemical composition of principal rock types of the Kanqala Series. Chemical composition of some volcanic rock types of the Karro Series.

Table 9 Chemical composition of Eocene-Oligocene volcanics from the drainage basin of the Nawa-i-Jilgha-i-Mazar River. Table 10 Table 11 Table 12 Table 13 Chemical composition of the Miocene-Oligocene volcanics of the Tangay Series. Chemical composition of the Eocene-Oligocene volcanics of the Shindand Series. Chemical composition of the Quaternary volcanics in Afghanistan. Chemical composition of Archean ultrabasic and acidic intrusive rocks.

Table 14 Chemical composition of the Proterozoic granitoid rocks, from Nawa-i-Waras, Darya-i-Panjsher and Khufob complexes. Table 15 Absolute ages of some granitoid rocks from Waras, Panjsher and Khufob Complexes.

Table 16 Chemical composition for some rocks from the Tamazan, Chekanak, Salang and Safed Koh complexes. Table 17 Table 18 Table 19 Table 20 Table 21 Table 22 Table 23 Table 24 Table 25 Table 26 Table 27 Table 28 Table 29 Table 30 Table 31 Absolute ages of some rock types from the Tamazan Complex. Chemical composition of some rock types of the Shengan and Payandeh complexes. Absolute ages of some rock types from the Shengan Complex. Chemical composition of some rock types from the Nalak Complex. Absolute ages of some rock types from the Bamyan Complex. Chemical composition of some rock types from the Bamyan and Murkh complexes. Chemical composition of some rock types from the Chashte-Sharif and Madraza Complexes. Chemical composition of some rock types from the West Hendukush Complex. Absolute ages of some rock types from the West Hendukush Complex. Chemical composition of some rock types from the Tugai and Mulloyakub complexes. Chemical composition of rocks from the Hodjan and Karabah Complexes. Average chemical composition of some rock types from the Nilaw and Paghman Complexes. Chemical composition of some rock types from the Zarkashon Complex. Absolute ages of some rock types from the Zarkhashon and Surkhabad Complexes. Chemical composition of some rock types from the Surkhabad and Gareba complexes. vii

Table 32

Chemical composition of some rook types from the Mir Ali and Chaghcharan Complexes.

Table 33 Chemical composition of some rock types from the Matun and Kwatta Areas. Table 34 Table 35 Table 36 Table 37 Table 38 Table 39 Table 40 Table 41 Table 42 Table 43 Chemical composition of some rock types from the Farah, Chagay and Gareba Complexes. Chemical composition of some rock types from the Yarkh and Hajigak Complexes. Chemical composition of some rock types from the Balghaja Complex. Chemical composition of some rock types from the Spin Boldak Complex. Chemical composition of some rock types from the Helmand and Argandab Complexes. Absolute ages of some rock types from the Argandab Complex. Absolute ages of some rocks types from the Helmand Complex. Average chemical composition of the rocks from the Laghinan and Bagarak complexes. Absolute Complex ages of some rock types from the Laghman. Chemical composition of some rock types from the Mustag, Shewa and Wakhan complexes.

Table 44 Chemical composition of some rock types from the Share Arman, Lola Rod and Naserqu Complexes. Table 45 Table 46 Table 47 Table 48 Chemical composition of some rock types from the Barkar Complex. Chemical composition of some rock types from the Ghurzanak Complex. Absolute ages of some rock types from the Dashte Nawer Complex. Chemical composition of some rock types from Dashte Nawer and Malekdokand complexes.

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List of maps, correlation tables and palaeogeographical reconstructions labelled as Annexes 1 to 19. These are located in a separate folder.
Annex 1 Annex 2 Annex 3 Annex 4 Geological map of Afghanistan, 1:2,500,000. Map of magmatic formations of Afghanistan, 1:2,500,000. Tectonic map of Afghanistan, 1:2,500,000. Correlation diagram of Archean rock units of Afghanistan and adjacent territories of the USSR.

Annex 5 Correlation diagram of Proterozoic rock units of Afghanistan and Adjacent Areas of the USSR and Iran. Annex 6 Correlation diagram of Vendian and Cambrian rock units of Afghanistan and Adjacent Regions of the USSR. Annex 7 Correlation diagram of Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian rock units of Afghanistan and Adjacent Territories of the USSR. Annex 8 Correlation diagram of Carboniferous and Permian rock units of Afghanistan and Adjacent Areas of the USSR. Annex 9 Correlation diagram of Triassic and Jurrassic rock units of Afghanistan and Adjacent Territories of the USSR. Annex 10 USSR. Correlation diagram of Carboniferous rock units of Afghanistan and Adjacent territories of the

Annex 11 Correlation diagram of Paleogene and Miocene rock units of Afghanistan and Adjacent Territories of the USSR. Annex 12 Correlation diagram of Pliocene - Quaternary Deposits of Afghanistan and adjacent regions of the USSR. Annex 13 Annex 14 Annex 15 Annex 16 Annex 17 Annex 18 Annex 19 Evolution diagram of the Afghanistan - North Pamir Folded Region. Evolution diagram of Henduraj - Hazar Folded Region. Evolution diagram of North Afghanistan Platform. Evolution diagram of Afghanistan - South Pamir Folded Region. Evolution diagram of the Nurestan - Pamir Median Mass. Evolution diagram of South Afghanistan Median Mass. Evolution diagram of the Regions of Alpine Folding.

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PREFACE
Geology and Mineral Resources of Afghanistan. Edited by Sh. Abdullah, V.M. Chmyriov and V.I. Dronov. Nedra Publishing House, Moscow, 1980.
This publication consists of two books and some supplements. Book I. Geology of Afghanistan. The book contains the first monographic description of the geology of the entire Afghan territory. The main sources used were the results of the twenty-year (1958-1977) joint Soviet-Afghan geological investigations. Account was also taken of the most well-known and important geological evidence obtained on the territory of Afghanistan by West European geologists. The description is based on a composite geological map of Afghanistan on a scale of 1:500,000 covering the entire territory of the country for the first time and printed in 1978 at the cartographic factory in Leningrad. The book contains introductory chapters devoted to a brief description of the countrys orohydrography and climate and the history of its geological study and the basic chapters devoted to the description of stratified and intrusive formations and the tectonic structure of Afghanistan. All the stratified units and intrusive formations and a sketch map of tectonic zoning are correlated with similar units distinguished within the adjacent territories of the USSR. The bibliography includes 445 titles of articles, books, and other publications. Graph annexes: 1 - Geological Map of Afghanistan, 1:2,500,000; 2 - Tectonic Map of Afghanistan, 1:2,500,000; 3 - Map of Igneous Complexes of Afghanistan, 1:2,000,000. Book II. Mineral Resources of Afghanistan. The book contains the first ever description of all the mineral deposits, occurrences and mechanical mineralogical haloes discovered on the Territory of Afghanistan by January 1, 1977. The main materials used were the results of geological studies on various scales, survey and prospecting work carried out jointly by Soviet and Afghan geologists from 1958 to 1977. Account was also taken of all well-known works on the mineral resources published by Afghan arid West-European geologists at the end of the last century and during the first half of this century (up to the 1960's). The description is based on a Map of Mineral Resources of Afghanistan on a scale of 1:500,000 covering the entire territory of the country for the first time and printed in 1978 at the cartographic factory in Leningrad. The book consists of two parts. The first part (Chapters I-VIII) examines genetic types and ore formations of mineral deposits and occurrences in Afghanistan, metallogenic epochs, metallogenic zoning and general regularities in the distribution of endogenous mineralization in Afghanistan, oil, gas and coal prospects of Afghanistan and all hydrogeological conditions and mineral and industrial waters of Afghanistan. The second part (Chapter IX) contains a catalogue of mineral deposits, occurrences and mechanical mineralogical haloes of Afghanistan. The bibliography includes 161 titles of articles, books and other publications. Graph annexes: 1 - Sketch Map of Metallogenic Zoning of Afghanistan, 1:4,000,000; 2 - Map of Deposits end Occurrences of Ferrous Metals and Mineral Fuels of Afghanistan, 1:4,000,000; 3 - Map of Deposits and Occurrences of Tin, Tungsten, Molybdenum and Bismuth of Afghanistan, 1:4,000,000; 4 - Map of Deposits and Occurrences of Mercury, Rare and Noble Metals of Afghanistan, 1:4,000,000; 5 - Map of Deposits and Occurrences of Non-ferrous Metals of Afghanistan, 1:4,000,000; 6 - Map of Deposits and Occurrences of Non-Metallic Minerals of Afghanistan, 1:4,000,000; 7 - Hydrogeological Map of Afghanistan, 1:2,000,000; 6 - Map of Mineral Water Springs of Afghanistan, 1:2,000,000; 9 - Map of Mineral and Fresh Water (in deserts) Springs of Afghanistan, 1:4,000,000. The publication is intended for a wide circle of geologists studying regional geology, stratified and intrusive formations, Tectonic structures and mineral resources of the Middle East and the entire Mediterranean Fold Belt and adjacent territories. It may be used also as a textbook by undergraduate and postgraduate students of geology studying the geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan.

PREFACE TO THE 2008 ENGLISH VERSION OF VOLUME ONE

The Geology and Mineral Resources of Afghanistan was compiled and written as a collaborative work between the Afghanistan Geological Survey and the Soviet Geological Mission. It represents the synthesis of 20 years of joint Afghan-Soviet geological investigations and earlier German and French studies, and in 1980 was formally published in Russian by NEDRA Moscow, in two volumes. These volumes were translated into English by a group of Professors at the University of Kabul, although the documents were not published and the manuscripts archived in the Afghanistan Geological Survey Library. This version of Volume 1 is a reissue of the English translation, prepared by the British Geological Survey in 2007 as part of an institutional strengthening project for the Afghanistan Geological Survey, funded by the United Kingdom Department for International Development. It is printed in hardback and softback versions. The hardback version is accompanied by Volume 2 and a folder containing maps and correlation charts. The softback version of Volume 1 contains two CDs, with Volume 2 and the maps and correlation charts. The technical and scientific content and text is unaltered from the original and consequently some of the terminology may be unfamiliar and outdated. Minor reformatting, consistent with a modern, electronically produced publication, has been made. Most of the diagrams and stratigraphic charts have been redrawn to improve legibility and clarity, and the original large format maps found in the annexes of the original have been scanned and re-printed without change.

Acknowledgements The following British Geological Survey staff have been involved in the production of this volume: Sarah Arkley, Antony Benham, Stan Coats, Richard Ellison, Henry Holbrook, Paul Lappage, Bob McIntosh, Paul McDonnell and Igor Rojkovic. All staff in the Archive Section of the Afghanistan Geological Survey are thanked for their part in safeguarding the original manuscript through many years of turmoil and conflict.

Mr Abdul Wasy Director General Afghanistan Geological Survey November 2007

xi

 2007 . 20 . 1980 NEDRA . . . ) ( . . . . ) (DFID . : ) (Sarah Arkley ) (Antony Benham ) (Stan Coats )(Richard Ellison ) (Henry Holbrook ) (Paul Lappage ) (Bob McIntosh )Paul (McDonnell ). (Igor Rjkovic .

xii

INTRODUCTION
This work is the result of 20 years of cooperation between the U.S.S.R. and Afghanistan in the study of the geology and minerals of the Republic. In the process of cooperation the prospecting and survey were conducted on a scale of 1:500,000 on the entire territory of the country and a geological map and a map of mineral resources of Afghanistan were compiled on a scale of 1:500,000. The traditional mining and newly discovered perspective regions were studied on a scale of 1:200,000, 1:100,000, 1:50,000 and on a larger scale. Thematic investigations were carried out on some problems. The results of this work were described in more than 150 reports and in numerous articles, theses and accounts published in the Afghan and Soviet periodic geological publications. This work is intended to summarize all these materials and generalize all the data on the geology and minerals of the whole country. This work is thus based on the Soviet-Afghan studies conducted over 20 years, and the most important results obtained by German (FRG), Italian and French geologists as well as on all the well-known evidence collected by the end of the 19th and the first half of the 20th century. The present publication consists of two books and some supplements. The first book comprises, apart from the general chapters, the description of the stratified and intrusive formations and tectonics of Afghanistan. The second book includes all the materials on mineral resources of the country discovered in the Republic by January 1, 1977. The supplements include 12 maps on different scales and content explaining the text of the books. The general geological sections of the work are based mainly on the results of prospecting and survey on a scale of 1:200,000 and. 1:500,000. The sections on mineral resources were written on the basis of the materials on prospecting and survey and exploration on a variety of scales. The work was done at the Department of Geological and Mineral Survey in Kabul and is based predominantly on the reports available at the Department. The unexposed areas of the northern part of North Afghanistan are described in the present book using the reports available at the Oil and Gas Department in Mazare-Sharif and the summary report by V.I. Bratash et al. (142) which gives a detailed geological account of oil and gas fields discovered in the northern part of North Afghanistan. Therefore the geology of the oil and gas fields is described here very briefly. The work on this book continued from 1975 to 1977. The authors, whose names are given in the title of the book, were assisted in collecting and editing the initial materials by Yu.N. Apekin, V.B. Averianov, G.M. Bezulov, B.Ya. Vikhter, L.E. Kornev, E.B. Nevretdinov, L.Y. Sokolova, L.I. Chmyriova, A.S. Shadchinev and others. The graphical annexes to the book were drawn by cartographers Z.A. Alpatova, V.S. Saikovsky and V.I. Silkina. The authors wish to acknowledge gratefully the generous assistance and support given by the officials and workers of the Ministry of Mines ana Industries of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Special thanks are due to the staff of the Economic Councillor of the USSR Embassy in Afghanistan and the USSR Ministry of Geology.

Chapter 1

OUTLINE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AFGHANISTAN

The Democratic Republic of Afghanistan is situated in the Middle East at the junction of Central, Middle, Western and Southern Asia between 2930'-3830' Northern latitude and 6030'-7450' Eastern longitude. The area of the country is 655,000 square kilometres. The capital of Afghanistan is Kabul (Fig.1).

OROGRAPHY
Afghanistan, a land of mountains and desert plains, is situated at the junction of the Afghano-Iranian highland and mountain systems of the High Central Asia. The mountains account for more than 70 per cent of the countrys territory forming a vast mountainous structure which gradually rises and becomes more narrow towards the Pamir and then spreads out like a fan and descends towards Iran (Fig. 2). The greatest part of this structure is constituted by the high ridges of Parwan, Kattaghan, Badakhshan, Wakhan and Nurestan conjugated with the majestic mountain systems of the Pamir, Qara Qorum and Hinduraj. The backbone of this part of Afghanistan is the Hendukush Ridge which forms a watershed between the Amu Darya and the Indus. It begins to the north of Bamyan and stretches in the north-eastern direction to the intersection of the state frontiers of the U.S.S.R., Afghanistan, China and India, where it ends in the Mustag mountain plexus. The total length of the ridge is more than 800 km. It is divided into Western, Central and Eastern Hendukush by a system of valleys, mountain plexuses and passes. To the west and south-west of the Hendukush there is a high-mountain land of Middle Afghanistan stretching nearly east-west and to the north and south of it lie the middle mountain regions of Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan and Hazarajat. In the south-eastern part of Afghanistan, enclosed between the valleys of the Kabul and Tarnak rivers and separated from the Hazarajat region by the Ghazni-Kandahar plateau, there are the Suleiman Mountains which are bounded in the North by the Spin Ghar Ridge of almost east-west trend. This mountain structure gradually descends to the west, north-west and south-west to give place to the lowlands and submontane hilly regions and then to extensive desert plains: the South-Afghan Plain in the south, the North Afghan Plain in the north and to nearly north-south trending system of plains and drainless depressions in the west. The orography of individual regions is given in greater detail below (Fig. 3).

High Mountain Regions The Nurestan-Wakhan Mountain Region The Nurestan-Wakhan Mountain Region covers the extreme north-eastern part of the country and consists of the Mustag mountain plexus and the ridges of Wakhan, the Central and Eastern Hendukush and Hinduraj. The Mustag plexus lies between the upper reaches of the rivers Wakhan, Aksu, Hunza and Taahqurgan (Kara Chakur). Its highest elevation within Afghanistan is 5,744 meters. To the west of it the East Hendukush Ridge is situated, to the south-east lies the Qara Qorum Ridge and to the north-east the Sare-Kol Ridge. The Wakhan Ridge of E-N-E extension is situated between the Pamir and Istyk river basins in the north end Wakhan and Aksu rivers in the south. It is 160 km long and its highest elevation is 6,504- meters (Mt. Snow Rock). The Eastern Hendukush of E-N-E trend lies to the east of the plexus of mountains with the Nawshah peak (7,455 m). It is drained in the north by the left-bank tributaries of the Wakhan Darya and Penj and in the south by the upper reaches of the rivers Chitral, Mastuj, Darrah Gilgit and Ishkuman. It extends for 350 kilometers and the most common altitudes are 5,500-6,000 meters, more seldom 7,000 meters.

The Central Hendukush Range or Nurestan lies to the south-west of the plexus of mountains with the peak of Nawshah. It is drained in the west and north-east by the tributaries of the rivers Panjsher, Tagabe Anjoman and Tagabe Munjan, in the south by the left-bank tributaries of the Kabul River, in the east and south-east by the right-bank tributaries of the Konar-Chetral River. It extends for 250 kilometers, the prevailing elevations varying from 4,000 to 5,000 meters and its peak is 6,248 meters. The Hinduraj Range penetrates the territory of Afghanistan by its extreme south-western part. It is drained there by the left-bank tributaries of the Kabul and Konar rivers. It extends for 130 kilometres over the territory of Afghanistan, its peak is 3,809 meters and. its trend is north-eastern. The topography of the Nurestan-Wakhan area combines the elements of the East Pamir and Badakhshan. Elements of the East-Pamir type are characterized by highly elevated (2,500 to 4,500 meters) wide flat trough valleys with medium-mountain lightly dissected ranges, 1,000 to 2,000 meters high, and individual blocks projecting above them. Elements of the Badakhshan type are narrow deeply indented and steeply sloping valleys, infrequently canyon-like in the lower parts. Some kilometers higher rise rugged steeply sloping rocky high-mountain ranges. The topography of the East-Pamir type is characteristic of the Eastern Hendukush, Wakhan and Mustag, the topography of the Badakhshan type is found in the Central Hendukush, particularly in its southern part. In the upper reaches the valleys are trough-like. The Nurestan-Wakhan Mountain region is an area of the thickest recent glaciation within the Afghan territory. In the watershed sectors of the ranges the glacial forms of topography occur everywhere. These are: swells and crests of side and terminal morainic ridges, glacial cirques filled with glaciers and firn basins, glacial lakes and diverse out her forms and so on. The snow line rises from the south-west in the northeastern direction elevating 4,000 to 5,000 meters. The Badakhshan-Western Hendukush Mountain Region The Badakhshan-Western Hendukush Mountain Region embraces many Alpine ranges of the North-Western, Southern and Central Badakhshan and the Western Hendukush. The Western Hendukush, Khwaja Mohammad, Kohe Safedhirs and Kohe Lal are the most important among them. They form as a whole an arc of the northeastern extension protruding to the south-east. The Western Hendukush lies in the watershed area between the Bamyan, Shibar, Gorband and Panjsher rivers in the south and Sayghan, Surkhab and Andarab rivers in the north. It is 220 kilometers long, the maximum elevation is 5,054 meters, the trend is nearly east-west and slopes asymmetrical: the southern slope is short and steep and the northern is long and gentle. The Khwaja Mohammad Ridge constitutes the highest part of the watershed area between the upper reaches of rivers Andarab, Panjsher and Kokcha, extending in the north-eastern direction. It is over 200 kilometers long, the maximum elevation being 5,841 meters; its south-eastern slope is steep and short and the northwestern slope is long and gentle. The Safedhirs Ridge trends north-south in the extreme northwestern part of the Badakhshan between the big loop of the river Panj in the Darwaza area and the valley of the river Shewa. It stretches for more than 100 kilometers; its highest elevation is 5,329 meters; its eastern slope is steep and short and the western one is long and gentle. The Kohe Lal Ridge occupies the eastern part of the Central and Southern Badakhshan, extending northsouth between the system of the rivers Panj, Shewa and Warduj. It is 150 kilometers long, has a maximum elevation of 5,355 meters (Mt. Yahgarda), its eastern slope is steep and short and the western one is long and gentle. The relief of the region is of the Badakhshan type, combining erosion and erosion-accumulative forms with deep narrow valleys and high-rise steep rocky ridges carrying a permanent snow and ice cover in the watershed part. The lower parts of valleys are universally of the erosion type and their upper parts are of the erosion-accumulative type with modern and ancient glacial relief forms. The snow line passes at the altitude of 4,000-4,500 meters.

The mountain county of Middle Afghanistan The mountain county of Middle Afghanistan includes the Kohe Baba, Bande Bayan, Kasamurg (Syahkoh), Hazarsang, Kohe Qaftarkhan and other ridges. In the north they are drained by the rivers Gorband, Shebar, Bamyan, Hari Rod and in the south they are bounded by a system of passes, tectonic depressions and nearly east-west-trending sections of the upper course of the rivers Kabul, Helmand, Hash Rod, Farah Rod and Harut Rod. The ridges have almost east-west strike and their total length exceeds 700 kilometres. The easternmost and most majestic ridge of the system is the Kohe Baba Ridge which serves as a watershed of the rivers Bande Amir, Hari Rod, Helmand and Kabul. Its length is 200 kilometers and the highest elevation is 5,143 meters (Mt. Shahfuladi). It is the westernmost ridge of Afghanistan carrying a permanent snow and ice cover in its watershed part. The snow line passes at the altitude of 3,500-4,000 meters. To the west of the Kohe Baba Ridge. and directly conjugated with it there is the Bande Bayan Ridge which serves as a watershed of the rivers Hari Rod, Helmand, Hash Rod and Farah Rod. Its length is 150 kilometers, average elevations are 3,500 meters and its highest elevation mark is 3,715 meters. Further west separated from the Bande Bayan Ridge by the Shutur pass, there is the Kasamurg (Syahkoh) Ridge drained in the north by the left-bank tributaries of the Hari Rod and in the south by the right-bank tributaries of the Tagob-Eshlan River. Its length is 200 kilometers, the average elevations are 3,000 meters, the highest elevation mark being 3,986 meters. The westernmost and orographically well defined ridge of Middle Afghanistan is the Hazarsang Ridge drained in the north by the left-bank tributaries of the Hari Rod and in the south by the right-bank tributaries of the Rodegaz River (the right-hand constituent of the Hari Rod-Adraskan River). The ridge is a tectonically isolated non-linear (60x40 kilometers) mountain mass with average elevations of 2,500 meters. The highest elevation is 3,335 meters. Further to the west there is a system of isolated ranges and masses, the most significant of which are the Kohe Qaftarkhan and Kohe Taraqa ranges. The relief of the region is erosional and erosional-accumulative of the Badakhshan type with traces of ancient and modern glaciation combining both ancient flattened uplands and young pointed, steeply sloping peaks and watersheds of high-rise ridges. The formation of the relief was substantially influenced by tectonic processes. Practically all the ridges are bounded by faults. In the south and north they show traces of a system of narrow nearly east-west-trending grabenous depressions of Neogene-Quaternary age.

Medium Mountain Regions (Footnote: This is a conditional designation relative to the above high-mountain regions. In absolute elevations their parts are mostly high-mountain areas.) The Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Mountain Region The Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Mountain Region represents a vast, plateau-like upland which gradually rises to the south-east. Against the background of this upland, two systems of almost east-west-trending ridges stand out connected by the second-order ridges. The southern system of ridges consists of a number of linearly elongated, closely conjugated ridges located in between the Hari Rod and Murghab valleys. In the east-west direction the main of them are the Firozkoh, Badhyzat and Syah-Bubak ridges. They are often. referred to as the Safed Koh Ridge. The western part of the system is called the Paropamiz Ridge. The total length of the ridges is 550 kilometers and the highest elevations are found in the Firozkoh Ridge in the eastern part of which there is a peak 4,555 meters high. The average height of the ridges is 3,000-3,500 meters. The maximum elevations in the west of the Syah-Bubak Ridge amount to 2,239 meters. The slopes of the ridges are asymmetrical: the southern slopes are shorter everywhere compared to the northern slopes. The northern system of ridges includes the Bande Turkestan Ridge running in between the Murghab Valley in the south and the Qaysar, Shirin-Tagaw and Sar-i-Pul river basins in the north. 4

In the east the ridge is bounded by the Balkhab (Bande-Amir) River. Its length is 250 kilometers, the average height being 2,500-3,000 meters and the highest elevation is 3,809 meters. To the east of the Balkhob, along the strike of the Bande-Turkestan Ridge, there is the Farand Ridge which serves a watershed between the rivers Samangan, Darya-i-Suf and Surkhab- Pule Khumri. Its highest elevation is 4,160 meters. The Hazarajat Mountain Region The Hazarajat Mountain Region embraces a system of fanning out ridges, crests and ranges of the southwestern strike situated to the south of the east-west-trending ranges of Middle Afghanistan. On the east it borders on the Ghazni Kandahar highland, in the south on the South-Afghan desert and in the west on a system of drainless lakes and plains of Western Afghanistan. The region is drained by the Hari Rod, Farah Rod, Helmand, Hash Rod, Argandab and other rivers. All the rivers flow in the south-western direction concordantly with the strike of the ranges whose heights increase from the south-west to the north-east from 1,500-2,000 meters to 3,500-4,000 meters, Some peaks reach 4,500 meters. The culmination of the entire virgation is a mountain mass drained by the upper courses of the Helmand, Logar, Tirin and Argandab rivers. Beyond that point in the south-western direction the mountain mass branches out into an increasing number of lower and lower ranges which are first well-defined and then become separate crests end ridges embedded in the steppes and deserts of Southern and Western Afghanistan. The relief of the region is erosional and erosional-accumulative, combining some areas with rocky steeply sloping and strongly dissected Alpine-type ranges cut across by narrow canyon-like valleys of rivers and some areas with weakly dissected gently slopes and flat peaks. The Mountain Region of South-Eastern Afghanistan The Mountain Region of South-Eastern Afghanistan includes the Afghan part of the Suleiman Mountains bounded in the north by the Spin Ghar and Altamur ridges, in the west by the Ghazni-Kandahar Highland and in the south by the Regestan Desert. The watershed crest of the Suleiman Mountains within the territory of Afghanistan is represented (from the south-west to the north-east) by the ranges Kozokgar, Handigar, Barigar, Shinkaygar, Zeraigar, Sarbandegar, Sarhauzegar, Sarobigar, etc. The altitude of the ranges gradually increases from the south-west to the north-east from 1,500 to 4,000 meters, the general strike of the ranges being predominantly north-eastern, from the west and east they are ajoined by lateral ranges of nearly eastwest and south-western strike. The rivers flowing to the east and southeast of the watershed line belong to the basin of the Indus River and the rivers flowing to the west and south-west of this line belong to a system of drainless lakes of Ab-i-Estoda, Hamune Lora and Hamune Helmand. The Spin Ghar and Altimur ridges forming a semi-arc bound the region from the north being its highest areas. The Spin Ghar Ridge strikes east-west and the Altimur Ridge has the northeastern trend. The highest elevation of the Altimur Ridge is 4,101 meters and of the Spin Ghar Ridge 4,755 meters.

Low Mountain Regions (Footnote: This is a conditional designation relative to medium mountain regions. In absolute heights some of their areas are medium-mountain ones.) The Badakhshan Submountaine Region The Badakhshan Submountaine Region embraces all foreranges of the North-Western Badakhshan up to the Pule Khumri River. The most significant and well defined orographically is the Rustak Range. It is a submeridional smoothed range bounded on the west and north by the Panj Valley, in the south by the valley of the Kokcha and in the east by a. broad valley with the Rustak village. The elevation marks of the range average 1,500-1,500 meters. Other ranges are less pronounced, being lower and having a north-western trend. The relief of the region is ridgy with relict mountains due to the broad development of loose sandy conglomerate layers of Neogene age.

The Afghan-South Tajik Mountain Region The Afghan-South Tajik Mountain Region includes a group of isolated uplands and masses located between the Badakhshan and Bande Turkestan submountane areas. Against the background of the valley there stands out a group of uplands and massifs, the most significant among them are Shamar (814 meters), Kartaw (1,361 meters), Chongur (over 3,000 meters) Autobrus (2,324 meters), Babalar (1,962 meters), Ambar (1,975 meters), Khwaja (1,294 meters) and others. The Bande Turkestan Submountane Region The Bande Turkestan Submountane Region includes foreranges of the Bande-Turkestan: Khwajatut, Shadyan, Alburz and Sheram. The first three ranges constitute a single mountain chain broken into separate links by the gorges of the rivers of Samangan and Balkhob. These are narrow linear asymmetrical ranges with short and steep northern slopes and long and gentle southern slopes. Their orientation is strictly east-western. The Khwajatut Range is situated in the east of the system, stretching for 60 kilometers and having the highest elevation mark of 2,122 meters. The Shadyan Range lies in the centre of the system. It is 90 kilometers long and has the highest elevation mark of 2,764 meters. The Alburz Range lies to the west of the Shadyan Range. It is 50 kilometers long; its elevation marks are 1,374-1,560 meters; it lies 800-1,000 meters higher than the valley adjoining it from the north. On the western extension of the range there is a group of gently sloping uplands forming two branches of east-west strike: Khwaja Bulan-Bayangur and Yatim Tag-Khwaja-Gogerdak. To the south of the Alburz Range lies the Sheram Range separated from the former by an undulating plain with absolute heights of 700-900 meters, It is 30 kilometers long, its highest elevation is 1,601 meters and its trend is north-easterly. In the west, in the Sar-i-Pul area the range ends in the nearly east-west-trending Angot upland (1,022 meters). The relief of the region is erosional, accumulative, hilly and ridgy with small positive uplifts and extensive intermountane spaces occupied by river valleys. The Paropamiz Submountane Region The Paropamiz Submountane Region includes foreranges of a mountain system of the same name lying to the west and southwest of the Murghab River. The biggest of them is the Bande Gandas Range. Its length is 30 kilometers, the average altitudes are 1,000-1,500 meters; it trends nearly east-west. All the other ranges of the region are smaller and less pronounced orographically. All the ranges are of nearly east-west trend and in the west of north-western trend. The relief of the region is hilly and ridgy. The South Afghan Mountains The South Afghan Mountains embrace the northern parts of two ranges bordering on the Baluchistan: Chagay and Raskoh Mirjawan. The Chagay Ridge is situated in the extreme south of the country, bounding the South Afghan Plain from the south. Its length within Afghanistan is 200 kilometers, the average heights being 1,300-1,700 meters; the highest elevation mark is 2,030 meters and the trend is nearly east-western. The ridge is drained by a system of rivers that dry up in hot seasons, the biggest of them being the Loy Dor. The Raskoh Mirjawan Range extends over the territory of Afghanistan in the extreme south-western part of the country, at a place named Rabat-i-Jali, where it is known as Koh-i-Maliksy Range. It stretches for five kilometres within the territory of the country. Its highest elevation mark is 1,640 meters and its trend is north-western. The West Afghan Mountains The West Afghan Mountains embrace a system of low ranges and separate mountain lands situated along the Afghanistan-Iran frontier. Three groups of ranges are distinguished from south to north: Asparan, Kohe Mazar and Yulkhar. 6

The Asparan Mountains are situated to the north-west of Lake Hamune Sabari and include the following ranges: Kohe Darband Bad, Kohe Narakhu and Madarkhu, Kohe Garobi, Kohe Shur and others They have a common crest of the north-western trend. The heights of ranges vary from 800 to 1,200 meters. The Kohe Mazar Mountains are situated to the north of the border guard post at Kalate Nazarkhan. They include separate isolated ranges and relict mountains: Home Koh, Kohe Hola-i-She-kari, Kohe Kale Berinj, Kohe Chah Mazar, etc. Their heights vary between 900 and 1,300 meters. The Yulkhar Mountains lie to the north of the salt lake Namaksar. The main range there is Koh-i-Yul Har with heights of 1,200-1,300 meters, and to the south and north of it lie lower unnamed ranges and massifs.

Plains The North Afghan Plain The North Afghan Plain covers the entire northern submontane territory of the country to the south of the Amu Darya and Panj rivers, representing the south-eastern extension of the Turan Lowland. The lowest elevation mark of the plain and the country as a whole is 258 meters above sea level in the north-west of the region. The valley rises gradually to the south and south-east in the direction of the mountains, the elevation marks remaining 300-350 meters over a greater portion of the territory and only directly in the submontane area, in the adyr belt, it rises step by step reaching 500-700 meters above sea level. The portion of the North Afghan Plain along the Amu Darya is a sand desert with moving and fixed sands. The submontane portion of the plain represents a clay steppe or semi-desert with extensive takyrs and solonchak areas. All the northern rivers of Afghanistan to the west of the River Qunduz (Samangan/Tashqurgan/, Balkh, Darya-i-Safed, Shirin Tagao) disappear in the sands at the meeting place of the desert and semi-desert without reaching the Amu Darya. The South Afghan Plain The South Afghan Plain occupies the entire south of the country and is drained by the lower course of the rivers Helmand, Hash Rod, Farah Rod and Harut Rod, It is a vast sand and clay desert descending gradually in the west-south-western direction. It is divided into two sections by the nearly east-western stretch of the Helmand River: the eastern section or Regestan and the western section or Seystan. The Regestan Plain is a relatively uplifted sand desert with elevations of 800-1,200 meters. In the north-east it merges gradually with the Ghazni-Kandahar Plateau and in the south-west with the foothill trains of the Chagay Range. The Seystan Plain occupies the entire western part of the South Afghan Depression and is divided into two parts by the nearly east-western stretch of the Helmand: the Dashte Margo clay and pebble plateau in the north and the sand and clay desert Garm Sir in the south. In the western part of Seystan there is a group of drainless lakes, namely the Hawze Rag, Hamune Helmand (Jejile Pusak) and Hamune Saberi. Rivers Farah Rod and Harut Rod flow into lake Hamune Saberi and rivers Hash Rod and Helmand, into the Hamune Helmand. The Hawze Reg (Handezereg) is an ancient drainless lake called Hamun into which the Helmand River discharged formerly, and presently it is a dry depression filled with sand. The lowest elevation mark of the Seystan Plain amounts to 412 meters.

HYDROGRAPHY
All the rivers of Afghanistan belong to three drainage basins. The northern area of the country and part of its central region (39 per cent, 258,000 square kilometers) belong to the Amu Darya drainage system. The central, southern and western parts (49 per cent, 321,000 square kilometers) belong to the basin of the closed lakes of Southern and Western Afghanistan whereas the south-eastern part of the country (11.7 per cent, 76,000 square kilometers) belongs to the basin of the Kabul and Indus rivers. The annual run-off from the countrys territory totals 41.5 cubic kilometers. The Amu Darya basin accounts for 13.25 cubic kilometers, the Kabul and Indus basin for 18.66 cubic kilometers and the basin of the closed lakes for 9.60 cubic kilometers. 7

In the mountainous part of Afghanistan the rivers flow in narrow canyon and V-shaped valleys with steep, often precipitous walls and considerable inclination of the beds or in broad trough-like valleys with gentle slopes and insignificant inclination of the beds. Sharp bends with rapids and waterfalls are quite common. Some river valleys are characterized by honeycomb structure when narrow sections, 100-200 meters wide, alternate with sections which broaden up to one and more kilometers. The portions of valleys close to the riverheads bear traces of glacial activity. The Pamir and Wakhan rivers, whose valleys lie over 4,000 meters above sea level, are frozen up in winter during five to six months. When the rivers leave the mountains to enter the submontane and intermountane depressions composed of loose sedimentary Neogene-Quaternary formations, the speed of their currents is reduced and pert of their water resources integrates into the loose deposits of the depressions forming there aquifers and aquifer systems. Some of the rivers fail to reach the main water artery of the basin, expending their resources on irrigation, evaporation and infiltration. The data on the water resources of the countrys main rivers are given in Table 1. As far as the conditions of water supply are concerned, three types of rivers can be recognized: snow- and glacier-fed, snow-fed, and snow- and rain-fed. The snow- and glacier-fed rivers rise above the snow line where snow is accumulated and glaciers are formed all the time. The time of flooding depends on where the rivers are fed on the southern or the northern slopes. In the case of the rivers which rise on the southern slopes of the Central Hendukush, flooding occurs between April and August with the highest water mark in June. The flood time of the rivers flowing from the northern slopes occurs a month later, between May and September, the maximum being observed in July. The maximum run-off of the snow-fed rivers originating near the boundaries of the snow line occurs between March and May. In the snow- and rain-fed rivers making up most of the countrys surface waterways, flooding occurs between April and July with the maximum in July if they are situated in the south, and between March and June with the maximum in April, in the north. In all the rivers of the country flooding leads to formation of mud flows. The main run-off is formed in the mountainous part. The formation and distribution of the annual run-off depends on the absolute marks of the terrain and the geological and lithological features of the drainage areas. As the elevation marks of the basins rise, the run-off modules increase from 0.21-0.65 l/sec per km2 (the Shirin Tagao, Kushka and other rivers) to 2.83-3.20 l/sec per km2 (the Hash Rod, Qunduz and other rivers) reaching a maximum of 15.9-17.1 l/sec per km2 on the southern slopes of the Central Hendukush. (the Konar, Panjsher and other rivers). Rivers flowing within the areas underlain by terrigenous- volcanic sedimentary formations of Cenozoic age are characterized by minimum run-off modules of 0.21-1.83 l/sec per km2. The areas consisting of intrusive and metamorphosed rocks have the run-off of 1.3 to 2.6 l/sec per km2. The maximum run-off of 2.8-5.9 l/sec per km2 is characteristic of the sections draining the carbonate Cretaceous-Paleogene formations in the north and the Palaeozoic-Mesozoic formations in the central part of Afghanistan. There are few lakes in the country. Most of them are situated close to the watersheds of mountain ranges at elevations of more than 3,000 meters and appeared due to fallen rocks or the activities of the corrie glaciers. A picturesque lake called Shewa is found in the Kohe Lal Mountains. The lakes Zor Qol (at 4,126 meters elevation) end. Chekmant Qol (at 4,015 meters elevation) are situated in the upper reaches of the Panj and Aksu rivers, in an area with widespread ancient glaciers. The Aksu and Pamir rivers rise in these lakes and cut deep into the thick layers of moraine and fluvio-glacial material farther downstream. At the waterhead of the Balkhob River there is a group of original Bande Amir dam lakes on an Alpine plateau with elevation marks between 2,900 and 3,500 meters. The dams are travertine with a height of between 12 and 17 meters. The Platform of Northern Afghanistan, north of the cities of Balkh and Mazare Sharif, has numerous small lakes formed owing to the effluence of irrigation ground water. There is Lake Khwaja Mod 30 kilometers south of the village of Andkhoy. The lake is restricted to an erosional depression elongated north-west with 8

a relative lowering of 1140 to 200 meters. The water in the lakes is salty and patches of saline soil are common there. In South-Eastern Afghanistan there is a closed Ab-i-Estoda Lake into which the Ghazni River discharges. In the western part of Afghanistan a group of closed lakes is found including Hamune Helmand (Jejile Pusak) and Hamune Saberi. Farah Rod and Harut Rod rivers discharge into Lake Hamune Saberi. Hash Rod and Helmand Rivers discharge into the Hamune-Helmand Lake.

Table 1 Water resources of Afghanistans main rivers.

River

Area of drianage basin km2 (according to I. Humlum 2

Name of water gauge

Lat N

Long E

Drainage area of a post in km2

Mean Mean annual Run-of module l/sec per monthly run-off mil.m3 km2 run-off m3/sec 7 8 9

Amu Darya Basin Kocha Qunduz Khulm (Samagan) Balkob (Bande Amir) Darya-I-Safed 21,900 Hodissakar 37300 Gerdab 11500 Nersayd 27000 Rabat-i-Baba 36000 Aziabad Patabad Murghab Kushka Hari Rod 37500 Balomurghab Turgundi 39300 Pul-i-Pushtun 3708' 3622' 3655' 3655' 3612' 3635' 3635' 3513' 3417' 6928' 6928' 5747' 6658' 6557' 6452' 6319' 6217' 6213' 21100 22672 8350 18728 7070 13200 37000 2450 26110 200.4 72.57 2.54 53.54 9.07 2.87 47.4 1.6 30.25 6320 2289 80 1688 286 91 1495 50 954 9.49 3.2 0.3 2.53 1.28 0.21 1.28 0.65 1.23

Total runoff for the basin per year: 13,253 million cubic metres The basin of the closed lakes of Southern and Western Afghanistan Hurut Rod Farah Rod Hash Rod Helmand1 22000 Rudichar 38000 Farah 23000 Dilaram 151000 Darweshan 3342' 3222' 3210' 3101' 6217' 6204' 6325' 6505' 2070 26900 5380 127160 7.21 48.32 15.27 233.66 227 1542 481 7369 3.48 1.79 2.83 1.83

10

Argandab Tirin

75300 Kala-i-Bust Daraut

3133' 3240

6419' 6530'

64200 5590

28.3 16.45

892 519

0.44 2.94

Total runoff for the basin per year: 9,601 million cubic metres The basin of the Kabul River (Indus Basin) Kabul2 Logar Panjsher Alingar Konar Matun ) Spira ) Horram ) 52000 Naghlu 8500 Sangenweshta 12400 Gulbakhar 7600 Pul-i-Charkri Konar Matun 18100 Spira Ahmadkhel 3437' 3426' 3510' 3433' 3437' 3328' 3317' 3350' 6943' 6912' 6917' 7014' 7029' 6953' 6936' 6939' 26073 9772 3499 6229 24824 340 763 740 141.2 9.99 59.9 50.07 395 0.66 1.12 3.59 4453 315 1889 1579 12457 21 35 113 4.78 1.23 16.9 9.34 15.9 1.94 1.46 4.85

Total runoff for the basin per year: 18,658 million cubic metres Total runoff for all the rivers per year: 41,512 million cubic metres

1. The Darweshan water-gauge post on the Helmand rgisters the run-off of the rivers Argandab and Tirin. 2. The naghlu water gauge post on the Kabul River registers the run-off of the rivers Logar and Panjsher.

11

CLIMATE
Afghanistan is situated in the zone of dry sub-tropics. The mountain ranges protecting it from the mass of humid air, the monsoons, promote the formation of a dry climate notable for considerable fluctuations of the seasonal and daily temperatures. The mountain regions of the country are notable for a sharply continental climate. A combination of plains and mountains and considerable differences in the elevations ranging from 300 to 600 meters in the Amu Darya Valley to more than 7,000 meters and more in the Eastern Hendukush are responsible for a number of climatic zones characterized by different amounts of precipitation, variable temperature and humidity. The system of alpine ranges in the middle and north-eastern parts of the country divides the territory of the Republic into the northern and southern parts and is responsible for the difference in the upper boundaries of the climatic zones which are 600-700 meters higher in the south compared to those in the north. For example, the 0 C January isotherm runs in the southern and central parts of Afghanistan along the elevation isoline of 1,300-1,500 meters, while that in the north coincides with the elevation isoline of 900 meters. A similar regularity in the distribution of the climatic boundaries is observed with regard to atmospheric precipitation and relative humidity of the air. The entire territory of the Republic can be divided into four climatic zones. I. The desert climatic zone notable for a long hot and dry summer and a short warm winter covers the southern and northern parts of the country with the surface elevations of up to 1,200 meters. This zone embraces the South and North Afghanistan plains. The South Afghanistan Plain Atmospheric precipitation occurs there chiefly as rainfall. The annual amount of precipitation does not exceed 100 millimeters (the minimum falls in the village of Zaranj - 42.4 millimeters). Most of the precipitation (90-94%) comes down in autumn, winter and spring, from November to April. The precipitation of the warm period, from April till October, is between three millimeters in Zaranj to 15 millimeters in Lashkargah. Annual mean temperature is +19.5 to 20.6 C. The minimum temperature is +6.5 C, the maximum is +45.3C. Monthly mean of the cold season is +11.8 to 12.4 C, that of the warm season is +24.8 to +23.8 C. Relative air humidity in January does not exceed 60%; in July it is 25-30%. The North Afghanistan Plain The North Afghanistan Plain is characterized by less hot and more humid climate as compared to that in the south. Most of the atmospheric precipitation falls there in the cold season as rain and snow (75%) In Shebergan town annual mean temperature is +15.7 C. The minimum temperature is -8.7 C and the maximum is +39.5 C. The monthly mean temperature of January is +2.3 C, that of July is +30.1 C. Relative air humidity in July is less than 30% and in January it rises to 80%. Evaparation from the entire water surface in this climatic zone is more than 2,500 millimeters a year. II. The climatic zone of the low and middle-height relief is characterized by a relatively long, warm summer and comparatively short, moderately mild winter, typical of most of the countrys territory. This zone is notable for an extremely uneven distribution of precipitation. The upper boundary of the zone runs along the elevation isoline of 2,700 meters in the south and 2,100 meters in the north. Atmospheric precipitation falls as rain and snow; the annual total of the precipitation does not exceed 400 millimeters. Most of the precipitation (55 to 88 %%) falls in the cold season which lasts from November till April. The only exception is the area of the Khost town, in the south-east of the country, where most of the precipitation (292.5 millimeters or 61%) falls in the warm season, from May till November. In the southern and central parts of the country, the precipitation in the warm period varies from 27.7 millimeters in the city of Kandahar to 135.4 millimeters in Kabul. In the north, it ranges from 53.5 millimeters in Shebergan and Mazare Sharif to 200.2 millimeters in Faydzabad. The annual mean temperature is +8.7 to +18.3 C. The monthly mean temperature of the cold period is -0.4 to 10.6 C; the lowest temperature is -20.5 C. The monthly mean 12

temperature of the warm period ranges between +18.7 C and +25.9 C, the maximum temperature being 41.6 C (in Kandahar and Jalalabad). Relative air humidity in January is between 60 and 70%%. In July it does not exceed 50%. Evaporation from the water surface in the Kabul area amounts to 1,610 millimeters a year. III. The climatic zone of the middle-height and alpine relief is characterized by a short, moderately warm summer and a moderately cold, relatively long winter. The zone includes the central and north-eastern parts of the country and is situated at the altitudes of up to 4,500 meters above sea level. The annual amount of precipitation is more than 800 millimeters and it chiefly falls as snow. The greatest amount of precipitation (55-72%%) comes down in the cold season, from November to April. In the warm season precipitation is from 40 to 410 millimeters. The summer is short and moderately warm. The average annual temperature is from +0.6 to +3.1 C. The average monthly temperature in the cold season is from -5C to -6.4C, the lowest temperature being -30.5 C. In the warm season, lasting from May to November, the average monthly temperature varies from +5.2 C in the Northern Salang to +11.2 C in Lal. The maximum temperature is +27.3 C. Relative air humidity does not exceed 60%. The Northern Salang has 75 days with a relative humidity of 16 to 30%%. The prevailing winds in the area of Salang Pass are southern in January and northern in July. The climatic snowline is at the elevation of 3,800 meters on the northern slopes of the West Hendukush and at 4,300 meter elevation on its southern slopes. IV. The climatic zone of alpine relief is characterized by a short cold summer and a long rigorous winter. This climate is typical of the alpine areas of the Badakhshan, Wakhan and Nurestan mountains. The summer in this zone is short and cold. Atmospheric precipitation occurs as snow, and its annual total varies from 200 to 400 millimeters. The average monthly temperature in January is below -20 C and that in July is below +12 C. The absolute minimum is -50 C and the average annual temperature is between -5 C and -7 C. In summer a positive temperature of up to +30 C sets in only in the daytime with night frosts spreading throughout the area. A combination of sharp differences in the daily temperature and strong, dry, icy winds create conditions similar to those in the Arctic regions.

13

Chapter 2

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL STUDIES

Ancient mining A history of geological studies of Afghanistan falls into three stages. The first, longest stage, lasted for many centuries and was characterized by the development of ancient mining. Very few manuscripts, of that period have survived and the evidence of the time is derived from the numerous ancient workings, ruins of the miners settlements, remnants of the smelting furnaces and slags encountered in many places. A large size of some openings and the fact that it was expedient to operate them are indicative of a high mining and geological skill of the ancient miners.

Foundations The second stage lasted from 1880s to the mid-1950s. It was the period of occasional traversing by some geologists who proved to be enthusiasts and began investigating the area first along the main caravan routes and then along the arterial motor-roads. The pioneers of these studies were C.L. Griesbach (164 - 168), E.W. Vredenburg (211) and H.H. Rayden (177-179). They were followed by R. Furon (119-127), E. Trinkler (428), Mme Cizancourt and H. de Tautrin (50-51), K. Brueckl (37), J. Barthoux (17), F. Clapp, F. Hives, H. Kirh, A. Drat (292), D. West (440), Abdul-Khan (2-4), Hulyam-Ali Khan (170-172) and others. S. Popol and S.W. Tromp studied some areas of the country at the end of this period. The above-said geologists have laid the foundation of the present knowledge of Afghanistans stratigraphy, paleogeography and tectonics. The data available by 1940 on the paleogeography, and teotonic's of Afghanistan and adjacent Soviet Tajikistan were given a due consideration in the work by B.A. Petrushevsky (330). The data on the stratified units of Afghanistan collected over the period under consideration were summarized in the work by G. Mennessier in his manual Stratigraphy of Afghanistan (292). Almost no studies of igneous rock units had been undertaken by that time and minerals were studied mainly through field observations and geological evaluation of mineral occurrences known for a long time. Only coal deposits of the northern foothills of the Western Hendukush and gold-bearing manifestations of the NorthWest Badakhshan were subjected to a somewhat more detailed study. Petroleum, and gas potential was first predicted in the northern provinces of the country.

National Geological Survey A National Geological Survey set up by the Government of Afghanistan on July 7, 1955 marked the beginning of the third period in the study of the geology and minerals of the country. This period was characterized by extensive, first purely mapping operations and, subsequently, by geological survey and prospecting which were followed by exploration and evaluation of the mineral resources of some promising localities. The Afghan Geological Survey under the Ministry of Mines and Industries conducted this work in cooperation with German, Italian, French and Soviet geologists. During the first years of the existence of the Geological Survey it received some help in the form of consultations from D. Hunger, the representative of the UN (183).

German Geological Mission The German Geological Mission (GOM) and the German Geological Consultative Group (GGCG) conducted their studies in Afghanistan from April 1959 till December 1967 and concentrated their efforts on compiling geological maps. They compiled large- and medium-scale geological maps of some regions using the data of ground field observations. The composite maps of the central and southern parts of Afghanistan at a scale of 1:1,000,000 (134) and 1:500,000 (439) were also compiled by the geologists of the German

14

Geological Mission. These composite maps can be regarded as photogeological maps since they were compiled using principally the data of aerial photographs interpretation and a small amount of field data (Fig. 4). The southern part of Afghanistan was subjected to aeromagnetic survey at a scale of 1:500,000. Practically no prospecting for minerals was undertaken by the GGM. Only a revision of several mineral occurrences was conducted by the German geologists. The results of the work performed by the GGM and GGCG have been given in a series of informational manuscript reports, one summary report (116) and in seven bulletins which have been published (42). The most interesting among these publications are those by G. Andritzki (7,8), M. Kaever (187-197), O. Ganss (131, 132), D. Weippert (436-438), R. Wolfart (441-444), K. Fesefeldt (115), J. Bruggey (38), G. Gabert (128, 129), S. Paulsen (327), H. Bergmann (19), G.F. Bumel (25) and others.

Italian expedition, 1960s In the early 1960s, an Italian expedition led by A. Desio worked in Afghanistan. The geologists of this expedition have published a number of works on the geology of the Western Hendukush, Badakhshan and Wakhan (59-69) these works give data on igneous rock complexes including the information on their absolute ages, the stratigraphy (with monographic description of the fauna and flora of the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous units), tectonics and the relationship between the structures of the Hendukush, Pamir, Qara Qorum and other areas.

French Geological Mission French Geological Mission has been working in Afghanistan since 1958. Its permanent leader for many years is G. Mennessier. French geologists concentrated their efforts in studying the Western Hendukush, Hazarajat, Middle Afghanistan, the Kabul Area and Nurestan. The results of their investigations have been reported in many publications by A.P. de Lapparent and G. Mennessier. Some of the publications are given in the list of references. The most fundamental works by A.F. de Lapparent are those on the stratigraphy of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rock units (237, 240, 244, 246, 248 and others) as well as the publications on the recent volcanism (241, 245). Among the works by G. Mennessier worthy of a special mention are the manual "Stratigraphy of Afghanistan" (292) and the publications on the stratigraphy and tectonics of the Kabul Area (278-281, 287). G. Mennessier has also compiled two geological maps of the Kabul Area at a scale of 1:100,000 and 1:250,000. As for the other works by French geologists, of particular interest are the papers by E. Bouyx et al. (58), on the Permian goniatites of the Bamyan Area; Brice et al. (36), on the stratigraphy of Devonian sequence from the Rabat-i-Poi area; P. Bordot (27-30), on the recent volcanism; J. Blaise et al. (21-24), on the geology of the metamorphic and sedimentary rock unit of the Maydan and Wardak river basins; R. Desparmet (70-72), on the stratigraphy of Palaeozoic units of the north-eastern part of Central Afghanistan, and others.

USSR economic cooperation A technical and economic cooperation between the USSR and Afghanistan in oil and gas prospecting in the northern part of Afghanistan started in 1958 and involved a comprehensive geological and geophysical, studies of the territory with application of extensive structural, prospecting and deep exploratory drilling. At the first stage the Soviet geologists worked in cooperation with Rumanian and Czeohoslovak specialists. The history and results of the work performed over the period of between 1958 and 1964 have been described in great detail in the book by V.I. Bratash et al. (161). This book summarizes all the results of regional geological and geophysical investigations conducted by specialists, of the Department of Oil and Gas in the northern part of Northern Afghanistan. The results of the detailed geological, geophysical and hydrogeological investigations conducted within some individual structures have been given in numerous reports by Soviet geologists and oil-men led by F.U. Akhmedzyanov, L.K. Teplov, S.I. Kulakov, V.N. Yusbkevich and V.A. Sysoyev. The above investigations have resulted in discovery of three oil and gas fields, located in Northern Afghanistan. 15

An expedition led by V.M. Moraliov was deputed by the USSR Ministry of Geology to carry out geological survey at a scale of 1:200,000 on the left bank of the Panj River in 1965-1966. The results of this work are given in a geological report (351) and in a number of publications (11, 12, 255, 311, 315). Cooperation between the USSR and Afghanistan in geological prospecting for solid minerals started in 1963. The first task facing the Department of Geology and Mines of Afghanistan and Soviet expedition was to provide the country with its own mineral raw materials necessary for the development of the ferrous metal industry. This task was successfully solved through the exploration of a large iron ore deposit at Hajigak located in Middle Afghanistan (I.K. Kusov et al., 231) and a number of coal deposits in Northern Afghanistan (V.N. Androsov et al., 345) V.X. Miroshnichenko, L.V. Ksenofontov (301), Kudryashov et al. (224), I.V. Makeev et al. (349), K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (159, 162). Fluxes, refractory and moulding materials were also found (A.L. Meshkovsky et al., 296). Between 1963 and 1968 there were explored the following deposits: lazurite deposit at Saresang. (A.N. Mayorov et al., 266), barite deposit at Farenjal (Yu.M. Kazak at al, 346), beryllium deposits at Darrah-i-Nur, and Darrahe Pech (V.M. Narodny et al., 309), Pb-Zn occurrences (R.M. Khasanov et al., 352 ; G.I. Plotnikov et al., 353), reef and placer gold (M.A. Guguyev et al, 169; G.P. Nazarov, 310; E.P. Meshcheryakov, V.P. Sayapin, (297), and others. A major contribution to the knowledge of the geological structure of Afghanistan was made by the comprehensive prospecting and survey at a scale of 1:200,000 carried out by several teams of Soviet and Afghan geologists under the guidance of Yu.M. Dovgal (144), V.P. Kolchanov (348), K,Ya. Mikhailov (347, 350), G.G. Semionov (141). The results of their work are given in the corresponding reports and publications (225, 228 and others). A systematic prospecting and mapping in Afghanistan at a scale of 1:500,000 began in 1968. It was carried out by large teams of Soviet and Afghan geologists under the guidance of V.P. Azhipa (5), Sh.Sh. Denikayev (145, 146, 151), V.S. Drannikov (371), V.I. Dronov (88, 143, 147), S.S. Karapetov (142, 206), A.Kh. Kafarsky (148, 153, 200), Yu.M. Koshelev (222), I.M. Sborshchikov (154, 371). In this work participated V.B. Averyanov, A. Arsalang, M.T. Aslami, G.Sh. Achilov, M. Basharmal, R.A. Bayazitov, G.M. Bezulov, A.I. Belich, I.K. Bilan, M.P. Burel, S.M. Gazanfari, S.A. Gawari, N. Giasi, A.I. Gorelov, E.M. Darie, S.K. Dekhzon, E.I. Zelensky, O.N. Kabakov, S.M. Kalimulin, V.A. Kolesnichenko, Yu.M. Konev, E.T. Kononykhin, A.Ya. Kotchetkov, G.S. Loginov, Nadyr Sakhim, Sh.N. Narbayev, I.V. Pyzhyanov, L.N. Rossovsky, V.P. Svezhentsov, Yu.G. Semionov, N.S. Skvortsov, I.I. Sonin, L.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, Gulyam Sadyk, M. Sobat, V.P. Feoktistov, A.P. Kharitonov, A. Hashamat, P.G. Cherepov, O.V. Cherkesov, A.N. Chistyakov and others. A general methodical supervision of the survey and prospecting work was performed by N.G. Vlasov, N.I. Formin and Sh. Abdullah. The prospecting and survey at a scale of 1:500,000 helped to discover numerous mineral occurrences, mineralogical haloes and dispersion trains of various minerals. The diagram of the development of the Soviet-Afghan geological survey and prospecting at a scale of 1:200,000 and 1:500,000 is presented in Figs 4 and 5. The materials of the geological survey were taken as the basis for compiling the composite maps of Afghanistan at a scale of 1:1,000,000 published in 1972 and edited by V.M. Chmyriov and S.H. Mirzad (136; 270, 373, 413). These maps were demonstrated at the XXIV session of the International Geological Congress in Montreal. Explanatory notes for the above-mentioned maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000 were published in 1973 (299, 374, 419, 420). These notes were supplemented by the above-mentioned maps reduced, to a scale of 1:2,500,000. In 1973, V.I. Dronov completed his final geological report on the results of work conducted by the Herat and Helmand geological crews in the period between 1968-1971. This report is entitled The Geology and Minerals of Central and South-Western Afghanistan (152). This report gives the information on the geology and minerals of the western part of Middle, the whole of South-Western and Central Afghanistan which cover more than 200,000 sq. km. The report is supplemented with the following materials published by the Cartographical Institute and The Kabul Times Publishing House: (1) Geological Map of Central and South-Western Afghanistan, scale 1:5,000,000 (137) accompanied by Summary Stratigraphic Columns at the same scale (78); Sketch Map of Distribution of Igneous Complexes of Central and South-Western Afghanistan, scale 1:200,000 (414). This report is a fundamental work dealing with all the geological problems of the territory accounting for one third of the country. The present work includes all the information and field data available in the above report. In 1970, the Department of Geology and Mines of Afghanistan began specialized prospecting for various minerals (186, 262, 338, 354-358 and other publications). Prospecting for and evaluation of mercury occurrences were conducted in Afghanistan by S.E.Arvanitaki, S.A. Gawari, A.V. Zhdan, V.N. Konokhov, 16

E.T. Kononykhin, L.E. Kornev, K.I. Litvinenko, A.A. Mamedov, A.Ya. Mesechko, G.A. Orlov, Yu.I. Parfionov, V.P. Pokidyshev, M.F. Rulkovsky, V.A. Slezov, I.I. Sonin, K.A. Stumbur, G.S. Tsobolov, D. Essoni and other geologists. Prospecting for and evaluation of tin and tungsten occurrences were carried out by Sh. Abdullah, V.N. Yefimenko, O.N. Kabakov, V.S. Kirichek, N.E. Kozarez, V.P. Logatchev, V.N. Nagaliov, V.V. Potapov, M. Rustami, V.P. Filippov and others. Rare-metal mineralization associated with pegmatites and carbonatites was studied by M. Azam, B.Ya. Vikhter, G.K. Yeriomenko, O.N. Kabakov, B.K. Lyubimov, V.M. Narodny, Yu.I. Nuiskov, L.N. Rossovsky, I.M. Rusanov, V.M. Chmyriov, S.L. Shvarkov and other geologists. Prospecting for gold, was conducted by I.I. Galchenko, I.A. Machikin, E.P. Meshcheriakov, S.N Popenko, R. Rustami, V.P. Sayapin, V.I. Teplykh, Zahir Fayek, and others. Prospecting f or non-metallic raw materials was conducted by V.A.Avtonomov, L.G.Gumerov, B.S. Guriyev, Z. Yorov, A.V. Korovin, Lim Sen Sirr, V.P. Muzyka, A.G. Polvanov, G.I. Teleshev, O.N. Filippov, S.D. Hamidi, and others. Hydrogeological investigations were carried out by S. Aref, G. Atai, V.I. Belyanin, A. Vakil, V.I. Voronin, T.F. Kargha, V.V. Kurennoi, E.P. Malyarov, A.S.Salah, V.I. Soboliev, and other hydrogeologists. Prospecting for copper was conducted by Sh . Abdullah, S.A. Gawari, Z. Yorov, V.N. Zaitsev, S. Ismatulla, V.S. Kirichek, A.E. Kryukov, L.V. Kubatkin, I.S. Kut'kin, E. P. Malyarov, G.A. Orlov, V.P. Pavlov, I.Z. Samonov, G.I. Teleshev, V.M. Chmyriov, Yu.I. Shcherbina, and other specialists. Systematic geophysical prospecting for solid minerals began in Afghanistan in 1972. In the period between 1975 and 1976 the territory of Western Afghanistan was covered by an aeromagnetic and gamma spectrometric survey at a scale of 1:1,000,000. The area of the Khanneshin Ghar Volcano was subjected to an aeromagnetic and gamma spectrometric survey at a scale of 1:25,000. The geophysical surveys were made by several teams headed by M.Azod, V.A. Knyazhev, L.V. Kubatkin, L. Reimullah, and V.S. Telkov. Upon completion in 1973 of a geological survey at a scale of 1:500,000 a systematic large-scale geological survey commenced in the countrys regions most promising for mineralization. This survey was conducted by Sh. Abdullah, M.S. Alisher, V.Yu. Alkhazov, M. Anwar, H. Afzali A.K. Hemat, I.A. Gusev, M.A. Kargar, S.E. Petrov, A.G. Polvanov, S. Rossikh, Z. Salihi, V.G. Silkin, M. Sobat, D.A. Starshinin, N.V. Khandozhko, A. Hashmat, A.S. Shadchinev, Yu.I. Shcherbina, S. Yakubshakh and others (155, 156, 158, 381, 384). By that time a hydrogeological method of prospecting for minerals had been introduced to accompany geological survey and specialized small-scale hydrogeological studies of the entire territory of Afghanistan performed by H.Alan. O. Dastyar, T.F. Kargha, B.A. Kolotov, I.I. Malkov, E.P. Malyarov, V.A. Polyakov, V.M. Chmyriov. The methodological supervision of the work was effected by B.A. Kolotov. This work has shown that a hydrogeological method is highly effective, in prospecting for copper, lead, zinc, tin, tungsten and other elements in conditions of an arid climate and resulted in discovery of a number of mineral water springs with commercial concentrations of lithium, cesium, rubidium, beryllium, germanium, and a number of other elements (344). In the course of geological survey at a scale of 1:200,000 and 1:500,000 carried out by joint efforts of Soviet and Afghan geologists the stratified units of Afghanistan were studied by V.B. Averyanov, V.P. Azhipa, A.N. Diomin, Sh.Sh. Denikayev, Yu.M. Dovgal, V.I. Dronov, S.M. Kalimulin, S.S. Karapetov, A.Kh. Kafarsky, V.P. Kolchanov, A.Ya. Kotchetkov, Yu.M. Koshelev, V.V. Kulakov, K.Ya. Mikhailov, I.V. Pyzhyanov, G.G. Semionov, I.M. Sborshchikov, I.I. Sonin, K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.F. Feoktistov, M.A. Chalyan and others. All the problems of stratigraphy were solved by V.I. Dronov (78, 273, 374, 421) who used all the data obtained in the process of generalization of the geological materials which served as the basis for compilation of geological maps of Afghanistan at a scale of 1:500,000 and 1:1,000,000. In the period under consideration igneous rocks were mainly studied during geological survey conducted by A.N. Diomin, Sh.Sh. Denikayev, Yu.M. Dovgal, V.I. Dronov, S.M. Kalimulin, S.S. Karapetov, A.Ya. Kotchetkov, G.G. Semionov K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.P. Feoktistov, M.A. Chalyan and others. In the period between 1974 and 1976, some thematic studies of several igneous complexes were conducted by B.Ya. Vikhter, G.K. Yeriomenko, L.N. Rossovsky, K.F.Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.M. Chmyriov and others. The problems of magmatism were considered by B.Ya. Vikhter et al. (431), A.N. Diomin et al. (312-319), V.I. Dronov et al. (94, 96, 157), G.K. Yeriomenko et al. (434), A.Ya. Kotchetkov et al. (268), Yu.S. Perfiliev et al. (162), L.N. Rossovsky and V.M. Chmyriov (364, 369), K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (322, 397-405, 373, 375, 419), V.M. Chmyriov et al. (48).

17

The works published during the last few years pay much attention to the tectonic features of Afghanistan. The structural features of Northern, Central, Middle, Western and South-Western Afghanistan were studied by V.I. Dronov et al. (88, 143, 147, 152), S.S. Karapetov et al. and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (142, 206, 154). The structure of Western Hendukush, North-Western Badakhshan and Wakhan were considered by A.Kh. Kafarsky (148, 153, 200), that of South Eastern Afghanistan, the Kabul Stable Mass, Nurestan and South Badakhshan fault blocks by Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145, 146, 151, 376), I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (371). Structural features of the northern part of North Afghanistan are given a due consideration in the book by V.I. Bratash et al. (161). The structure of Afghanistan as a whole was studied by V.I. Slavin (150, 386, 391, 393). A sufficiently detailed description of Afghanistans tectonics is given in the work by Yu.S. Perfiliev et al. (162). The data obtained in the process of geological survey were taken as the basis for compiling in 1972 the Tectonic Map of Afghanistan, scale 1:1,000,000, edited by V.M. Chmyriov and S.H. Mirzad. The map was compiled by I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov, Sh.Sh. Denikayev, A.Kh. Kafarsky, S.S. Karapetov, F.U. Akhmedzyanov, S.M. Kalimulin, V.I. Slavin, K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, I.I. Sonin (413). A new tectonic map of Afghanistan at a scale of 1:2,500,000 (416) was compiled in 1975 by A.Kh. Kafarsky, V.M. Chmyriov, V.I. Dronov, K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, Sh. Abdullah. The Republic of Afghanistan submitted this map to the International Geological Congress in Australia. The map was also discussed at the International Seminar on the geology of the Himalayas held in Delhi in 1976 (415). The metallogenic features of the territory of Afghanistan have been described in the works by G.A.Tvalchrelidze (429, 430), Yu.S. Perfiliev et al. (162, 329), A.D. Shcheglov (379, 380) and other geologists who dealt with the description of the Mediterranean Fold Belt as a whole or some parts of it. The first map of mineral deposits and occurrences of Afghanistan, scale 1:1,000,000, was compiled in 1972 by a team of authors and edited by V.M. Chmyriov and S.H. Mirzad (270). The team of authors includes the following geologists; K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, Sh.Sh. Denikayev, Yu.M. Dovgal, V.I. Dronov, O.N. Kabakov, A.Kh. Kafarsky, S.M. Kalimulin, S.S. Karapetov, A.Ya. Kotchetkov, Yu.M. Koshelev, K.I. Litvinenko, K.Ya. Mikhailov, L.N. Rossovsky, I.M. Sborshchikov, I.A. Tarasenko, V. P. Feoktistov, M.A Chalyan, A.N. Chistyakov, V.M. Chmyriov. An explanatory note to this map is the article entitled "Mineral Resources of Afghanistan" (299). This work marked the beginning of metallogenic studies of Afghanistan. Later on numerous works were published on the problems of metallogeny and igneous complexes of various ages, individual ore districts, zones and localities (48, 49, 223, 364-369, 537, 398, 406, 431). A map of mineral deposits and occurrences of Afghanistan, scale 1:500,000 was compiled in 1977 on a new geological basis. This map was edited by Sh. Abdullah and V.M. Chmyriov (271). In addition to these maps, six maps showing the location of various mineral deposits and occurrences with due regard for ore formations were compiled at a scale of 1:2,000,000 and 1:4,000,000 by V.M. Chmyriov, K.F. StazhiloAlekseev and others metallogenic zones of Afghanistan were outlined by V.M. Chmyriov (58, 298). As the result of the above-mentioned research the following mineral deposits have been discovered and explored within a short period of time: the Aynak and Dorband copper; the Bakhud fluorspar; the Samti gold; the Sangylyan barite; rare-metal-bearing pegmatites in the Nurestan; the Kartaw celestite; the Khench emeralds; the Kulam kunzite; the Achin magnesite and talc; the Sarobay mica (muscovite); the Khanneshin uranium and rare-metal-bearing carbonatites; the Malekdokan aragonite, and others. Now the country has a reliable source of mineral raw materials for the development of mining, ferrous and non-ferrous metal industries. The survey and prospecting was supervised at the Department of Geology and Mines (till 1974) and later at the Department of Geological and Mineral Survey by the presidents S.H. Mirzad (1963-1973), A.R. Kazikhani (1973), A.S. Salah (1974), N.A. Azimi (1974-1977) and the chief experts of the USSR groups of geologists O.A. Manucharyants (1963-1967), A.Ya. Kotov (1967-1971), V.M. Chmyriov (1971-1977).

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Chapter 3 THE MAIN FEATURES OF AFGHANISTANS GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

The main features of Afghanistans geological structure are determined by its position at the junction of the Western and Central Asian parts of the Mediterranean Fold Belt and the Turan Young Platform fringing it in the north. The Mediterranean Belt is characterized in Afghanistan by a combination of the most complicated geosynclinal structures of regions with folding of different ages and extensive areas where median or stable masses were subjected to the Meso-Cenozoic tectono-magmatic activity. The structure of the belt was greatly effected by Cenozoic superimposed depressions and young volcanism. The Turan Young Platform extends into the territory of Afghanistan with its extreme south-eastern segment, characterized within its large part by a shallow depth of the folded basement and pronounced Paleogene and Neogene-Quaternary activisation. The above features of the Mediterranean Belt and the Turan Young Platform determine the complicated pattern of the heterogeneous Afghan structures of different ages. The following structures hare been established on the territory of Afghanistan (Fig. 7): (1) Regions of Hercynian Folding; (2) Epi-Early Cimmerian Platform; (3) The Region of Middle Cimmerian Folding; (4) Median masses; (5) Regions of Alpine Folding.

REGIONS OF HERCYNIAN FOLDING The Afghanistan-North Pamir and Hinduraj-Hazar regions of Hercynian Folding have been distinguished in Afghanistan. The former region has been isolated by all investigators who studied Afghanistan, while the latter region is distinguished for the first time based on the materials obtained by A.Kh. Kafarsky within the drainage basins of the Konar and Wakhan-Wakhjir rivers. The Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region Territorially, the region embraces the North-West Badakhshan (the Safedhirs and Khwaja Mohammad ridges) and Western Hendukush, adjoining throughout its length the Region of Middle Cimmerian Folding along the Main Hari Rod and Central Badakhshan faults. In a north-easterly direction, the Hercynian structures of the North-West Badakhshan pass directly into Hercynides of the North Pamir and the latter pass into the structures of the Kun Lun. In a south-westerly direction, the structures of the Western Hendukush turn gently north-westwards and disappear under the Sedimentary Cover of the North Afghanistan Platform, appearing there in the cores of positive structures and deep incisions of valleys. These structures represent the Folded Basement of the North Afghanistan Platform. The internal structure of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region is not uniform. Based on the nature of the sequence and type of the folded structures, as well as the features of magmatism, the following zones can be delineated within the Afghan part of the region: Surkhab, Jaway, Faydzabad, West Hendukush, Bamyan and Hazrat Sultan (61, 148, 153, 154, 413, 415). The Surkhab Zone The Surkhab Zone has been outlined in the north-western part of the region under discussion. In the west and north-west it borders on the North Afghanistan Platform, in the south and south-east it borders on the Jaway, Faydzabad and West Hendukush zones. The boundaries of the zone almost everywhere run along faults; only in the extreme west and south-west do the structures of the zone, dipping gradually, without substantial changes plunge under the Sedimentary Cover of the platform. The zone is underlain, by metamorphosed Proterozoic, Paleozoic and Meso-Cenozoic rocks intruded by Proterozoic, Early Carboniferous and Late Triassic intrusions of different formations. Pre-Jurassic rocks are the predominant in the zone. The lower part of the sequence is composed of Proterozoic metamorphics, 4,500-7,400 meters thick, supposedly overlain unconformably by OrdovicianDevonian terrigenous-carbonate rocks, 3,200 to 3,800 meters in thickness, followed via a stratigraphic gap by Lower Carboniferous terrigenous -volcanogenic rocks, 2,450-7,600 meters thick. A wide occurrence of Lower Carboniferous volcanics in the zone suggests that in Early Carboniferous time it developed as an eugeosynclinal structure. The Lower Carboniferous and all the older rock units are overlain with a 19

pronounced unconformity by Middle-Upper Carboniferous and Lower Permian carbonate-terrigenous deposits, 1,485-2,770 meters thick. No fossiliferous Upper Persian deposits were found in the zone. Triassic deposits overly the Middle-Upper Paleozoic beds unconformably. The Ladinian-Norian portion of the sequence, 985-1079 meters thick, consists of marine deposits, while the Rhaetian part, 345 to 1,450 meters in thickness, is entirely made up of continental terrigenous and terrigenous-voloanogenic rocks. The entire complex of Pre-Jurassic stratified rock units is crumpled to form linear and brachyform folds. In the west the folds strike nearly east-westwards, while in the east of the zone they are characterized by north-easterly and nearly north-southerly trends. The intrusive units are represented by Proterozoic migmatite granites, Early Carboniferous ultrabasic rocks and gabbro-plagiogranites and Late Triassic granites. The Jurassic-Cretaceous and Cenozoic deposits of the zone form outliers of the Sedimentary Cover of the North Afghanistan Platform. The lower part of the sequence, 2,066 to 2,168 meters thick, consists of Jurassic coal-bearing fine- and coarse-terrigenous rocks followed, by salt-bearing terrigenous-carbonate rocks. The lower portion of the Cretaceous sequence, 190 meters thick consists of fine- and coarse-terrigenous rocks. The upper portion of this sequence, 378 meters thick, consists of carbonate rocks. The Paleogene beds are missing in the zone. The Neogene portion of the section is represented by grey and variegated coarse terrigenous molasse. The sedimentary rocks encountered in the Surkhab Zone are crumpled to form brachyform folds. On the territory of the USSR the Surkhab Zones immediate extension is the Darwaz-Trans Alai Zone of the North-West Pamir (272). The Jaway, Faydzabad, and West Hendukush zones The Jaway, Faydzabad, and West Hendukush zones are outlined to the south and south-east of the Surkhab Zone. They constitute the axial part of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region. The boundaries of these zones with the surrounding structural units and between the zones themselves are faulted. Throughout postProterozoic period of time the zones under discussion developed as stable relative uplifts. A substantial role in their structure is played by Proterozoic metamorphics, 4,500-7,400 meters thick, forming individual large fault blocks and cores of anticlines. Less widespread compared to the Surkhab Zone are OrdovicianDevonian rock units, 3,200-3,800 meters thick. Quite sporadic in the zones are Lower Carboniferous volcanics, up to 2,500 meters thick, and carbonate-terrigenous rocks between 590 and 800 meters in thickness. All the rock units mentioned above are overlain with a sharp unconformity by Middle-Upper Carboniferous and Lower Permian carbonate-terrigenous rocks, 1,050-2,690 meters thick. Younger deposits are missing in the zones under consideration. All the enumerated rock units are crumpled to form gentle shallow folds of brachyform type. The general trend of the structures is nearly east-western in the west and north-eastern in the east. Intrusive rocks are quite widespread, especially in the Fydzabad and West Hendukush zones. Distinguished among them are Proterozoic, Early Carboniferous and Late Triassic migmatite- granites, ultrabasics, gabbroplagiogranites and granites forming bodies different in shape and size. On the territory of the USSR, the immediate extension of the zones under discussion and, in particular, the Jaway Zone, is the Beleulin Zone of the North-West Pamir. The Bamyan Zone The Bamyan Zone lies to the north of the Bamyan River and to the south and south-west of the West Hendukush Zone. To the west of the meridian of the Bamyan town, the structures of the zone turn gently north-westwards and plunge under the Sedimentary Cover of the platform. These structures are traceable only in the Balkhab Valley. The basement of the zone is composed of Ordovician-Devonian rocks similar to those in the above-described zones and Lower Carboniferous volcanogenic-terrigenous rocks over 2,000 meters thick. A distinguishing feature of the zone is the presence of Permian limestones, 960 to 1,150 meters thick, described for the first time by H. Hayden (177, 178). These limestones overly the Silurian and Devonian as well as Lower Carboniferous rock units unconformably, being, overlain, also unconformably, by the Cretaceous Cover of the North Afghanistan Platform.

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The Pre-Permian beds have been crumpled to form linear folds; the Permian rocks are folded to form brachyform folds of nearly east-western and north-western strike. Among the intrusions present in the Bamyan Zone are bodies of Early Cretaceous ultrabasics and massifs of Late Triassic granite. In the USSR, the counterparts of the Bamyan Zone are the Karajilgin and Zulumart zones of the North-East Pamir (Karakul). The Hazrat Sultan Zone The Hazrat Sultan Zone is outlined in the eastern part of the North-West Badakhshan embracing the eastern and south-eastern sections of the Khwaja Mohammad, Hazrat Sultan and Safedhirs ridges bordering on the Central Badakhshan. The zone is underlain by Silurian-Devonian and Carboniferous-Permian greenschists, 5,000-5,500 meters thick, intruded by Permian ultrabasic and gabbro-plagiogranite rocks. The sequence is overlain by red sandstones and conglomerates, 1,600 meters thick, of supposedly Early Cretaceous age. In the USSR, the extension of this sequence are analogous rock units of the Darwas-Sarykol Complex of the Central Pamir (272). The Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region The region is attributed to the Hercynides arbitrarily just to formulate a problem (Footnote: In the opinion of V.I. Dronov, the structures included in. this region are parts of the Late Cimmerian Folded Region fringing the Alpine troughs of India and Pakistan in the north and north-west.). The region included the Afghan part of the Hinduraj Ridge with adjoining hills on the right and left slopes of the Kabul River and a small portion of the north-eastern terminal of the East Hendukush Ridge. Distinguished in the region are the Tashicuprok and Konar zones (198, 200, 415). The Tashkuprok Zone The Tashkuprok Zone lies in the extreme north-western part of the East Hendukush and represents a small portion of the considerably larger structure outlined in the lower courses of the Gilgit and Ishkuman rivers. (Footnote: V.I. Dronov (163) considers the Tashkuprok Zone as part of the so-called Hazar Massif.) From the Wakhan Zone and the Nurestan Fault Block the zone under discussion is separated by the Tashkuprok Fault. The zone is underlain by weakly metamorphosed Ordovician-Lower Persian terrigenous-carbonate rocks, 3,885-3,955 meters thick, crumpled to form brachyform folds of east-west strike. This sequence is overlain disc conformably by supposedly Paleogene red- coloured terrigenous rocks, 225 to 300 meters in thickness. The Konar Zone The Konar Zone occupies the Afghan segment of the Hinduraj Ridge and small hills along the right- and lefthand slopes of the Kabul River valley. In the west, along the Konar Fault, the zone borders on the Nurestan Fault Block; in the south it adjoins the Spin Ghar Fault Block along the Spin Ghar Fault. Because of its position near the frontier the zone is studied insufficiently. The Konar Zone is underlain by presumably acid-to-basic volcanics altered into green schists and fine-terrigenous Ordovician?-Carboniferous? rocks totaling 8,150-8,500 meters in thickness. These are overlain with a sharp unconformity by Upper Permian-Triassic limestones, 9271,090 meters thick. Younger deposits are absent. The structural features of the Ordovician?-Carboniferous? rock unit are uncertain; the Permian-Triassic rocks are folded to form brachyform folds. (Footnote: According to V.I. Dronov, in case the carbonate Permian-Triassic rocks exposed to the east of Jalalabad really belong to the Konar Zone and overly sharply unconformably the Ordovician- Carboniferous strata, it would be more correct to qualify this zone as a stable mass and to identify it with the Kabul Stable Mass.) The intrusives encountered in the zone are supposedly Early Cretaceous ultrabasics and assumingly Triassic granites. Epi-Early Cimmerian Platform North Afghanistan Platform The North Afghanistan Platform is the south-eastern Afghan part of the Turan Plate bounded in the south and south-east by the Hari Rod fault system and by outcroppings of the Hercynian structures of the Western Hendukush and North-West Badakhshan (92, 99, 147, 148, 341, 415, 420). In the north the platform is 21

bounded by the state frontier. The southern part of the platform is highly elevated and represents a geomorphologically typical medium-montane plateau (Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan medium-mountain country), while the northern part is deeply subsided and represents a desert plain (North Afghanistan Plain) which is the south-eastern terminal of the Turan Lowland. The geological section of the platform is distinctly binary: its Folded Basement consists of differently metamorphosed Proterozoic and Ordovician-Triassic deposits, while the Sedimentary Cover is composed of virtually unaltered Jurassic and Cretaceous-Paleogene deposits. In plan, the platform is not uniform. In the southern its part there is the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift notable for a shallow folded basement; in the northern part of the platform there is the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin distinguished for a deep-seated folded basement. By a system of faults the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift is subdivided into the Qala-iNaw, Maymana and Shebergan fault blocks. The Qala-i-Naw Fault Block The Qala-i-Naw Fault Block is the far south-western and most extensive structural feature of the North Afghanistan Platform (147, 411). The block is wedge-shaped with a wide west-north-western part. In the south the block is bounded by the superimposed Hari Rod Alpine Trough and the Main Hari Rod Fault. In the north it is bounded by outcrops of the Carboniferous-Triassic sequence of the Bande-Turkestan Ridge and by a system of faults trending from the Yakowlang-Bamyan Graben. The Qala-i-Naw Fault Block represents a flattened syncline trending west-north-westwards with its axis plunging in the same direction. By a transverse flexure bend traceable along the 64 meridian the block is subdivided into two parts: the western relatively subsided and the eastern relatively elevated parts. The eastern segment of the block is, in turn, subdivided by a transverse (north-east-trending) positive structure of the Okhankashan into two minor structures. The Folded Basement of the fault block under discussion is exposed on the blocks periphery and within the Okhankashan transverse structure. The basement consists of Proterozoic and Carboniferous-Triassic rocks invaded by Proterozoic and Triassic intrusions of gabbroid and granitic rocks. The Sedimentary Cover is somewhat different in the western and eastern parts of the block. In the western part it is represented by Lower-Middle Jurassic, Lower-Upper Cretaceous and Paleogene carbonate-terrigenous strata of small thickness. The Eocene-Oligocene sequence is characterized by a wide occurrence of terrestrial volcanics. In the eastern part of the block, the Sedimentary Cover is represented chiefly by Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones of great thickness (1,000-1,500 meters) represented partly by reef facies. Small bodies of Miocene granodiorites and granosyenites occur within the Okhankashan structure (94, 147, 201). The Maymana Fault Block The Maymana Fault Block lies to the north of the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block. In the north it is bounded by the Andarab-Mirza Wolang fault system. In. the south the boundary of the block runs along the fault system of the Bande Turkestan Range and the Yakowlang-Bamyan Graben. In the south-east the block is linked with the structures of the Western Hendukush known within the North Afghanistan Platform as the Surkhab Uplift. In the west-north-westerly direction the structures of the block plunge beneath the young sediments of the southern side of the Murgab Basin located in the USSR. Presently the fault block represents a relatively elevated structure with extensive outcroppings of the folded basement that differs somewhat in. the eastern and western parts of the block. In the eastern part the basement consists of Ordovician-Triassic rocks represented by the same facies as in the Hercynian zones of Surkhab, Bamyan and Western Hendukush. The western portion of the fault block is made up of Carboniferous-Triassic rocks of the same facies as in the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block. A specific feature of the Sedimentary Cover within the fault block is the wide spreading in the basement of Jurassic Carboniferous rocks, especially in the eastern part of the block. Cretaceous deposits form a continuous mantle covering all the pre-Jurassic and Jurassic units and having a well defined basal horizon of red- coloured sandstones and conglomerates. Paleogene deposits make up individual cores of minor negative structures.

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The Shebergan Fault Block The Shebergan Fault Block is outlined to the north of the Maymana Fault Block. It is separated from the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin by the Alburz-Mormul Fault and from the Maymana Fault Block by the fault system of the Andarab-Mirza Wolang. In. the west-north-westerly direction, on the territory of the USSR, the block merges with the Badkhyz- Karabil step of the Murghab Basin. The block under discussion represents a relatively subsided asymmetrical negative structure with the Dawlatabad Trough and Sangcharak Basin confined to its core. The Folded Basement exposed in the south-eastern part of the block is made up of Ordovician-Carboniferous rocks in the facies of the Surkhab Zone. In the unexposed north-western part of the block the Folded Basement pierced through by oil and gas wells is made up of Triassic rocks in the facies of the BandeTurkestan Ridge. The Sedimentary Cover is represented by Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene strata crumpled into large broken folds. There are several dome-shaped structures, the most representative of which are the Shiram and Shadian domes. The Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin The Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin is separated by the pericline of the South-West Gissar into the Afghanistan-South Tajikistan and Afghanistan-South Turkmenistan basins. Together with its Soviet part it represents a large intermountain negative structure in the upper reaches of the Amu Darya River. The Folded Basement of the basin is deeply subsided and the Sedimentary Cover is squeezed into a system of nearly north-south-trending broken brachyform folds which form in plan a fan with its extended side (located within the Afghan territory) turned to the north. By analogy with the Soviet segment of the structure, megasynclines arid meganticlines alternate across the strike and are continued directly on the territory of the USSR. The Afghanistan-South Turkmenistan Basin The Afghanistan-South Turkmenistan Basin is situated in the north-western part of the platform. Together with the Soviet part, it represents an extensive piedmont depression in the lower reaches of the Hari Rod (Tedjen), Murghab, Shirin Tagaw and Darya-i-Safed rivers. Compared with the Afghanistan-South Tajikistan Basin it is less deep and not so complex structurally. The folded basement is exposed in a number of positive structures at a depth of several hundred meters. Positive and negative structures of the second and third order represented by swells, uplifts, domes and troughs have been distinguished in the Sedimentary Cover by oil geologists (161). Many of the structures extend unbroken into the USSR. These structures are characterized by east-west and west-northwesterly trends. The structural boundary between the Afghanistan-South Tajikistan and the Afghanistan-South Turkmenistan basins is the pericline of the South-West Gissar Ridge. Region of Middle Cimmerian Folding Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region In the middle part of Afghanistan a narrow and structurally complex region called Middle Afghanistan, or Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region, stretches nearly east-westwards in the west and in a north-easterly direction in the east (92, 98, 100, 143, 152). In the north and north-east, along the Main Hari Rod and Central Badakhshan Faults, it is contiguous with the Alpine structures of the Turkmenistan-Horasan Region, the North Afghanistan Platform and the Hercynides of the Western Hendukush and North-West Badakhshan; in the south, along the Qarghanaw Fault, it adjoins the Early Alpides of West Afghanistan and the South Afghanistan Median Mass. The boundary of the region with the Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass is problematic because the regions are closely linked both structurally and historically. So far, the boundary has been arbitrarily traced along the Bagharak interformational granitoid intrusion and the zone of imbricate structures traceable parallel to the Panjsher and Kokcha rivers, which follow the Central Badakhshan Fault.

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The region under discussion is underlain by differently metamorphosed pre-Paleozoic, Paleozoic and MesoCenozoic rocks over 15,000 meters in thickness. Intrusive rocks represented mostly by Cretaceous-Paleogene granitoids are not widespread in the region. Structurally, the region is the most complex region of the country with broadly developed zones of imbricate structures and overthrust sheets. The geological data suggest that originally the region was considerably more extensive and simpler in structure. Presently we observe only an insignificant relict of that territory. The geological section, the type of folding, magmatism and present structural pattern make it possible to recognize the following structural and structural-facies zones, overthrust sheets and fault blocks, as well as superimposed basins. The fault blocks are the following: Kohe Qaftarkhan, Hazarsang, Bande Bayan, Sarjangal, Kohe Kejak, Kohe Baba, Paymuri, Qala, Paghman, Tangshew, Chasnud; the structural-facies zones are: Rode Kafghan, Haftkala, Sange Dushakh, Khwaja Morad, Nalbandan, Qarghanaw, Abul, Chorband, Turkman, Warw, Shewa, Nakhchir Par; overthrust sheets are: Dehron, Kohe Aska, Gok, Shutur and others; structural zones are: Ghurian, Kohe Taraqa, Koh-i-Naspanj, Rabat-i-Sapcha, Tagab-i-Takchan, Hokemullo, Surkhbum, Hajigak, etc.; superimposed basins are; Langhar, Doy, Talaw, Tarbolaq, Tulak, Sharak, Shorkul, Lal, Kohe Kafaron, Asgarat, Rukh, etc. The sedimentary rocks of the region have been folded to form linear and brachyform folds. The terrigenous rocks are crumpled to form linear folds and the carbonate rocks form brachyform structures. The folds strike east-westwards and north-eastwards. In the western part of the region there is a certain lack of coincidence in the general trends of the fold structures in the Precambrian and younger strata. In the USSR, the direct extension of the structures traceable in the region under discussion are the structures of the Central and South-East Pamir (272).

MEDIAN MASSES In the interior of Afghanistan there are structures conforming to the concept of median masses. The territory between the Middle Cimmerides in the north and the Alpides in the east, south and west is referred to as South Afghanistan Median Mass. The areas located in the north-eastern part of Afghanistan, namely the Nurestan, South Badakhshan and Wakhan, are known as the Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass (377, 415). The Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass This median mass represents basically a pre-Baikal structure that in Carboniferous-Jurassic period underwent regeneration and geosynclinal development similar to that of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region and experienced a tectono-magmatic activisation during Cretaceous-Paleogene period. The South Badakhshan and Nurestan fault blocks, the Wakhan structural-facies zone, the Zebak and Anjuman zones of imbricate structures are distinguished within the territory under consideration. The South Badakhshan Fault Block The South Badakhshan Fault Block is located in the north-western part of the mass. It is separated from Central Badakhshan by the Bagharak inter-formational granitoid intrusion and the Central Badakhshan Fault. From the Nurestan Fault Block it is separated by the Anjoman-Zebak fault system. It is the oldest structure of Afghanistan composed entirely of Archean rocks, 6,700-9,200 meters thick. The major fold structures of the block are brachyform folds trending nearly north-south and north-east and complicated by numerous minor folds. In the USSR, the direct extension of the block are the structures of the South-West Pamir (272) which, on the whole, constitute a monolith block that represents an ancient core of all the post-Archean structural units of the Pamir and Afghanistan. The Nurestan Fault Block The Nurestan Fault Block constitutes the main portion of the Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass. The block is bounded by faults on all the sides: Wakhan and Tashkuprok faults in the north-east, Panjsher-AnjomanZebak fault system in the north-west, Sarobay and Altamur faults in the south-west and the Konar Fault in the south-east. Predominant in the block are highly-metamorphosed rocks, 8,800-10,800 meters thick, of 24

supposedly Early Proterozoic age. The metamorphics are invaded by Proterozoic and Cretaceous-Paleogene granitoid and gabbro-diorite intrusions. Relatively weakly metamorphosed tentatively Carboniferous-Triassic strata, 3,350 to 4,600 meters thick, occur in fault blocks and wedges traceable within fields composed of Lower Proterozoic metamorphics. Roof pendants of the granite massifs are also made up of CarboniferousTriassic rocks. It is assumed that primarily the Carboniferous-Triassic beds rested unconformably on the Proterozoic rock units. Presently the contacts between these sequences are either faulted or have been healed by granites. Linear granite sills of north-eastern strike are quite common in the area. It is believed that they intruded along the contact between Proterozoic and Carboniferous-Triassic units universally welding it. Folds encountered within the block are linear and brachyform, trending north-eastwards. No sharp difference between the structures formed in the Proterozoic and Carboniferous strata is seen. The Wakhan Zone The Wakhan Zone lies in the far north-eastern part of the median mass. It is separated from the Nurestan Fault Block by the Wakhan Fault. The zone is underlain by weakly metamorphosed cherty-carbonate and terrigenous rocks, 3,715 -3,815 meters thick, assigned Carboniferous-Triassic age and overlain unconformably by Jurassic beds, 415 meters in thickness, followed by Paleogene-Neogene carbonate and volcanogenic-terrigenous strata, 150 to 600 meters thick. Early Cretaceous and Oligocene granites are quite common in the zone. The folds formed in the Carboniferous-Triassic strata by the Early Cimmerian orogeny are linear with a nearly east-west strike, those formed by the Middle Cimmerian orogeny in the Jurassic beds are brachyform in shape. Paleogene deposits infill superimposed basins. In the USSR the direct extension of the Wakhan Zone are the Marginal and Gurmulin zones of the SouthEast Pamir. The Wakhan Zone has been tentatively referred to a category of median mass structures. (Footnote V.I. Dronov considers it as part of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region). The Zebak and Anjuman zones The Zebak and Anjuman zones have been outlined along the Zebak and Anjuman faults, respectively. The zones are notable for the presence of imbricate structures consisting of Carboniferous-Triassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary rock units that contact each other and the surrounding sequences along faults. The South Afghanistan Median Mass This largest structure of Afghanistan consists of three smaller structural units, namely the HelmandArgandab Uplift and the Farah Rod and Dari Rod troughs. The Helmand-Argandab Uplift The Helmand-Argandab Uplift constitutes the north-eastern third portion of the mass. It is separated from the Region of Alpine Folding and the Dari Rod Trough by the Mukur-Tarnak Fault. The boundary between the uplift and the Farah Rod Trough runs along the Helmand Fault, that between the uplift and the Seystan Basin is represented by a belt consisting of Neogene-Quaternary deposits. Of all the regional structures of Afghanistan, the Helmand-Argandab Uplift conforms best to the concept of a median (stable) mass, having a distinctly pronounced Folded Basement and a Sedimentary Cover (152). The Folded Basement consists of strongly dislocated and differently metamorphosed volcanogenic-terrigenous and carbonate rocks of Middle (2,0005,500 meters thick) and Upper (5,600-7,000 meters thick) Proterozoic ages. The Sedimentary Cover overlies the Folded Basement sharply unconformably and consists of weakly dislocated Vendian-Jurassic carbonateterrigenous rocks, 1,723 to 8,383 meters in thickness. The lower horizons of the cover become younger from the south-east to the north-west thus suggesting a sea transgression in this direction (152). Five zones have been outlined within the Helmand-Argandab Uplift. The zones are: the Argandab, Kandahar, Logar, Tirin and Helmand. In the Argandab Zone the section of the Sedimentary Cover starts with Vendian beds and is most thick; in the Logar Zone it begins with Ordovician beds. In the Tirin Zone the cover starts with Upper Devonian and in the Helmand zone, with Lower Permian beds. In each of the zones the Sedimentary Cover exhibits local and regional breaks in sedimentation established at different stratigraphic levels. The Cretaceous part of the section is variable both in the composition and genesis. In the Tirin Zone, the Cretaceous variegated fine-terrigenous deposits, 600 meters thick, overlay the Jurassic beds disconformably. In. the Kandahar Zone, in contrast to all the others, the Cretaceous sequence consists of volcanogenic25

terrigenous rocks of the geosynclinal type. The rocks are 922 to 1,050 meters thick there. Along the southeastern periphery of the Argandab Zone, the Cretaceous sequence consists of marine coarse- and fineterrigenous rocks resting with a sharp unconformity on both the Vendiant-Jurassic carbonate rocks of the Argandab Zone and the volcanogenic-terrigenous rocks of the Kandahar Zone. The Paleogene deposits exposed in the Helmand-Argandab Uplift were accumulated in superimposed basins. Two units of Paleogene deposits have been recognized. The lower unit, 743 meters thick, consists of redstone-altered acid-to-basic volcanics. The upper unit, 500 to 1,000 meters in thickness, is made up of variegated fine-terrigenous rocks. The Neogene beds, 300 to 500 meters thick, were formed in the same superimposed basins and consist of pale-and bright-red coarsely terrigenous rocks. Late Proterozoic and Cretaceous-Paleogene intrusive rocks of ultrabasic, gabbro-plagiogranite and granite formations are quite widespread within the uplift forming large and small bodies of linear and isometric shape. The Folded Basement and Sedimentary Cover of the Helmand- Arghandab Uplift are characterized by sharply different type of folding. The Folded Basement has linear zig-zag isoclinal structures of a nearly eastwestern and north-eastern trends. These folds were produced by the Baikal orogeny. The folds encountered in the Sedimentary Cover are brachyform and broken, locally linear characterized by a north-easterly trend. These folds were formed by the Cretaceous movements. The Paleogene-Neogene movements complicated the folds, yet no radical change of the structures has occurred. In the north-western part of the Helmand-Argandab Uplift, along the boundary with the Farah Rod Trough, there are independent structures of the Waras and Bashlang fault blocks (152) composed of Middle Proterozoic rocks, 5,350 to 7,500 meters in thickness, overlain strongly unconformably by Lower Cretaceous terrigene-carbonate rocks, 907 meters thick. The paleotectonic position of these blocks suggests that throughout post- Middle Proterozoic time they served as a delimiting cordillera between the Farah Rod and Helmand-Argandab sea basins (93). The Farah Rod Trough The Farah Rod Trough occupies the west-north-western one-third portion of the South Afghanistan Median Mass. In the north, it borders on Middle Afghanistan along the Qarganaw Fault; in the south-east, along the Helmand Fault, it borders on the Helmand-Argandab Uplift; in the west the trough borders on the Alpine structures of West Afghanistan along the Asparan-Kishamaran Fault. The south-west boundary of the trough runs along the margin of a continuous field of Neogene-Quaternary deposits of the Seystan Basin. In plan, the territory of the trough represents a wedge spearheaded north-eastwards. The basement of the trough has not been studied. The exposed portion of its section starts with dolomites, red- coloured sandstones and volcanics totalling 420 meters in thickness. These rocks have been tentatively assigned Vend-Cambrian age. Carboniferous-Jurassic carbonate-volcanogenic-terrigenous rocks, 8,1509,650 meters thick, crop out from under the cover of Tithonian-Lower Cretaceous rocks in the zones of imbricate structures and in the cores of positive structures. The trough is infilled mostly with TithonianLower Cretaceous deposits which differ in structure within various, parts of the trough. In this light, seven structural-facies zones are distinguished within the Farah Rod Trough. These zones are the following: the Zuri, Farsi, Harut Rod, Syahdeh, Anardara, Huspas Rod, and Khash Rod. The Farsi, Harut Rod, Syahdeh and Anardara zones occupy the internal part of the trough. Their TithonianLower Cretaceous sequence is most thick and consists in its Lower Tithonian- Hauterivian portion, up to 9,000 meters thick, of flysch-type carbonate-terrigenous rocks. The upper, Barremian-Albian portion of the sequence, between 1,000 and 2,500 meters thick, consists predominantly of carbonate rocks, partly reefal (in the Anardara Zone). The Zuri and Huspas Rod -Khash Rod zones occupy the north-western and southeastern parts of the trough and are characterized by the presence of acid-to-basic volcanics associated with terrigenous rocks in the Tithonian-Hauterivian part of the section and of coarse- and fine-terrigenous rocks in the Barremian-Aptian part. The Upper Cretaceous deposits exhibit a sporadic occurrence in the Farah Rod Trough. In particular, the 700 meter-thick unit of red and multi- coloured sandstones and conglomerates exposed in the drainage basin of the Pushter Rod River along the boundary with the Waras Fault Block is tentatively given Late Cretaceous age.

26

Paleogene deposits filling superimposed basins occur widely in the Farah Rod Trough. The lower portion of the Paleogene sequence consists of redstone-altered acid-to-basic volcanics, 470 to 1,922 meters thick. The upper portion of the sequence is made up of variegated fine-terrigenous rocks, between 500 and 4,000 meters in thickness. Miocene pale- and bright-red coarse- and fine-terrigenous rocks, 350 to 500 meters thick, were accumulated in depressions inherited from the Paleogene. These deposits are occasionally closely associated with the Oligocene deposits. Pliocene fine- and coarse-terrigenous variegated and grey- coloured deposits, 150 to 700 meters thick, occur widely, especially in the western segment of the trough. Like the Paleogene and. Miocene deposits, these under discussion infill superimposed basins that are of different type and genesis compared to the Paleogene basins. The Pliocene basins are more extensive and less subsided. The sedimentary rocks of the Farah Rod Trough are invaded by Paleogene granitoid intrusions of different shape and size. Encountered in the trough are also subvolcanic bodies as well as a swarm of diabase, andesite and diorite porphyry dikes of Miocene age and of a nearly east-west trend. The structures of the Farah Rod Trough are linear and brachyform folds trending north-east and formed by Late Cretaceous tectonic movements. The Paleogene-Neogene movements complicated the folds, yet with no radical change of the structures. The Dari Rod Trough The Dari Rod Trough is the third major structure of South Afghanistan. Geographically it evolves the Chagay Ridge and a system of isolated mountains divided by the Tarnak, Argestan, Darn Rod and Lora Rod rivers. The trough borders on the north-west the Helmand-Argandab Uplift along the Mokur-Tarnak Fault; on the east-south-east it borders the Alpine structures of the Suleiman-Kirthar Folded Region along the Mokur-Chaman Fault. The trough is poorly studied. Its folded basement consists of assumingly Middle Proterozoic metamorphics, 800 m thick, exposed in the drainage basin of the Tarnak River. The main structure-formation complex of the trough consists of Cretaceous sedimentary-volcanogenic rocks, 1,300-3,300 meters thick, folded into brachyform folds. Igneous rocks are represented by the derivatives of the ultrabasic (Tarnak Complex) and granitoid (Spin Boldak Complex) formations of tentatively Cretaceous and Oligocene ages. Regions of Alpine Folding Conspicuous in the west and south-east of Afghanistan are the structures of the Alpine Folding that delineate the South Afghanistan Median Mass. The structures delineated in the drainage basin of the right-hand tributaries of the Hari Rod. River at the pericratonic termination of the North Afghanistan Platform are the Afghanistan-East Iran, Suleiman- Kirthar and Turkmenistan-Horasan folded regions. Early and Middle Alpine foldings are distinguished in the regions according to the age of their main geosynclinal complexes. Early Alpides Afghanistan-East Iran Folded Region Early Alpine in age are the structures of Western and Southern Afghanistan, namely the Kishmaran Uplift and Asparan Trough. The main geosynclinal complex of the structures is represented by the Upper Cretaceous flysch. The folded basement is represented there by the pre- and Upper Cretacecus volcanogenicsedimentary and intrusive rocks. The Kishmaran Uplift The Kishmaran Uplift embraces the northern part of Western Afghanistan to the north of the Qalate Nazarkhan frontier post (88, 152, 254). The uplift is separated from the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region by the Qarganaw Fault. From the Farah Rod Trough it is separated by the Kishmaran Fault. The uplift under discussion represents the most elevated part of the Early Alpides with extensive outcroppings of the folded basement composed of Triassic, Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous rocks. The Triassic sequence consists entirely of dolomites and limestones, 1,000 meters thick. The Jurassic sequence is made up of sandstones and 27

shales, 3,000 meters thick in the lower part, acid to basic volcanics in the middle part, 300 meters thick, and limestones in the upper part, 250 meters thick. The Lower Cretaceous sequence is composed of red- coloured molasse-like sandstones and conglomerates at the lower part, 1,100 meters thick, followed by limestones, 50 meters in thickness. Intrusive units are represented by granitoid rocks of assumingly Early Cretaceous age. The Early Alpine structural-formation complex of the uplift is represented by the lower part of the section that consists of the Lower Campanian limestones, 200 meters thick, overlying all the pre-Campanian strata with a sharp unconformity. Intermediate and basic volcanics tentatively dated as Paleogene (their Late Cretaceous or Maestrichtian age is not excluded) occur widely in the area of the uplift. The pre- Campanian rocks are between 400 and 800 meters thick. Intrusive units are represented by small bodies of assumingly Middle -Late Paleogene subvolcanic rocks of acid to intermediate composition. The structures encountered in the folded basement are linear and brachyform folds trending north-eastwards, these in the Early Alpine complex are brachyform folds of a nearly north-south strike. The Asparan Trough The Asparan Trough has been delineated in the Asparan system of low ridges of Western Afghanistan located to the west of the closed Lake Hanume Saberi (88, 254). In plan, it represents a nearly north-southtrending triangle with the apex pointing northwards. The western boundary of the uplift lies outside the country and the eastern boundary with the Farah Rod Trough runs along the Asparan Fault. Together with the Kishmaran Uplift, the Asparan Trough forms part of the East Iranian Late Cretaceous Trough and represents the most subsided part of the Early Alpides. The folded basement of the, structure under discussion is not exposed. The geosynclinal complex is represented by a sequence of carbonate, carbonate-terrigenous and volcanogenic rocks over 5,000 meters in thickness. The main portion of the sequence consists of flysch-type carbonate-terrigenous rocks reminiscent in individual units of a "wild flysch" Intrusive units are represented by small bodies of granodiorite, diabase and diorite porphyries of assumingly Miocene age. The sedimentary rocks of the trough are crumpled into brachyform and linear folds of a nearly north-south trend. Middle Alpides Two regions of Middle Alpine folding, namely the Suleiman-Kirthar and Turkmenistan-Horasan, have been distinguished in Afghanistan. The main geosynclinal complex of the regions is represented by Paleogene flysch, while the folded basement is made up of volcanogenic, volcanogenic-sedimentary and metamorphic units invaded by intrusions of different ages. The. folded basement is broadly exposed in the uplifted areas, while the geosynclinal complex is exposed in the subsided localities. The Suleiman-Kirthar Folded Region The Suleiman-Kirthar Folded Region includes the Spin Ghar Fault Block, the Kabul Stable Mass, the KhostMatun Uplift, the Katawaz and Ras Koh Mirjawar troughs. The Spin Ghar Fault Block The Spin Ghar Fault Block covers most of the Spin Ghar Ridge and is outlined south of the Kabul River (65, 71, 443). With the adjacent structures the fault block borders along faults. Because of its position near the state frontier the block is studied insufficiently and is attributed, to the Middle Alpides tentatively. The area of the fault block is underlain by strongly metamorphosed Proterozoic rocks, 4,500-8,000 meters in thickness, intruded by subconcordant bodies of Proterozoic granites. Small gabbro-diorite bodies of supposedly Early Cretaceous age occur in the western part of the block. Folds encountered within the block are mostly of brachyform shape and of east-west trend. Some of the folds traceable in the western part of the block have a north-western strike. Minor folds are much more complexbeing represented by isoclinal and flow folds. The Kabul Stable Mass The Kabul Stable Mass is oriented at a right angle to the Spin Ghar Fault Block and represents a sharply discordant structure located in between the South Afghanistan and Nurestan-Pamir Median Masses (145, 28

277, 279, 381, 386, 387, 391, 393, 413, 415, 420). This almond-shaped structure is a typical stable mass marginal in relation to the Alpine structures of the Katawaz Trough. The Kabul Stable Mass borders on the neighbouring structures along faults. The mass is tentatively included in the Region of Alpine Folding. It is presumed that during the pre-Paleogene period of time the mass evolved as part of the South Afghanistan Median Mass having been attached during Paleogene time to the Alpides as a marginal uplift. At the same time a possibility is not ruled out that during the latest horizontal movements the Kabul Stable Mass along with the Katawas Trough was shifted to its present position from the south. The Kabul Stable Mass consists of differently metamorphosed Proterozoic, Vendian-Cambrian, Carboniferous-Lower Permian, Upper Permian-Norian and Norian-Rhaetian sedimentary and volcanogenic rocks. The Proterozoic rocks constitute the core of the mass and are represented by various gneisses, quartzites, crystalline schists, marbles, dolomites, para- and orthoamphibolites totalling 4,800-5,500 meters in thickness. The Proterozoic rocks are overlain disconformably by Vendian-Cambrian metamorphosed limestones, dolomites, quartzites, crystalline schists, pare- and orthoamphibolites, 700 to 2,000 meters in thickness. The Carboniferous-Lower Permian rocks occur widely only in the south of the mass and are represented by weakly metamorphosed terrigenous rocks, 5,450 meters thick. Their relationship with the underlying and overlying units, the structural pattern and the role in the general evolutional history of the stable mass are not known. The Upper Permian-Norian beds overly all the more old formations with a sharp unconformity and are represented by limestones and dolomites, 1,000 to 1,650 meters in thickness. This part of the sequence conforms to the concept of a sedimentary cover of a stable mass. The Norian-Rhaetian volcanogenicsedimentary unit, 2,500-2,800 meters thick, crops out in the eastern part of the stable mass and overlies conformably the Upper Permian-Norian limestones. The structural features of the unit are uncertain. Intrusive units encountered within the stable mass are represented by bodies of Proterozoic and Paleogene granitoid and ultrabasic rocks. The type of folds found within the mass depends on the competence of the strata subject to folding. Terrigenous rocks are crumpled to form linear holomorphic folds, while carbonate rocks occur in brachyform folds. At the same time, it is evident that the pre-Upper Permian strata are folded much more intensively compared to the Upper Permian-Norian beds. The Upper Permian-Norian beds, however, are characterized by shear structures and subhorizontal displacements that considerably complicate their structural pattern. The Khost-Matun Uplift The Khost-Matun Uplift extends into to Afghanistan by its north-western segment, comprising there the prominence of the folded basement of the Middle Alpides (371). The uplift consists of weakly metamorphosed Permian- Triassic and Jurassic carbonate-terrigenous rocks totalling 5,100-6,100 meters in thickness. In the north-western part of the uplift, in fault blocks, there are exposures of presumably Early Carboniferous volcanics whose composition and thickness are unknown. Intrusive units within the uplift are represented by small bodies of presumably Eocene ultramafics. The sedimentary rocks of the uplift have been crumpled to form linear and brachyform north-east-trending folds. The Katawaz Trough The Katawaz Trough is the largest Mid-Alpine structure of South-East Afghanistan (116, 131, 133, 145, 222, 371, 393, 413, 415). This synclinorium-type structure plunges in a south-westerly direction to rise and die cut in a north-easterly direction in between the Spin Ghar Fault Block and the Kabul Stable Mass. In the northwest, along the Mukur-Chaman Fault, it is contiguous with the structures of South Afghanistan; in the southeast, along the system of nameless faults, it adjoins the Khost-Matun Uplift. The basement and geosynclinal complexes of the uplift are essentially different. The basement complex is exposed along the boundary between the trough and Khost-Matun Uplift and along the periphery of the north-eastern centroclinal closure where it consists of relatively weakly metamorphosed and differently folded Permian-Triassic and Jurassic carbonate-terrigenous rocks up to.6,000 meters in thickness. The basement complex is overlain unconformably by the geosynclinal complex represented by flysch-type fineterrigenous rocks with rare layers, lenses and bioherms of limestones. In a strip running along the MukurChaman Fault the basement complex comprises also intermediate-to-basic volcanics. The total thickness of 29

the sequence is over 7,000 meters. The rocks composing the basement complex are of Paleogene, mostly Eocene age. They have been crumpled to form linear and brachyform folds of a north-easterly trend and intruded by small bodies of Miocene diorite and syenite porphyries. The Turkmenistan-Horasan Folded Region The Turkmenistan-Horasan Folded Region is located mostly beyond Afghanistan with only its easternmost portion extending into the country to wedge out at the upper reaches of the Hari Rod River. The largest structures traceable within the Afghan portion of the region are the Herat, Chaghcharan and Tanurtagh troughs which represent parts of a monoilith trough formed in Paleogene time at the southern pericratonic termination of the North Afghanistan Platform. The Manare Jam Graben was formed there in Neogene time. Now the structures of the region form a fault wedge located in between the North Afghanistan Platform and the structures of Middle Afghanistan. The Pre-Cretaceous units in the region under discussion are similar to those in the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block. The Lower Cretaceous beds overly all the pre-Cretaceous units and intrusions invading them. The Lower Cretaceous section consists of three parts: red basal conglomerates and sandstones, totalling 300 meters in thickness, followed by 100 meters of rudistid-orbitolina limestones that are overlain by dark-coloured sandstones and siltstones totalling 1,200 meters in thickness. The pre-Upper Cretaceous sequence is overlain unconformably by Upper Cretaceous limestones, 650 meters thick, followed by 500 meter-thick unit of darkcoloured sandstones and siltstones. The Paleogene deposits constituting the main distinguishing feature of the Hari Rod Trough overlie all the pre-Paleogene units unconformably and form a flysch-type volcanogenous-terrigenous sequence over 3,000 meters in thickness. The intrusive units are represented by small bodies of Paleogene-Miocene rocks of variegated composition. The folds encountered within the Hari Rod Trough are linear and brachyform features of a nearly east-west strike. The folds are complicated by numerous subparallel and oblique faults which locally have created zones of imbricate structure. Neogene-Quaternary Basins These structures were formed as the result of the latest Alpine stage of the geological evolution of Afghanistans territory. Vast territories of the country had a tendency of persistent subsiding against a background of the contrasting positive movements resulting from the general uplifting of the internal parts of the Mediterranean Fold Belt. This category of structures includes the Murghab- Upper Amu Darya Basin located in Northern Afghanistan and the Seystan Basin, in the south of the country. The largest NeogeneQuaternary basins distinguished in the central part of Afghanistan are the Aynak, Jalalabad, Dashte Nawer, Ab-i-Estoda and other basins. Almost all of them are infilled with continental red- to-variegated and grey fine- and coarse-terrigenous deposits that contain a small amount of lacustrine limestones and marls. The Dashte Nawer Basin is infilled with acid-to-intermediate volcanics. The folded basement of the basins is not uniform.

30

Chapter 4

STRATIGRAPHY

Stratified formations occupy over 92 per cent of the territory of Afghanistan. The Section comprises all the geological groups and systems of the International Geostratigraphical Scale. The pre-Neogene deposits are predominantly of marine origin. The Lower Cambrian and, all the systems beginning from the Permian, include various amounts of terrestrial formations. The Neogene and Quaternary sediments are terrestrial. All the units are in the main formed of originally terrigenous and carbonate sediments; volcanics, are present in significantly lesser amounts. The pre-Paleogene volcanics formed under marine conditions, while the Paleogene-Neogene and Quaternary ones are of predominantly terrestrial origin. Before the 1950s' the stratified formations of Afghanistan were randomly studied along scarce reconnaissance routes. The results of these studies were generalized by G. Mennessier in the Geostratigraphic Handbook of Afghanistan (292). Following the organization of the Geological Survey of Afghanistan (1955), the stratified formations were studied both in single traverses of isolated areas by the members of the French Geological Mission, and making geological surveys on various scales in some areas by the members of the French and West German Geological Missions and, all over the country, by the Soviet and Afghan geologists with Soviet technical assistance. Geological surveys (scale 1:500,000) were especially beneficial in providing abundant evidence for the correlation of the stratified formations in Afghanistan. The present stratigraphic chart was developed in the course of compiling geological maps of Afghanistan on the scales of 1:1,000,000 and 1:500,000 (78, 136-138, 373, 374, 421). The stratigraphy of all the postPrecambrian deposits, with the exception of the Quaternary, is based on the identified organic remains. The stratigraphy of Precambrian formations is based on the grade of regional metamorphism. Quaternary deposits are subdivided according to the respective geomorphological evidence available. Most of the fossil organic remains from all the systems were identified in a general way. Hence, the biochrones of the genera and species are based on the identifications made for territories lying outside Afghanistan. So, the actual time of their existence within the territory surveyed remains obscure. As a result, there is a certain discrepancy between the datings of the same stratigraphic units based on various groups of fossils. This is not essentially typical of Afghanistan only. The same is true of stratigraphic surveys conducted in all the regions of the world, particularly in the countries where biostratigraphic studies are still in the initial stage. The existing situation may be improved through specialized stratigraphic and paleontological investigations only, involving a compulsory monographic description of all the groups of faunae and florae. Today, only a relatively small number of works on Afghanistan are known to include such monographic descriptions. At the same time, the territory of Afghanistan was found favourable for studying a number of problems which are still obscure with regard to the International Geostratigraphic Scale, e.g. the boundary between the Cambrian and Ordovician, the beds carrying Saukia fossils (444), between the Devonian and Carboniferous (Etroeungt beds) (337), and the stratigraphy of the Permian as a whole (259-261). In the course of geological surveys many stratigraphic units bearing local names were distinguished. In drawing up the present report, preference was given to the stratigraphic units of the International Geostratigraphic Scale. However, in certain cases, local units were used in the description of some regional successions including those popular in relevant literature and newly distinguished ones. The units given in the legend to the Geological Map of Afghanistan, scale 1:500,000, were adopted as the main ones (140).

ARCHEAN The Archean age was assigned to heavily metamorphosed rocks in South Badakhshan. Relevant data are reported in the works by the following authors (Footnote: cited here and in the brief list of references that follows are only the authors who were engaged in the study of a certain unit.): K. Brueckl (37), A. Desio et al. (60, 62, 63), A. N. Mayorov et al. (266), V. M. Moraliov et al. (351), Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (151), and V.P. Feoktistov et al. (266). The information available is sufficient to subdivide the South Badakhshan metamorphic rock sequence into three units identified tentatively as the Lower, Middle and Upper Archean. The two lower units are known as the Sare Sang Series (162, 266) (Footnote: The names given to series and formations after geographical locations are written with a capital letter in accordance with the Stratigraphical Code of the USSR, 1977, p. 60, item 41), and the upper one is distinguished as the Kohe Lal Series (Sketch map 1). 31

Lower Archean The lower portion of the South Badakhshan metamorphic sequence, 300 to 600 meters thick, referred to as the Walij Formation (151), is exposed along the left-hand bank of the Darya-i-Panj River and in the upper reaches of the Wazling River. This consists of grey fine-crystalline biotite and garnet-biotite plagiogneiss and injection gneiss enclosing amphibolite, marble and calciphyre bands and lenses. Less common components are amphibole-biotite, garnet-sillimanite- biotite and cordierite-garnet-biotite gneiss varieties. The succession of the rocks recorded from the Wazling River upper reaches is as follows (151): (Footnote: Here and hereinafter sections are described from bottom to top.)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Gneiss, grey, fine crystalline, garnet-biotite Amphibolite, medium to coarse crystalline, with marble and calciphyre lenses (Theism, fine crystalline, biotitic Amphibolite, coarse crystalline Gneiss of injection type, biotitic with amphibolite interbeds Total 70 m 10 m 50 m 15 m 150 m 295 m

The type section described from the Walij River is 600 meters thick.

Middle Archean The Middle Archean sequence of South Badakhshan metamorphites, 300 meters thick, referred to as the Sakhi Formation (151) outcrops in the drainage basins of the Darya-i- Kokcha, Darya-i-Sanglech, Darya-i-Jurm, Darya-i-Zardew, Darya-i-Panj and other rivers. The sequence includes grey and green-grey biotite-amphibole, garnet-biotite, amphibole-biotite and other gneisses, which alternate with single beds or groups of beds of biotite, garnet-amphibole-biotite and garnet-amphibole-diopside plagiogneisses. Besides, unlike the Walij Formation, the Sakhi Formation encloses numerous marble beds containing tremolite, diopside and forsterite, as well as calcareous-silicate rocks and quartzite. Three members are distinguishable within the formation. The lower member The lower member, 600-1,000 meters thick, consists of alternating grey and green-grey biotite, biotiteamphibole, garnet-biotite, amphibole-biotite and amphibole gneisses with interbedded calcareous-silicate rocks, marble, amphibolite, and quartzite. In the upper reaches of the Darya-i-Jurm River this unit consists of the following rock types (151).
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Gneiss biotite and biotite amphibole with 5 to 10 meter beds of calcareous silicate gneiss and plagiogneiss Quartzite, fine grained, massive Gneiss, calcareous silicate Marble, magnesian, coarse-crystalline Gneiss, biotite and biotite-amphibole Marble, coarse-crystalline Gneiss, amphibole and biotite-amphibole Marble, coarse-crystalline Biotite-amphibole gneiss and plagiogneiss Calciphyre, coarse-crystalline 160 m 15 m 50 m 20 m 70 m 60 m 20 m 10 m 167 m 5m

32

11. 12.

Interbedded biotite, biotite-amphibole, amphibole and pyroxene-amphibole gneisses Interbedded members, 5-10-40 meters thick, of coarse-crystalline marble and greengrey amphibole gneiss

310 m 120 m

The thickness of the member in this section is 1,007 meters decreasing to 600 meters elsewhere. The middle member The middle member, 850 to 1,600 meters thick, consists of biotite, garnet-biotite, amphibole-biotite and injection gneiss and lens-like intercalations of amphibolite, quartzite and marble. The section recorded from the upper reaches of the Darya-i-Sanglech (151) shows that the rocks of the lower member are conformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Gneiss, biotite and biotite-amphibole fine-crystalline, with amphibolite lenses Marble, coarse-crystalline Gneiss, biotite and biotite-amphibole with amphibolite interbeds Quartzite, thin-bedded Gneiss, biotite and biotite-amphibole, thin-banded with amphibolite beds and lenses 160 m 10 m 30 m 45 m 605 m

The thickness of the member in this section is 850 meters, the respective thicknesses from the upper reaches of the Darya-i-Kokcha, the Buzurg valley and the left bank of the Darya-i-Panj being 1,500, 1,300 and 1,600 meters. The upper member The upper member, 850 to1,400 meters thick is composed of alternating marbles, biotite and amphibole gneisses, calcareous-silicate gneisses, amphibolites and quartzites. The marble beds are variable in thickness from place to place. They are branching, pinching out and replaced along strike by fine-and mediumcrystalline banded calcareous-silicate rocks. The section given below was described from the Darya-iSanglech area (151), where the gneiss of the middle member is conformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14 Marble, magnesian white, with tremolite and diopside Gneiss, amphibole and pyroxene-amphibole Marble with tremolite and diopside Amphibolite Marble, coarse-crystalline, with tremolite Alternation of amphibole gneisses 12-20 m thick and marbles Gneiss, biotite and biotite-amphibole Micaceous quartzite Calcareous-silicate rock Gneiss, amphibole and pyroxene-amphibole-biotite and plagiogneiss Marble, coarse-crystalline Gneiss, biotitic at the base and amphibolic at the top Marble, coarse-crystalline Interbedded biotite and biotite-amphibolite gneisses 30 m 60 m 35 m 5m 90 m 67 m 10 m 69 m 100 m 480 m 100 m 45 m 30 m 250 m

33

The thickness of the rocks in this section is 1,400 m, the thicknesses from the Darya-i-Kokcha, Darya-iBuzurg, Darya-i-Warduj rivers and the Darya-i-Zardew River upper reaches being 1,000, 500, 800 and 1,370 m, respectively. Noteworthy is that, although the thickness of the Sakhi Formation is generally constant, the constituent members vary in thickness from section to section.

Upper Archean The upper 4,100 to 4,600 meters of the Archean metamorphic sequence from South Badakhshan include three formations, viz. Darnarah, Shekhran and Tarashan (151). The Darnarah Formation The Darnarah Formation (2,000-2,500 m thick) outcrops in the drainage basins of the Darya-i-Kokcha, Darya-i-Warduj and Darya-i-Zardew rivers. It is composed of grey biotite, garnet-biotite and injection gneisses with beds and lenses of green-grey biotite-amphibole gneiss, amphibolite and marble. The complete section of the formation is exposed along the left-hand bank of the Darya-i-Panj River (151) where the Sakhi Formation is conformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Gneiss, biotite and injection-type grey, interbedded with amphibole gneiss and amphibolite Amphibolite Gneiss biotite and garnet-biotite fine-crystalline, with rare lens like amphibolite beds Gneiss, biotite and amphibole-biotite, banded, thick-bedded, with lit-par-lit pegmatoid granite injections Gneiss, biotite and sillimanite-biotite fine-crystalline Interbedded medium-crystalline biotite injection gneiss with 8 to 10-meter beds and lenses of amphibole gneiss, marble and amphibolite Amphibolite Biotite injection gneiss, thick-bedded, with marble interbeds Injection gneiss grading to granite Gneiss, biotite, garnet-biotite and garnet-sillimanite-biotite, grey, medium-crystalline 335 m 30 m 275 m 300 m 315 m 150 m 20 m 95 m 180 m 350 m

The thickness of the rocks in this section is 2,050 meters. It increases to 2,500 meters along the right-hand tributaries of the Darya-i-Kokcha and Darya-i-Zardew rivers. The Shekhran Formation The Shekhran Formation 600 meters thick is exposed in a small area in the vicinity of Kol-i-Sewa Lake, where it occurs as a band 2.5 or 3 km wide extending from the north-east to the south-west over a distance of 23 km. The formation consists of amphibole and garnet-amphibole gneisses interbedded with biotite and garnet-biotite gneiss members enclosing amphibolite beds and lenses. Along the left side of the Darya-i-Panj Valley three members are recognized in the formation (151):
1. 2. 3. Gneiss, medium- to coarse-crystalline amphibole and garnet-amphibole with 5 to 10 meter beds of amphibole-biotite and biotite gneiss Injection gneiss, biotite and amphibole-biotite, banded and, occasionally, augen Gneiss, amphibole and garnet-amphibole with amphibolite lenses and biotite-amphibole gneiss beds 400 m 80-90 m 110-120 m

34

The Tarashan Formation The Tarashan Formation 1,500 meters thick is mapped in a small area which is extended along the left-hand bank of the Darya-i-Panj River, where from their outcrops extend for 20 or 25 km in a southwesterly direction up to Kol-i-Sewa Lake. The formation consists of dark grey and yellow-grey biotite, garnet-biotite and sillimanite-biotite gneisses which alternate with light grey injection gneisses and amphibolites and rare thin marble beds. The following succession is distinguishable along the left side of the Darya-i-Panj Valley (151):
1. 2. 3. Gneisses, biotite and garnet-biotite alternating with injection and amphibole-biotite varieties Injection gneiss with interbeds and lenses of biotite, garnet-biotite and biotite-amphibole gneiss and amphibolite Medium-crystalline biotite and, occasionally, augen gneisses, succeeded upwards by sillimanite- biotite and amphibole-biotite gneisses 600 m 600 m 300 m

Rock types As is apparent from the above-described sections, the most common rock types in the metamorphic complex of South Badakhshan are gneisses including the biotite, amphibole, biotite-amphibole, amphibole-pyroxene and calcareous silicate varieties. These are followed in the receding order by amphibolite, marble, calciphyre and quartzite. Biotite gneiss Biotite gneiss is a common component in the metamorphic complex of South Badakhshan. It is a light and dark grey laminated and, quite often, banded rock of lepidogranoblastic, granoblastic, heterolepidogranoblastic and porphyroblastic textures. Banding is due to alternation of light and dark laminae. Light laminae consist of fine- and medium-grained aggregates of quartz and acid plagioclase with variable amounts of K-feldspar; dark lamellae are, composed of aggregates of biotite, plagioclase and, less frequently, K-feldspar. The quartz content is 25-50 per cent. The rock enriched in quartz is defined as quartzite-like gneiss. Plagioclase (20-40%) occurs in irregular grains 0.2 to 0.6 mm in size. K-feldspar is present in markedly xenomorphic intergranular forms or occurs in the form of amoeba-like porphyroblasts with inclusions of quartz and plagioclase grains. It is commonly unlatticed. The K-feldspar content varies from 5-10 to 30-50 per cent. The high content of K-feldspar is typical of the injection gneiss. The rocks containing a small amount of K-feldspar are defined as plagiogneisses. Biotite is constantly present in amounts of 5-20 per cent in scales, 0.1-0.8 mm long, oriented parallel to schistosity. Muscovite is normally developed after biotite in injection gneiss. Almost all the varieties of biotite gneiss contain noticeable amounts of garnet. Sillimanite is often present in gneiss particularly at the top of the metamorphic sequence. The sillimanite content is sometimes as high as 10-15 per cent. At the base of the sequence, sillimanite gneiss, occasionally contains cordierite and disthen. The accessory minerals are orthite, zircon, apatite, sphene, monozite and rutile. Magnetite and pyrite are constantly encountered in small amounts. Graphitebearing gneiss is also present. Biotite-amphibole and amphibole plagiogneisses Like biotite gneiss, biotite-amphibole and amphibole plagiogneisses are widespread throughout the metamorphic sequence. These are green-grey, banded and, occasionally micro-augen rocks whose texture varies from nematolepido-granoblastic to granonematoblastic, the structure being schistose and banded. Plagioclase (20-50%) differs from that in biotite gneiss by a more basic composition. It is represented by andesine, which occurs in rounded and irregular elongated grains. The grains are twinned, often have myrmekite rims and are slightly sericitized. Quartz accounts for 20-30 per cent of rock volume. K-feldspar tends to occur in leucocratic laminae, its content rarely exceeding 5-10 per cent hornblende (10-15 to 30%) is observed in the form of fine or coarse (up to 2 mm.) prismatic and disciform grains. Biotite is constantly present, its content varying from 1-2 to 10-20 per cent. Garnet is nearly always noted in a form of fine and 35

coarse porphyroblasts. Sphene (1-2%), apatite, orthite and zircon are also present. Amphibole gneiss richly impregnated with fine-scale graphite is encountered. Amphibole-diopside and calcareous-silicate gneisses Amphibole-diopside and calcareous-silicate gneisses are widespread in the Walij and Sakhi formations, being very conspicuous among the other rock types. These are green-grey compact viscous striated mediumand fine-crystalline rocks, often quartzite-like. Banding is due to alternation of laminae (70.2-2.0 cm.) of white, light grey and green-grey colour. The laminae consist of granoblastic aggregate of quartz and plagioclase (andesine), approximately equal in proportion, accounting part of the rock consists of variable amounts of hornblende, diopside, epidote, scapolite, clinozoisite, biotite, garnet and calcite. The accessory minerals are orthite, sphene and apatite. Amphibolites Amphibolites are present throughout the metamorphic sequence of South Badakhshan. They form beds and lenses commonly confined to carbonate intervals of the section. Amphibolites are dark green medium- and course-crystalline rocks of granonematoblastic, nematogranoblastic and, sometimes, diablastic texture and schistose, less frequently, massive structure. They are composed of hornblende, plagioclase and garnet. In the lower intervals of the sequence, diopside is almost constantly present; quartz and phlogopite are occasionally encountered in small amounts. Sphene, apatite, orthite, zircon and titanomagnetite are found in noticeable quantities. Marble and calciphyre Marble and calciphyre are medium- to coarse-crystalline rocks of a granoblastic and heterogranoblastic texture and massive structure. The rocks consist of xenoblastic aggregates of calcite and dolomite and variable amounts of tremolite, diopside, forsterite and phlogopite. Conspicuous rock types are two marble varieties, one containing tremolite, and the other, diopside and forsterite. Quartzites Quartzites are found in the Sakhi formation only. The rock texture is granoblastic and lepidoblastic and, occasionally, fibrolepidogranoblastic; the structure is indistinctly schistose, schistose and lenticular schistose. Quartz (70-90%) forms granoblastic toothed aggregates of indistinctly outlined grains. The following types of quartzite are distinguishable fine-grained with a dominant grain size of 0.1-0.2 mm, medium-grained with a dominant grain size of 0.2-0.5 mm, and inequigranular (up to gravelly) with a grain size of 0.5-2.0 mm. Sometimes quartz is observed in the form of platy grains (up to 2 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm thick). This gives the rock a granulitic appearance. Plagioclase (5-20%) is highly sericitized. Sillimanite is noted frequently (510%) either in inclusions or in sheaf-like aggregates. Occasionally small amounts of disthen, muscovite, biotite and garnet are found. Tourmaline, zircon, apatite, orthite, rutile and magnetite occur as accessory minerals. The above-mentioned rocks are characterized by the following mineral assemblages: in the Walij and Sakhi formations - plagioclase-hornblende-diopside-garnet, plagioclase-hornblende-garnet-diopside-scapolite, calcite-tremolite, calcite-diopside-forsterite, calcite-biotite-garnet-orthoclase-plagioclase-quartz, biotitegarnet-sillimanite-plagioclase-orthoclase-quartz, biotite-garnet-sillimanite-disthen-plagioclase-quartz, biotite-hornblende-plagioclase-quartz, plagioclase-hornblende-diopside-garnet, plagioclase-hornblendediopside-scapolite-garnet, plagioclase-hornblende-garnet, and calcite-scapolite-diopside; in the Darmarah, Shekhran and Tarashan formations biotite plagioclase-orthoclase-quartz, garnet-biotite-plagioclaseorthoclase-quartz, biotite- plagioclase-quartz, biotite-garnet-sillimanite-plagioclase-orthoclase-quartz, and plagioclase-hornblende-garnet. These mineral assemblages indicate that the rocks of the Walij and Sakhi formations are metamorphosed to the hornblende granulite subfacies of the granulite facies, while these of the Darnarah, Shekhran and Tarashan formations are metamorphosed to the almandine-sillimanite subfacies of the amphibolite facies. In the south-western Pamir, U.S.S.R., whereto the metamorphic rocks of South Badakhshan extend, the Goran Series is a counterpart of the Walij and Sakhi formations and the Shakhdarya Series, of the Darnarah, Shekhran and Tarashan formations (40, 41, 73, 218, 307). The Goran rocks are metamorphosed to the 36

hornblende granulite subfacies, while the Sashdarya rocks to the almandine-sillimanite subfacies of the amphibolite facies of regional dynamothermal metamorphism. B.Ya. Khoreva (218) notes that, along with relics of mineral assemblages of the granulite facies, the Goran rocks exhibit assemblages of the amphibolite facies. She believes that this development is due to the effect of ultrametamorphism superimposed upon the Goran rocks, which were originally metamorphosed to the hornblende granulite subfacies. As a result, the Goran paleosome was migmatized and granitized, giving rise to new mineral assemblages characteristic of the amphibolite facies. The absolute ages determined on the samples of metamorphic rocks from the southwestern Pamir are as follows: on marbles (lead-isochronic method) - 2,700-2,460 m.y.; on phlogopite from the Lajwar-Dara deposit (potassium-argon method) - 1,675100 m.y., and (rubidium-strontium isochronic method) - 1,7201,750 m.y. (219). The first figure corresponds to the Archean-Proterozoic boundary and to the period of the main phase of metamorphism in the South-West Pamir and South Badakhshan. The other two figures correspond to Middle Proterozoic and to the pence of the subsequent mineralization, in particular, formation of phlogopite veins of the Lajwar-Dara area.

PROTEROZOIC
Proterozoic formations occur in all the regions of Afghanistan. They are represented by three complexes of regionally metamorphosed rocks identified provisionally as Lower, Middle and Upper Proterozoic (Sketch map 2).

Lower Proterozoic
Lower Proterozoic rocks were distinguished virtually in all the regions of the country. They are represented by gneisses, crystalline schists, marbles, quartzites and amphibolites metamorphosed in the amphibolite facies. Though the rocks seem monotonous everywhere, their sections differ from area to area.

Nuristan-Pamir Median Mass Within this region, Proterozoic formations are distinguished everywhere in the Nuristan Fault Block. Relevant information is given in the works by V.M. Narodny et al. (309), G. Andritsky (6, 7, 8), Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145, 146) and L.N. Rossovsky et al. (363). When examining the metamorphic rocks of Nuristan, investigators encountered great difficulties, which were caused by intensive granitization, the presence of extensive injection zones, isolation of outcrops found in thrust sheets or wedged between masses of igneous rocks, as well as by wide development of cataclasis and diaphthoresis. All the metamorphic rocks are grouped into the Nuristan Series (145, 146). The series is 8,300-10,800 meters thick. It consists of five formations: Nejrab, Chebak, Kamdesh, Waygal and Kamal. All the formations, except the Waygal, are composed predominantly of gneisses quartzites and schists; the Waygal Formation consisting of marbles divides the entire Nuristan Series into three conformable parts.

Nuristan Series, Lower Part This series consists of the Nejrab, Cnebak and Kamdesh formations whose total thickness is 5,800-2,100 meters. The Nejrab Formation The Nejrab Formation (1800-2500 m) occurs along the left-hand banks of the Panjsher and Tagao rivers, in the drainage basins of the Alisang and Alingar rivers, and in the watershed of the Muhjan, Paron and Kontiwa rivers. The predominant rocks are biotite, garnet-biotite, sillimanite-biotite and garnet-sillimanitebiotite gneisses, plagiogneiss, injection gneiss and migmatite. Amphibole and biotite-amphibole gneiss, 37

amphibolite, quartzite, and marble are less common. The representative section was described from the left side of the Nejrab Valley (146). No underlying rocks are exposed. The section is as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Gneiss, biotite and garnet-biotite partially augen injected leaf-by-leaf with granite material Quartzite, schistose, micaceous with garnet Gneiss, biotite and biotite-amphibole, augen Two-mica gneiss grading to migmatite Gneiss, biotite and garnet-sillimanite-biotite, augen with leaf-by-leaf granite bodies Two mica augen gneiss interbedded with micaceous quartzite Gneiss, garnet-sillimanite-biotite Quartzite, micaceous Gneiss, garnet-sillimanite-biotite amphibolite injection gneiss, light and dark grey Gneiss, garnet-sillimanite-biotite interbedded with biotite-amphibole gneiss 435 m 10 m 130 m 100 m 550 m 80 m 80 m 15 m 770 m 250 m

The total thickness of the Nejrab Formation in this section is 2,420 meters. Three members are distinguished in the Nejrab Formation on the left side of the upper Panjsher Valley. The lower member, 500-700 m thick, consists of interbedded fine-crystalline, often augen, biotite and garnetbiotite plagiogneisses and fine- to medium-crystalline biotite gneisses. Muscovite-biotite injection gneiss occurs throughout the unit. Garnet-sillimanite-biotite gneiss is found in subordinate amounts. The middle member, 300 m in thickness, is distinguished by the alternation of amphibole-biotite and amphibole plagiogneiss with biotite gneiss; lens-like interbeds of amphibolite are present. The upper member, 1,0001,500 m thick, is composed of predominantly foliated garnet-sillimanite-biotite and sillimanite-biotite gneiss interbedding with massive, often microaugen, garnet-biotite plagiogneiss and injection gneiss; cordieritebearing gneiss, fine-grained quartzite, and quartzite-like gneiss are present occasionally. The Chebak Formation The Chebak Formation,1,500-2,l00 m thick, consists of interbedded inequigranular quartzites and biotite, garnet-sillimanite-biotite and biotite-amphibole gneisses incorporating amphibole and garnet-staurolitebiotite schists and calcareous-silicate rocks; rare marble beds and lens-like amphibolite bodies are encountered. Despite the monotony of the constituents, the Chebak Formation is variable in different areas of Nuristan. Along the left bank of the Panjsher River, the section is rather monotonous consisting of three units:
1. Quartzite, fine-grained interbedded with by banded biotitic quartzite-like biotite gneiss and garnet-sillimanite-biotite gneiss; beds of injection gneiss and medium-grained calcareous silicate rocks. The thicknesses of quartzite and gneiss beds are 20-50 and 1-10 m, respectively Biotite and garnet-sillimanite-biotite gneiss with interbeds (1-10 m) of quartzite and quartzitelike gneiss Quartzite, massive, fine-grained, micaceous, interbedded with gneiss 900 m

2. 3.

600 m 500 m

The total thickness of the Chebak Formation in this locality is 2,000 meters. In the drainage basin of the Alisang and Alingar rivers, the Chebak Formation is also separable into three members. The lower member, 500 m in thickness, is composed of quartzite interbedded with biotite, garnetsillimanite-biotite and injection gneisses; the quartzite beds are 5-50 m thick, some of them having lenticular interbeds of gravelly quartzite at the base. The medium member, 800 m thick, consists of biotite-amphibole 38

gneiss and biotite microgneiss with lens-like amphibolite bodies. Marble beds reaching 200 m in thickness are present (the Nilaw River upper reaches). The upper member, 400 m in thickness, is composed of quartzite and gneiss with 10 to 20 meter beds of garnet-staurolite-biotite schists. The total thickness of the formation is 1,700 m In the upper reaches of the Minjan River, only the upper 500 meters of the Chebak Formation are exposed consisting of quartzite and biotite gneiss and schist. The quartzite is inequigranular, markedly or crossbedded. In the upper reaches of the Paron River, the Chebak Formation consists of two members. The lower member, 450 to 500 m thick, is represented by the alternation of 2 to 60 m thick inequibedded fine-grained massive quartzite, biotite and biotite-amphibole gneisses grading to migmatite. The upper member, 1,000-1,200 m thick, consists of interbedded fine-crystalline biotite gneiss, migmatite, quartzite-like gneiss and quartzite. The total thickness of the Chebak formation in this locality is 1,450-1,700 meters. Along the Landay Sin River (right tributary of the Konar River), the lower 600 m of the Chebak Formation consist of grey and dark grey quartzites, interbedded with quartzite-like gneisses, fine-crystalline biotitic and garnet-sillimanite-biotitic gneisses; the thickness of the quartzite and gneiss interbeds varies within 1-20 and 1-10 m respectively. Above follows a conformable unit of coarse-crystalline, flaggy marble and calciphyre (200-400 m). The marble is overlain by a 600 to 800 m thick unit of massive fine-crystalline quartzite strata interbedded with calc-micaceous rocks and calcareous quartzite, which alternate with fine-grained massive biotite-amphibole, amphibole and pyroxene-amphibole gneisses and thinly banded quartzite-like biotite gneisses. The upper member, 300 m in thickness, consists of quartzite-like gneiss and quartzite. The total thickness of the Chebak Formation in the Landay Sin area is 1,700-2,100 meters. The Kamdesh Formation The Kamdesh Formation (2,500 m) is distinguished along the right bank of the Konar River and in the drainage basin of the Paron, Kontiwa and Darrahe Pech rivers, where is composes the cores of synclines. The rocks are biotite and garnet-biotite, garnet-sillimanite-biotite, biotite-amphibole and amphibole fine-to-mediumcrystalline, occasionally augen, gneiss, plagiogneiss, migmatite and injection gneiss. Rare quartzite and marble beds (1-10 m) are encountered. Garnet-biotite and garnet-staurolite-biotite schists occur at the top. The section recorded from the Darrahe Pech Valley below the estuary of the Waygal River is as follows (146):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Migmatite, banded, grading to granite gneiss Gneiss, biotite and garnet-.biotite grading to migmatite with lit-par-lit and cross cutting bodies of granite and pegmatite Injection gneiss, garnet-biotite and garnet-sillimanite-biotite Migmatite, banded, with a paleosome of garnet-sillimanite-biotite gneiss Interbedded 5 to 10-meter injection gneiss and garnet-biotite migmatized gneiss Gneisses, garnet-sillimanite-biotite, biotite and garnet-biotite coarse-scaly grading to migmatite Gneiss, garnet-sillimanite-biotite and garnet biotite medium-crystalline with lit-par-lit and cross-cutting granite bodies Gneiss, biotite and garnet-biotite, partially quartzite-like, fine-crystalline injected by granite material Schist, garnet-staurolite-biotite fine-crystalline, with lit-par-lit granite bodies 300 m 390 m 57 m 120 m 90 m 65 m 1,000 m 236 m 237 m

The thickness of the Kamdesh Formation in this section is 2,495 m The thickness is approximately of the same order elsewhere.

39

Nuristan Series, Middle Part This part of the sequence is represented by the Waygal Formation , 1,000-1,500 m thick, which is exposed along the right bank of the Konar River and in the Darrahe Pech River drainage basin. The formation consists of alternating units of marble, crystalline schists and quartzite. The section recorded along the Darrahe Pech River and at the Waygal estuary presents the following succession (146). The upper unit of the Kamdesh Formation is conformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Marble, massive, coarse-crystalline Alternation of 2 to 40 m thick beds of biotite and garnet-staurolite-biotite schist and marble Quartzites, brown-grey, banded, microgranular Marble, inequibedded, banded Alternation of 1 to 30-meter beds of biotite and garnet-biotite schist and marble Interbedded fine-grained massive quartzites and biotite schists Marble, light grey Interbedded garnet-staurolite-biotite schists and fine-grained biotite quartzites Marble, banded, coarse-crystalline Quartzite, grey, banded Alternating biotite and garnet-staurolite-biotite schists and inequibedded marbles 250 m 165 m 21 m 125 m 107 m 222 m 10 m 71 m 30 m 10 m 393 m

The thickness of the Waygal Formation in this section is 1,403 m It is variable along the strike. In an area south and north of the Darrahe Pech Valley, marble beds of the lower member are reduced in thickness being replaced by To the north of the Waygal village, the thickness increases again. Nuristan Series, Upper Part This part is represented by the Kamal Formation, which composes the cores of synclines on the right bank of the Konar River and thrust sheets in the drainage basins of the Chapdara and Paron rivers. The formation exhibits a conformable relationship with the Waygal Formation and consists of dark grey biotite, garnetbiotite and garnet-staurolite-biotite schists, which in places grade to gneisses interbedded with quartzites and marbles. Along the Darrahe Pech River, the Kamal Formation exhibits the following succession (146):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9 10 Schist, garnet-staurolite-biotite with 1 to 8 meter interbeds of coarse-crystalline marble Alternation of 1- to 2 meter beds of quartzite, garnet-biotite schist and marble Interbedded 1 to 20 meter beds of garnet- staurolite-biotite schist and quartzite Alternation of 1 to 17 meter beds of fine- and medium-crystalline marble, garnetstaurolite-biotite schist, chert and quartzite Schist, biotite and garnet-biotite with quartzite interbeds (1-10 m) Alternation of 1 to 20 meter beds of banded biotite microgneiss and quartzite Gneiss, garnet-biotite, dark grey Quartzite, thin-platy grading to quartzite-like marble Gneiss, biotite and garnet-biotite with quartzite interbeds Schist, biotitic with quartzite interbeds 77 m 5m 50 m 56 m 75 m 78 m 35 m 60 m 259 m 300 m

The thickness of the Kamal Formation in this section is 995 m; in other areas it reaches 1,500-2,000 m. 40

Rock types As follows from the above successions of rocks, the most common rocks in the Nuristan Series is gneiss. Less common rocks are quartzite, marble and crystalline schists. Gneiss The predominant varieties of gneiss are biotite, garnet-biotite, two-mica and garnet-sillimanite-biotite ones; graphite-bearing gneiss is occasionally present. The rocks have a lepidogranoblastic, lepidoheterogranoblastic, nematolepidogranoblastic and porphyroblastic texture, and a schistose, lenticularbanded and, occasionally, massive structure. Fine-crystalline varieties (crystal size 0.1-0.3 mm.) are predominant quartz and plagioclase account for 70-90 per cent of the rock volume, plagioclase amounting to 30-60 per cent. In quartzite-like gneiss, the quartz content reaches 60-70 per cent. The accessory minerals are zircon, orthite, sphene, rutile, monazite and apatite. Biotite-amphibole and amphibole gneisses are less common. Their texture is nematolepidogranoblastic and lepidonematogranoblastic; the structure is schistose. The rocks consist of plagioclases Nos 30-50 (40-60%), quartz (10-25%), hornblende (5-10%) and biotite (5-20%). K-feldspar is generally found only in granitized varieties. The accessory minerals are sphene, apatite, orthite, zircon and tourmaline. Quartzite Quartzite occurs in beds and lenses of variable thickness throughout the entire section of the Nuristan Series, being particularly abundant in the Chebak Formation. The rock texture is granoblastic, heterogranoblastic or lepidogranoblastic, and the structure is massive or schistose. The quartzite consists chiefly of quartz (6080%), and commonly present biotite, plagioclase and garnet. When the rock is abundant in mica it is classified as micaceous quartzite, and in the case of a concurrent increase of plagioclase (up to 15-20%), it is defined as quartzite-like gneiss. Sometimes quartzite contains sillimanite. The accessory minerals are represented by the occasionally occurring zircon crystals. The rock type classified as calcareous quartzite is a compact quartzite-like rock which has a characteristic brownish ribbed weathering surface. Apart from quartz, which composes the bulk of the rock, the calcareous quartzite contains 10 to 15 per cent calcite. The rock containing a smaller amount of quartz and a greater amount of calcite is classified as sandy marble. Calcareous silicate metamorphic rocks, compositionally similar to either amphibole gneiss or calciphyre develop almost invariably after calcareous quartzite and sandy marble. The texture of the rocks is granoblastic, nematogranoblastic, and lepidonematogranoblastic, and the structure is massive and, less frequently, schistose. The mineral composition is quartz, plagioclase, hornblende, monoclinic pyroxene, actinolite, zoisite, epidote, scapolite, biotite and garnet; sphene and titanomagnetite are observed in noticeable amounts. Marble Marble occurs throughout the Nuristan Series, being particularly abundant in the Waygal Formation. It is a fine-medium or coarse-crystalline rock with granoblastic or mosaic texture consisting mainly of calcite; less common components are quartz, mica, hornblende, diopside, sphene and graphite scales. The amount of silicate minerals in calciphyre is as high as 30-40 per cent. Schists Schists are represented by garnet-staurolite-biotite, garnet-biotite and biotite varieties, being most abundant in the Kamal Formation. Generally, these are thin-banded medium- and coarse-crystalline rocks. Banding is caused by alternation of leucocratic and melanocratic laminae (1-2 mm). The texture of the rocks is lepidogranoblastic and granolepidoblastic, and the structure is schistose. The rocks consist of quartz (4060%), biotite (20-50%), muscovite, plagioclases (Nos 10-20), garnet, sillimanite and staurolite. They always enclose well-developed garnet porphyroblasts 0.5-5 mm in size and staurolite. Sillimanite-bearing schists are frequently encountered. Sillimanite occurs as fibrolite tending to mica- enriched laminae. In such cases, the rock acquires a fibrolepidogranoblastic texture. Tourmaline is sometimes present in marked quantities. 41

Schists are often seen to grace into micaceous quartzite. Where granite material is abundant, schist grades into microgneiss. The rocks from the lower part of the series, mostly gneisses and quartzites, are distinguished by the following mineral assemblages: quartz-plagioclase-garnet-biotite, quartz-plagioclase-K-feldspar-biotite, quartzplagioclase-biotite-sillimanite-garnet, quartz-plagioclase-hornblende, and quartz-plagioclase-garnethornblende. These mineral assemblages are characteristic of the sillimanite-almandine subfacies of the almandine amphibolite facies. The rocks of the middle and upper parts of the Nuristan Series are characterized by the following mineral assemblages: quartz-plagioclase-biotite, quartz-plagioclase- biotite-muscovite-garnet, quartz-plagioclasebiotite-garnet-staurolite, quartz-biotite-sillimanite-staurolite, quartz-biotite-sillimanite-garnet, and quartzplagioclase-zoisite-hornblende. These mineral assemblages suggest that the rocks of the middle and upper parts of the series are metamorphosed to a grade transitional from the sillimanite-almandine subfacies to quartz-staurolite subfacies of almandine amphibolites or from the amphibolite facies to epidote-amphibolite facies of moderate-pressure regional metamorphism according to N.L. Dobretsov et al. (76). The above-mentioned evidence points to vertical zoning of metamorphism in the rocks of the Nuristan Series. At the same time, horizontal zoning is recognizable. For example, in the north-western and southeastern parts of the Nuristan Fault Block the rocks are most strongly metamorphosed and granitized. In its central part, the grade of metamorphism decreases, though this is the area where the upper formations of the Nuristan Series are exposed. The presence of progressive zoning, intensive migmatization and granitization suggest that the rocks of the Nuristan Series have been subjected to regional plutonic metamorphism (218). Cataclasis and diaphthoresis affected the rocks in zones of NE-striking faults. The width of the zones varies from several hundred metres to 1-3 kilometers. Within these zones, gneisses and crystalline schists have undergone cataclasis and recrystallization. The rocks retain large rounded plagioclase grains cemented by a fine-grained granoblastic aggregate of quartz, feldspar and mica. Muscovite is abundant and is chiefly developed after biotite. Zoisite and epidote are occasionally present, and albitization of plagioclase is observed. The counterpart of the Nuristan Series in the USSR is the South Alichur Series which occurs in the South-West Pamir.

Suleyman-Kirtar Area Within this area, Lower Proterozoic rocks are widely distributed only along the north-eastern periphery of the Kabul Stable Mass and in the Spin Ghar Fault Block. Kabul Stable Mass Lower Proterozoic rocks compose the Sherdarwaza, Kharog and Welayati formations outcropping in Kabul and its outskirts. Relevant information can be found in the works by K. Greisbach (168), H. Hayden (178), R. Furon (123), G. Mennessier (278, 279, 282), G. Andritsky (6, 7, 8), Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145), V.I. Slavin (150, 391, 393) N.M. Feruz (112, 114), Yu. I. Shcherbina et al. (381), V.G. Silkin et al. (384) and V.G. Chernov et al. (45, 47).

The Sherdarwaza Formation The Sherdarwaza Formation (3,000 m) starts the section of the Lower Proterozoic in the Kabul Massif consisting of various migmatites, gneisses, granite-gneisses, schists, marble, amphibolite and quartzite. Its sections are invariable everywhere differing only in minor details. In some places the rocks have original rhythmic succession. The complete rhythm includes (upwards): quartzite, gneiss, mica schist, amphibolite and marble. Quartzite and marble are quite often missing, whereas gneiss and amphibolite are always present. The thickness of individual constituents within a rhythm varies from several metres to several dozens of metres.

42

Rock types The predominant rocks in the Sherdarwaza Formation are gneisses, migmatites, granite gneisses, and schists. Marble, amphibolite and quartzite are subordinate (381, 384). Gneiss Gneiss is differentiated into biotite, quartz-muscovite and garnet-biotite varieties depending on mineral composition. Biotite gneiss is lepidogranoblastic and, often, blastoclastic and porphyroblastic in texture and gneissose, microlaminated and schistose in structure. The mineral composition is as follows: quartz (3035%), K-feldspar (30%), acid plagioclase (20%), biotite (15%) and epidote. The accessory minerals are apatite, sphene, orthite, zircon and opaques. Garnet-biotite gneiss is granoblastic, lepidogranoblastic and porphyroblastic in texture and massive, augen and gneissose in structure. The mineral composition is microline plus quartz (25%), garnet (10-15%), biotite (10%), albite (10%) and epidote (5%). The accessory minerals are apatite, sphene, orthite, zircon and opaques. Migmatite Migmatite occurs in various intervals of the Sherdarwaza Formation as rapidly alternating dark and light grey rock bands of granite and gneiss composition. Mineral composition: quartz (20-50%), albite (10-50%), microcline (15-50%), biotite (5-10%), muscovite (below 1%) and epidote (5%). The texture of the rock is heteroblastic, granoblastic, blastoporphyric, lepidogranoblastic and/or heterolepidogranoblastic. Schist Schist occurs in single beds, interlayers, groups of beds and lenses of various thickness in gneisses and other rocks mostly in the upper half of the formation. The rocks are distinguished according to their mineral composition into epidote-biotite-muscovite, muscovite, staurolite-garnet-muscovite and other varieties. Epidote-biotite schist is phyllonitic or heterolepidogranoblastic in texture and schistose, lenticular and microlenticular in structure. Mineral composition: biotite (predominant), epidote (2%), quartz and albite (10%), leucoxene, apatite and sphene. The amount of biotite falls in some varieties to 15 per cent, while the amount of quartz, albite, K-feldspar and epidote rises to as much as 35, 30, 15 and 5 per cent, respectively. The biotite-muscovite schist of lepidogranoblastic texture and schistose structure consists of biotite, muscovite, epidote, K-feldspar and quartz. Muscovite schist has a granolepidioblastic texture and plicated, schistose structure. Mineral composition: muscovite (30-35%), quartz (40%), biotite (10-15%), albite (10%), clinozoisite, leucoxene, K-feldspar and amphibole (3-5%). Staurolite-garnet-muscovite schist is rarely encountered. Its texture is porphyroblastic and structure is schistose. Mineral composition: garnet (20%), staurolite (30-35%), muscovite (15%), quartz (20%) and accessory minerals. Marble Marble is found in the lower and middle parts of the formation occurring as single beds, groups of beds and lenses (up to 20 m thick) inside schists, gneisses and migmatites. It is a light grey and white, fine- and medium crystalline, massive, banded rock. With respect to mineral composition, dolomitic, dolomite-lime and lime-dolomite varieties are recognized. Amphibolite Amphibolite is widespread throughout the entire Sherdarwaza Formation being represented by ortho- and para- amphibolite types. Orthoamphibolite is, apparently, the rock, found on the west slope of the Kohe Safed Range and in the mountain ridges of the Kohe Damana Basin where it occurs in members of up to 40 m thick enclosing remnants of basic volcanics. This rock consists of hornblende (35-50%), biotite (20%), plagioclases (15-30%), quartz (5%) and epidote (10%). Its texture is nematoblastic and blastoporphyric; the structure is schistose. Para-amphibolite is abundant north-west of the Darya-i-Kalon Afzali River and in other areas. It normally occurs in thin beds, groups of beds and lenses alternating with crystalline schists. Mineral composition: hornblende (35-40%), plagioclases (45-50%), biotite (10%) and quartz (5%). The texture is nematoblastic and granonematoblastic the structure is schistose.

43

Quartzite Quartzite is heterogranoblastic in texture and micro-plicated in structure. It consists chiefly of quartz, decomposed plagioclase and biotite occasionally replaced by chlorite. Quartzite occurs in lenticular interbeds (0.2-1.5 m) in biotite gneiss and crystalline schist. Most of the above mentioned rocks correspond to an amphibolite facies of regional metamorphism. Two absolute K-Ar datings are known for the Sherdarwaza rocks (8): (1) gneiss from the Qala-i-Murtabek area - 9288 m.y.; and (2) biotite schist from a gallery in the Mahypar power plant - 6446 m.y. Both datings correspond to the late Lower Proterozoic and contradict the tentative Lower Proterozoic age of the formation. It is believed that the two datings indicate some superimposed. phases of recrystallization which occurred in the Late Proterozoic as a result of the Baikalian tectonic and igneous activity rather than the absolute age of the rocks.

The Kharog Formation The Kharog Formation (500-1,000 m) overlies the Sherdarwaza Formation with a seeming disconformity but with no pronounced angular unconformity. It consists chiefly of quartzite. At the base, quartzite is interbedded with conglomerates, and at the top, by crystalline schists, gneisses, amphibolites and marbles. Quartzite Quartzite is grey and light, parallel- and cross-bedded, fine-grained, massive. The texture is granoblastic, micro-granoblastic, sutural, the structure is massive and maculose; the composition is predominantly quartzose. Conglomerates Conglomerates occur as lenses in quartzites, the thickness and length of the lenses being 0.5-1.5 and 15-20 m, respectively. Some lenses reach 100 m in extension. Pebbles are mostly of quartzite and white vein quartz, and very rarely of fine-grained cataclastic two-mica granite, albitite and amphibolite. Crystalline schist, gneiss, amphibolite and marble Crystalline schist, gneiss, amphibolite and marble occur as layers and lenses at the top of the formation; they have the same mineral composition and appearance as the similar rocks in the Sherdarwaza Formation. All the rock types bear traces of cataclasis.

The Welayati Formation The Welayati Formation (1,300-1,500 m) rests conformably on the Kharog Formation and is represented by crystalline schists at the base, amphibolite in the middle and alternating crystalline schists and amphibolites at the top. In Kohe Lagmanak Range, a 30- or 40-meter unit of conglomerates is observed at the base of the formation. Conglomerates Conglomerates consist of flat, poorly rounded elongated pebbles, 5 to 10 cm in size, of quartzite, white vein quartz, granite gneiss, gneiss, and crystalline schist cemented by garnet-staurolite-biotite-quartz aggregate. Crystalline schists are silvery-grey, light and dark bluish rocks abundant in inclusions of almandine crystals and rare staurolite crystals. They fall, according to their composition, into biotite, staurolite- garnet-biotite, biotite-quartzose, muscovite-quartzose, muscovite, binary-quartzose and numerous transitional schists. Schists are occasionally interbedded with quartzite layers and lenses (up to 10 m thick). Amphibolite is an ortho-rock derived from igneous rocks of medium and basic composition (46). It consists of hornblende, plagioclase (andesine), biotite, garnet, magnetite, and relics of minerals of parent rocks, viz. apatite and quartz. The following factors are indicative of the original volcanic origin of the amphibolite: (a) 44

invariability of mineral composition and quantitative proportions of mineral; (b) uniform schistose structure; (c) relics of plagioclase phenocrysts and amygdales of epidote and quartz; (d) blastopyroclastic and blastoporphyric texture; (e) relict columnar jointing; and (f) finely faced. apatite granules. Other rock types Other rock types, viz. gneiss, quartzite and marble, are insignificant in amount and are similar to those of the Sherdarwaza and Kharog formations. The mineral assemblages of the rocks from the Welayati Formation are indicative of the staurolite-almandine and kyanite-almandine-muscovite subfacies of the amphibolite facies (47, 381).

Spin Ghar Fault Block The block has been studied inadequately owing to its position at the border. According to the evidence collected in rare traverses (145), the metamorphic rocks composing the block form three conformably lying units, their total thickness varying from 4,600 to 8,000 meters. Lower unit Lower unit (2,500 m) outcrops in the cores of anticlines in the watershed portion of the ridge. It consists of quartzite, gneiss and crystalline schists. The thickness of quartzite layers is 1-5, rarely 10-15 meters, and that of gneisses and schists is 0.2-1, seldom 15-20 meters. Gneiss is increasingly abundant upwards. Lens-like amphibolite bodies and thin marble layers are observed. Midd1e unit Midd1e unit (1,500-3,500 m) occurs in the limbs of anticlines and cores of synclines outcropping along the northern slopes of the Spin Ghar Ridge. The unit consists of light grey and white thick marble layers, which alternate with biotite gneiss, garnet-biotite schist, quartzite and amphibolite. The thickness of marble members varies from 50-100 to 200-300 meters. In many localities, marble is talcose, amphibolized, serpentinized and, occasionally, replaced by magnesite. Upper unit Upper unit (500-2,000 m) is exposed in small outcrops along the northern foothills of the Spin Ghar Ridge. It is a monotonous sequence of dark grey and silvery-grey biotite, garnet-biotite, muscovite-biotite, garnetstaurolite- biotite and other schists enclosing single marble interbeds.

Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region Within this territory, Lower Proterozoic rocks are widespread in the Jaway, Faydzabad and West Hendukush zones. Relevant information is available in the works by K. Brueckl (37), A. Desio et al. (60, 62, 63), G. D. Nazarov et al. (310), M.A. Guguev et al.(169), V.P. Kolchanov et al. (348), K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350), V.M. Moraliov et al. (351), and A. Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153). The best studied Lower Proterozoic rocks are those in the Jaway and Faydzabad zones. Jaway Zone Lower Proterozoic rocks occur in the cores of broad gentle dome-shaped anticlinal highs. The rocks are compositionally variable gneiss, schist, marble and quartzite regionally metamorphosed to an amphibolite facies. V. M. Moraliov et al. (351) distinguished three units in the succession. The lower unit, 1,500 meters thick, consists of two-mica and biotite gneisses, amphibolite, biotite-hornblende and mica schists, and quartzite. The middle unit (3,000 m) is composed of two-mica and hornblende gneisses enclosing marble interbeds and lenses. The upper unit (4500 m) consists of staurolite-garnet, mica, garnet-biotite and biotite gneisses. The total thickness of the Lower Proterozoic rocks is 7,000 meters, The underlying units being unknown, the rocks are unconformably overlain by Ordovician - Devonian, Lower Carboniferous and Middle 45

Carboniferous-Lower Permian volcanogenic-sedimentary rocks. A structural unconformity between the Lower Proterozoic and Middle Carboniferous - Lower Permian sequences is particularly prominent, The rocks extend into the USSR, where their counterpart is the Borshitsk Series of metamorphic rocks (73). Faydzabad Zone Lower Proterozoic metamorphic rocks compose most of the zone. They are subdivided into three units. The lower unit (2,500-4,000 m) consists of biotite, two-mica, garnet-two-mica, biotite-plagioclase-microcline and other gneisses, plagiogneiss, crystalline schist, quartzite and amphibolite. The middle unit (500-900m.) is composed of marble interbedded with albite-quartz and two-mica plagiogneisses and schists. The upper unit (1,500-2,500 m) consists of crystalline schist, gneiss, amphibolite, quartzite and other rocks. The total thickness of the units which are referred to by some investigators as the Faydzabad Series (162) is 4,500-7,400 meters.

Rock types The main constituents in all the three units are gneisses, crystalline schists, marbles, amphibolites and quartzites. Gneiss Biotite-plagioclase-microcline, biotite, two-mica and other varieties of gneiss are distinguished. The biotiteplagioclase-microcline gneiss has a granoblastic texture and banded structure and consists of microcline (42%), quartz (25%), plagioclases (16%) and biotite (12%). The accessory minerals are sphene, zircon and apatite. The biotite gneiss of a lepidogranoblastic texture and schistose structure consists of plagioclases (medium basicity), quartz, biotite, apatite and rutile. The two-mica gneiss has a lepidogranoblastic, less frequently, granoblastic texture, and schistose structure. It consists of: plagioclase, quartz, biotite, muscovite and apatite. The biotite plagiogneiss is lepidogranoblastic and blastopsammitic in texture and massive in structure. The rock consists of quartz (30-40%), plagioclases (40-45%), biotite (15-20%), apatite and zircon. Schists Schists. Several varieties of schist are distinguished: staurolite-garnet-biotite-quartz, garnet-two-mica-quartz, garnet-biotite-plagioclase-quartz, garnet-muscovite-quartz, andalusite-sillimanite-biotite-quartz and others. The staurolite-garnet-biotite-quartz schist has a poikilitic texture and schistose structure. It is composed of quartz (50-55%), fine-flaky muscovite chlorite (20%), graphite (5-8%), fine-flaky biotite (5%), tourmaline, apatite, garnet, staurolite and biotite. The garnet-two-mica-quartz schist is of a porphyroblastic texture and schistose, parallel structure. It is composed of quartz (50-70%), chlorite-muscovite (25-50%), garnet, epidote, graphite, apatite, zircon and tourmaline. The garnet-biotite-plagioclase-quartz schist bearing large staurolite crystals has a porphyroblastic texture and schistose structure. The groundmass of the rock consists of a scaly aggregates of biotite, muscovite and chlorite with quartz and plagioclase (10-15%) bands and lenses in between. The accessory minerals are apatite, zircon and garnet. The garnet-muscovite-quartz schist is of a porphyroblastic texture with the granolepidoblastic groundmass and schistose structure. The rock consists of quartz, muscovite and garnet with accessory tourmaline and apatite. The andalusite-sillimanitebiotite-quartz graphitized schist has a lepidogranoblastic, fibrolite texture and schistose structure. The rock consists of interwoven- fibrous aggregates of sillimanite, inequigranular quartz and large biotite flakes. The albite-biotite-quartz-hornblende schist is of a granonematoblastic texture and schistose structure. It is composed of hornblende (80-90%), albite, quartz and biotite. Marble Marble consists chiefly of calcite; dolomitic marble contains insignificant amounts of chlorite, tremolite and sphene crystals. Amphibolite Amphibolite of a nematogranoblastic, occasionally granular texture and indistinctly schistose structure consists of amphibole (acicular actinolite aggregate), plagioclase and biotite. 46

Quartzite Quartzite is coarse-grained. heterogranoblastic-sutural in texture and foliated in structure. It consists of hicksaw-intergrown quartz grains. Sericite scales, carbonate and epidote are present.

Middle Afghanistan In this region, Lower Proterozoic outcrops are known from the Paghman and Kohe Zaw ridges and from the lower courses of the Paymuri and Shewa rivers. The outcrops are poorly studied. Relevant information is available in the works by V.P. Azhipa et al.(5), V.I. Dronov et al. (143, 152), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142), V.M. Moraliov et al. (351), I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). The most representative outcrops were described from Kohe Zaw Ridge (152), where two rock units totalling 4,500-5,000 m in thickness are distinguished. The 1ower unit (1,500-2,000 m) consists of micaceous-quartzose, less commonly amphibole-biotite fine-crystalline schists, marble and quartzite with rare subconcordant and cross-cutting bodies of leucocratic granite and amphibolite. The upper unit (3,000-3,500 m) is composed of coarse-crystalline porphyroblastic (augen) biotite and two-mica gneisses with a perceptible amounts of tourmaline and garnet. The units are conformable Neither underlying no overlying rocks are known. Less altered Lower Proterozoic metamorphic rocks are found in the Shewa River lower courses known as the Tangshev River. These are variously metamorphosed and granitized gneiss, crystalline schist, marble and quartzite. The rock sequence can be subdivided into three units (154, 351). The lower unit (1,000 m) outcrops along the left-hand bank of the Panj River and at the mouth of the Shewa Valley. It consists of variously metamorphosed marble and dolomite enclosing beds and lenses of quartz-biotite and amphibolebiotite schists and biotite bearing quartzite. The strata are pierced by subconcordant and cross-cutting bodies of leucocratic granite. Limestone is transformed to scapolite, diopside and carbonate-amphibole rocks at the contacts of the bodies. The middle unit (2,000 m) is exposed in the lower courses of the Shewa River ann at the right-hand bank of the Yarkh River. It is composed of markedly stratified metamorphosed sandstone and quartzite interbedded with mica schists. The upper unit (1,500 m) lies conformably on the middle one and consists of biotite and biotite-feldspar-mica sandstones at the base, marmorized limestone in the middle, and amphibole-biotite schist and limestone at the top. The total thickness of the rocks is 4,500 meters.

Rock types The most common rocks are marble and marmorized limestone, quartzite and metamorphosed sandstone, and various schists (351). Marble and marmorized limestone Marble and marmorized limestone occurring predominantly in the lower unit are calcitic rocks with a subordinate amount of dolomite, quartz and plagioclase. Quartzite and sandstone Quartzite composing together with sandstone the middle unit is a medium- to fine-grained rock consisting of quartz grains and rare biotite flakes. Sandstone is quartz-feldspathic, fine-grained with an. admixture of psammitic material. The fragments are quartz (60%), microquartzite (10-15%), plagioclase (acid and basic, 15%) and biotite. The cement consists of quartz with iron hydroxides. Schist Crystalline schist is chiefly found in the upper unit being represented by quartz-biotite, biotite-sericite, amphibole garnet-biotite and other varieties. The metamorphic rocks from the Shewa River lower courses extend in to the USSR territory, where they are known as the Shipad Series of crystalline rocks tentatively dated. as Lower Proterozoic (73). 47

Middle Proterozoic
Middle Proterozoic age is assigned with uncertainty to various schists, quartzites, marbles and amphibolites, inducing those derived from igneous rocks, which are metamorphosed to a greenschist facies or to low grades of an amphibolite facies. The rocks were recognized in all the regions of the country, but they could be differentiated in the South Afghanistan Median Mass only. They are mapped as undifferentiated rocks in all other regions. Their stratigraphic counterparts in the USSR are the so-called "greenschist" Pre-Cambrian strata in the Pamir region.

South Afghanistan Median Mass Outcrops of Middle Proterozoic rocks are known from the Bashlang and Waras Fault Blocks, as well as from the Argandab and Kandahar zones. The Bashlang and Waras fault blocks The Bashlang and Waras ridges are wholly composed of Middle Proterozoic rocks which are known there as the Qonak Series. The series was described. by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206), V.I. Dronov et al. (152) and D.A Starshinin et al. (155). Three units are distinguished in the series in the Waras Block whose total thickness is 5,350-7,500 meters. The underlying rocks were not encountered. The series is unconformably overlain by Lower Cretaceous strata. The lower unit The lower unit (3,000-3,500 m) is composed of sericite (muscovite-quartz), quartz-sericite-carbonate, disthen-sericite-chlorite-quartz, chlorite-quartz-sericite, sericite-disthen-quartz, albite-sericite-quartzcarbonate, amphibole-sericite-quartz-plagioclase-carbonate, quartz-sericite-hematite-carbonate, disthenalbite-quartz-sericite, garnet-pyroxene-albite-quartz-biotite, garnet-muscovite-plagioclase-quartz and zoisitechlorite schists. Almost all the schist varieties contain small amounts of plagioclase and possess lepidogranoblastic and porphyroblastic texture. The schists enclose beds and lenses of marble, quartzite, amphibolite and porphyroids. Marble occurs in persistent strata, 100 to 150 meters thick, whose outcrops delineate major structural features. It is a fine- to medium-crystalline and, frequently, foliated rock which contains quartz grains and scales of sericite (as much as 10-13%) and albite. Quartzite is fine-grained, granoblastic and nematoblastic in texture, consisting of albite, scurfy mica crystals and carbonate. Amphibolite is fine- to medium crystalline, of blastic texture and foliated structure. Porphyroids have the appearance of muscovite-albite-quartz medium-crystalline schists with porphyroblasts of albitized plagioclase and, less frequently, muscovitized biotite. The middle unit The middle unit (350-1,000 m) lies conformably on the lower unit and consists of albite-sericite (biotite)quartz and sericite (muscovite)-plagioclase-quartz schists enclosing beds and lenses of amphibolite. The schists are injected lit-par-lit by quartz and granitic material. Two varieties of amphibolite have been distinguished. One is a fine- to medium-crystalline cock having a granonematoblastic texture and directional structure and consisting of amphibole (83-85%), plagioclase (10%), quartz, zoisite and sphene. The rock sometimes grades into albite-zoisite-quartz-amphibole schist. The other amphibolite variety is a coarsecrystalline rock consisting of amphiboles, plagioclase (andesine) (8-10%), zoisite (10-15%) and quartz. The lower boundary of this unit is drawn on the base of finely foliated and platy coarse-crystalline schist with abundant silvery-white schistose sericitolite beds. The upper unit The upper unit (2,000-3,000 m) overlies conformably the middle unit and consists of quartz-plagioclasebiotite, biotite and muscovite para- and orthogneisses with abundant lit-par-lit and cross-cutting injections of gneissose leucocratic granite material. Crystalline schists and, very rarely, amphibolites are found at the base. Apart from principal rock-forming minerals, quartz-plagioclase-biotite gneiss contains chlorite (as much as 15%), carbonate, zircon, sphene and tourmaline. In augen gneiss, biotite is replaced by muscovite, the "eyes" 48

consisting of large porphyroblasts of sericitized plagioclase. In biotite and muscovite gneiss, albite is more abundant than quartz, and K-feldspar (as much as 20%) is present. Of the dark-coloured minerals, amphibole (as much as 50%) and garnet are present in addition to biotite. Crystalline schists are quartz-biotite and albite-muscovite-quartz. Amphibolite is fine- to medium-grained, foliated. It consists of amphiboles with an admixture of quartz (3-4%), plagioclase (4-5%), magnetite (3-4%) and sphene. Such factors as considerable cleavage, intensive folding, abundance of small and large bodies of injection granites, monotonous rock types, and absence of marker beds made it difficult to differentiate the units into separate beds and to compile detailed sections. Samples were taken from all the units to determine their absolute age by the K/Ar method (155). Three samples were analysed from the lower unit: 1 - crystalline schist from Qargha creek (385 m.y.); 2 amphibolite from the top of the unit at Elibek Pass (140 m.y.); 3 - carbonaceous sericite- quartz schist from Qargha creek (67 m.y.). Two samples were analysed from the middle unit: 1 - biotite schist from Qargha creek (90 m.y.); 2 - sericite-quartz schist from Qargha creek (81 m.y.). Six samples taken from the upper unit gave the following datings: 1 - gneiss-granite from Elibek Pass (575 m.y.); 2 - migmatite from Qargha creek (375 m.y.); 3 - gneiss-granite from Qarghi creek (350 m.y.); 4 - gneiss-granite from Garghi creek (350 m.y.); 5 - biotite schist from Kamo creek (254 m.y.); 6 - ampbibolite from Qale Khadi creek (177 m.y.). The obvious irregular scatter of the above-mentioned datings, the oldest of which (575 m.y.) points to the Cambrian- Pre-Cambrian boundary, and the youngest 67 m.y.) to the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, suggests the effect of subsequent superimposed activity probably due to Paleozoic and Meso-Cenozoic movements rather than indicates the primary ages of the rock units described. Argandab and Kandahar zones Within this area, Middle Proterozoic rocks, known as the Nowabad Series (142, 144, 206), outcrop in three isolated localities. Two outcrops are situated in the lower and middle reaches of the Argandab Rod River, and the third in the extreme north-eastern part of the area, east-north-east of the Dashte Nawer Plateau. In the lower reaches of the Argandab River, 5-10 km east and north-east of Eshkobad, garnet-two-mica and quartz-two-mica schists, over 2,000 meters thick are exposed. The rocks are abundant in lit-par-lit and crosscutting injections of pegmatoid quartz-feldspar rocks and gneiss-granites. The grade of metamorphism corresponds to the almandine-amphibolitic facies. Muscovite-biotite-quartz-plagioclase-garnet, quartzmuscovite, garnet-biotite-muscovite-quartz mineral assemblages are most common. In the middle reaches of the Argandab River, Middle Proterozoic rocks are exposed near the village of Nowabad. These are irregularly interbedding migmatized crystalline schists and microquartzites. Sheetlike amphibolite bodies are observed at the top (144). The most complete section of the Nowabad Series was described from the Somali Sar Darah area.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Schists, chlorite-albite-muscovite-quartz and oligoclase-quartz-epidote-sericite- chlorite Muscovite-quartz schist Schists, sericite-albite-quartz-chlorite, quartz-muscovite-biotite-chlorite and sericite-quartzchlorite, with 70- to 170 meter interbeds of microquartzite Microquartzites Schists, albite-chlorite-sericite, albite-sericite-quartz-chlorite, albite-biotite- quartz-chlorite and biotite-muscovite- albite-quartz 1,000 m 100 m 2,300 m 500 m 1,600 m

The section of the Nowabad Series terminates with layer 5, its total thickness being 5,500 m The underlying and overlying rocks are unknown. A characteristic feature of the series is the abundance of lit-par-lit, less frequently cross-cutting, quartz and quartz-feldspar veinlets (0.5-1 cm thick). At the top of the series, lenses and beds of amphibolite occur.

49

Rock types Crystalline schists Crystalline schists are thin-bedded plicated rocks of dark and light grey and green-grey colour. Essentially micaceous schists, possessing a lepidoblastic texture and schistose structure, and quartz-feldspathic schists containing subordinate amounts of mica and having a lepidogranoblastic texture are distinguished. Micaceous schist consists of muscovite, sericite, biotite and chlorite, whose proportions vary in different rock types. Microquartzite Microquartzite is an indistinctly granular, massive rock of cream and pink-grey colour, and granoblastic, occasionally sutural texture. Amphibolite is a dark green foliated indistinctly granular rock consisting of hornblende and subordinate feldspar and secondary quartz. The rock is of granoblastic, occasionally poikiloblastic texture and linear-parallel structure. The mineral assemblages characteristic of the Nowabad Series are chlorite-albite-muscovite-quartz, oligoclase-quartz-epidote-sericite-chlorite, muscovite- quartz, sericite-albite-quartz-chlorite, quartzmuscovite-biotite-chlorite, sericite-quartz-chlorite, epidote-chlorite-quartz-muscovite, and quartz-chloriteepidote-actinolite. These assemblages correspond to a quartz-albite-epidote-almandine subfacies of a greenschist facies.

Upper Proterozoic
Upper Proterozoic rocks are widespread in Afghanistan, but as a separate unit they have been distinguished in South Afghanistan Median Mass and in Middle Afghanistan only. The sequence is subdivided into two parts, the lower and upper. The relations between them remain uncertain.

Upper Proterozoic, Lower Part The lower part of the Upper Proterozoic sequence is composed of predominantly terrigenous rocks and subordinate volcanics, cherts, limestones and dolomites. The rocks are regionally metamorphosed in the phyllite facies and low grades of greenschist facies. No underlying rocks were found to exhibit normal stratigraphic relations with the Upper Proterozoic rocks. They are unconformably overlain by VendianCambrian and younger sedimentary strata. No organic remains were found. The rocks have been assigned to the Upper Proterozoic on the basis of their stratigraphic position and a low grade of regional metamorphism. in the USSR, the stratigraphic and lithologic counterparts of the rocks are the Sarez Series in Central Pamir and the so-called. "black state" sequences at the south-west periphery of South-East Pamir.

South Afghanistan Median Mass Within this region, outcrops of the Upper Proterozoic lower part are known in the Helmand-Argandan Uplift. Agandab and Logar Zones In the Argandab Zone, Upper Proterozoic rocks compose the Malakhel Uplift, and in the Logar zone, the Malestan Uplift and a few smaller highs (152). The underlying formations are unknown, the overlying being Vendian Cambrian and Devonian strata. Relevant data are available in the works by Yu. M. Dovgal et al. (144), S. S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 274), A.N. Diomin et al. (74), V.I. Dronov et al. (152). The poorly metamorphosed Upper Proterozoic rocks occurring in the zones were distinguished as the Chaman Series (142, 144, 206). The series falls into two units of rocks. The lower unit The lower unit (3,000 m) is made up of dark grey and green-grey phyllite-like slates, siltstones and sandstones with interbeds of quartzite and gravestone. 50

The upper unit The upper unit (3,000-3,500 m) is composed of the same rock types as the lower unit, but more variable in colour. The lower horizons of the series enclose beds and lenses of grey marmorized limestones and the upper, interbeds of tufogenic sandstone and acid tuff. The lithological succession of the series is apparent from the sections described (144) west of the village of Enjergay (lower unit) and south of the village of Uri Kohe (upper unit):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Slate, green, phyllite-like, with rare thin (2-3 cm.) intercalations of fine-grained polymictic sandstone and siltstone Siltstone, olive-green, thin-bedded, interbedded with phyllite-like states at the base and by fine-grained polymictic sandstones at the top State, olive-green and green-grey, phyllite-like, interbedded with siltstones and polymictic sandstones at the base and with rare fine-grained quartzites at the top Sandstones, polymictic, fine-grained, with siltstone interbeds Siltstone, green, thin-bedded, interbedded with violet and lilac phyllite-like slates Slate, green, violet and lilac, phyllite-like, irregularly interbedded with siltstones Sandstone, green, fine-grained, polymictic Slate, green and lilac, phyllite-like 900 m 650 m 600 m 200 m 1,000 m 1,200 m 200 m 600 m

Beds 1-5 of the above section form the lower unit of the Chaman Series and beds 5-8 comprise the upper unit. Since the two parts of the section outcrop in different localities, some intervals may be missing. The apparent thickness of the described sequence is 5,350 meters. As follows from the above section, the Chaman Series is wholly terrigenous, consisting of sandstones, schists, and siltstones. Sandstones are fine-grained with poorly rounded unsorted. fragments. The fragments are plagioclases, K-Na feldspars, microquartzite, quartz and siltstone. The cement is either clayey with sericite and chlorite, biotite and chlorite or quartz-sericite-chlorite. Siltstones consist of quartz and feldspars grains (60-60%) cemented by quartz-sericite-chlorite aggregate. Schists are phyllite-like sericite-chlorite with albite grains. Acidic tuff is present in inferior amounts, predominantly in the upper part of the series. The rocks are crystalloclastic in texture and breccia-like taxitic or ataxic in structure. The fragments are felsite, spherulitic porphyries, quartz and plagioclase; sericite and cryptocrystalline carbonate are noted in insignificant amounts. All the rocks of the Chaman Series have undergone a slight regional metamorphism corresponding to a low grade of greenschist facies. Helmand Zone In the Helmand Zone, the rocks of the Upper Proterozoic lower part compose almost the entire Shekhristan Uplift (152), where they are referred to as the Barmanay Series. They were described by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206), V.I. Donov et al. (152) and D. A. Starshinin et al. (155). The underlying rocks are not exposed. The series is overlain unconformably by Lower Permian strata. Four conformable units are recognized in the succession (155). The first unit The first unit (800-1,000 m) consists of dark grey and violet, thick-bedded polymitic silty sandstone and gravelstone consisting of quartz (15-20%), plagioclase (5-10%), K-feldspar, microquartzite, siltstone, sandstone, trachyte and other rock fragments cemented by basal, microlepidogranoblastic, chlorite-biotite matrix. The pebbles in the gravelstone are plagiogranite, granophyre, granite, granodiorite, diorite, metagabbro, gabbro, gabbrodiorite, biotitized quartz porphyries, crystalloclastic tuff and other rocks. The pebbles vary in size from fractions of a centimeter to 30-40 cm.

51

The second unit The second unit (800-1,000 m) is composed of mark thin- and medium-bedded limestones interbedded with mica schists. A 5-6 meter bed of light-grey conglomerate-like dolomite was distinguished at the base of the unit in the Nurhsay Valley. The third unit The third unit (2,000-2,500 m) consists of mica schists with single beds, groups of beds and lenses of chert and dolomitic limestone. The fourth unit The fourth unit (2,000-2,500 m) is represented by rhythmically alternating siltstones, schists and sandstones. Andesite and basalt porphyries are rarely encountered. Sandstone beds are ripple-marked. The total thickness of the four units of the Barmanay Series is 5,600-7,000 meters.

Middle Afghanistan The lower part of the Upper Proterozoic sequence outcrops in the west of the region in the Kohe Qaftarkhan, Kohe Baba, Qala and other ridges. The rocks are poorly metamorphosed dark and variegated sandstones, slates, siltstones, cherts, volcanics, limestones and dolomites. The underlying deposits are not exposed. The rocks are unconformably overlain by Cambrian strata. The section reported from the Kohe Qaftarkhan is as follows (152):
1. 2. 3. Sandstones and siltstones with beds and lenses of green, violet, lilac and claret shales and phyllites Alternation of dirty-green schistose volcanics with the rocks similar to those of beds Chert, green-grey and reddish, thin-bedded with phyllite-like slate and siltstone interbeds. A 6-meter bed of black limestone occurs at the top Volcanics, dirty-green, schistose, with a 10-meter bed of basal conglomerates whose pebbles are composed of all the underlying rocks. The pebbles are poorly rounded, unsorted, 1-2 to 20 cm across The cement is terrigenic-carbonate. Traces of erosion are noted. at the contact with the underlying beds Limestone and dolomite, dark grey, thick-bedded banded with nodules, lenses and lenticular interbeds of chert Chert, grey and white, thin-bedded with dolomite and limestone interbeds Conglomerate, thick bedded with limestone intercalations. The pebbles are variable in size, well rounded, spheroidal and disciform, cemented by rusty red limestone-terrigenic material Limestone and dolomite, thick-bedded Basic volcanics, dirty-green, schistose 1,000 m 300 m 100 m

4.

200 m

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

100 m 50 m 5-10 m 100 m 100 m

The rocks are unconformably succeeded by Cambrian dolomites and limestones and red sandstones. The thickness of the rocks in this section is 1,960 m. The actual thickness is unknown since the base is not exposed and the top is eroded. Qala Ridge In the Qala Ridge the lower part of the Upper Proterozoic, known as the Qala Series (178), consists of two formations: Kab and Awband (231). The Kab Formation (3,500 m) is built up of dark grey sandy-aleuritic sericitic schists derived from originally terrigenous rocks and acid volcanics. The schists are interbedded with frequent thin phyllites and rare beds of marmorized limestones.

52

The Awband Formation The Awband Formation (1,000 m) lies conformably on the Kab Formation and consists of green-grey quartzsericite, quartz-chlorite-sericite, quartz-sericite-chlorite and other schists derived from acid and basic volcanics, which enclose interbeds and lenses of sericitic quartz-sericite and carbonaceous-sericite schists derived from argillaceous rocks. Cherts, marmorized limestones and dolomites are present in insignificant amounts. Subconcordant iron ore bodies of Hajigak and other adjacent deposits occur in the Awband Formation. The total thickness of the Qala Series exceeds 4,500 meters. I.K. Kusov et al. (231) dated the series as Lower- Middle Paleozoic on the basis that they had collected poorly preserved corals of Late Ordovician or somewhat younger appearance from dark limestones of the Awband Formation in the upper reaches of the Zerak River. However, the corals were identified subsequently as Early Carboniferous and ascribed to the Hajigak series separated from the Awband Formation by a fault. At the same time, the lithology, appearance and grade of metamorphism, as well as the successions of the Kab and Awband formations are very similar to those characteristic of the rocks of the Upper Proterezoic lower part exposed in the lobe Qaftarkhan Ridge. The age of the latter is determined on the basis of their position below the fossiliferous Camorian strata. In the area between the Kohe Qaftarkhan and Qala ridges, Upper Proterozoic rocks of the type discussed above are inferred but not proved. In particular, thick strata of dark fine-terrigenous deposits in the Kohe Kedjak and Kohe Baba ridges may be completely or partially Upper Proterozoic.

Upper Proterozoic, Upper Part This age was provisionally ascribed to a sequence of sedimentary and volcanic rocks which is found in Central Badakhshan, in the drainage area of the Chasnud, Falez and Golom-Darrah rivers and in the upper reaches of the Shewa River. The sequence contacts all the surrounding rocks along faults and is spatially associated with Cambrian red sandstones in the upper reaches of the Shewa River only, though it is separated by faults even from them in most of the outcrops. The series was described by G.G. Semionov et al. (141) and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). The extreme northern outcrops of the rocks are found in the drainage basins of the Chasnud and Falez rivers. The sequence consists of light-colored and lilac-grey silicified and schistose quartz porphyries enclosing 0.5to 5-meter interbeds of red feldspar-quartz sandstones and green-grey slates. Southwards, in the mid-stream of the Golom Darrah River, the sequence consists of two units. The 1ower unit (1,000 m) is composed of light and lilac-pink quartz porphyries, agglomerate porphyries, lithic-crystal quartz porphyry tuff and ignimbrite with rare interbeds of marmorized limestone. The upper unit (300-400 m) consists of dark grey marmorized limestones interbedded with quartz-actinolite-albite and albite-epidoteactinolite schists and fine-grained sandstones. In the upper reaches of the Shewa River the above sequence, known there as the Guldara Series (141), consists of three units: the lower unit (900 m) composed of limestones and sandstones, the middle unit (1,100 m) of volcanics, and the upper unit (300-400 m) of limestones. The section of the series described at the watershed of the Shakhdarrah and Darya-i-Kalon rivers (141) is as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Limestone, black and variegated, marmorized, with beds, and lenses of coarse-grained calcareous sandstones and conglomerate breccias Siltstone and sandstone closely interbedded with limestones Conglomerates small-pebble, calcareous, interbedded with coarse-grained cross-bedded sandstones Sandstone, dark grey, polymictic with siltstone interbeds Tuff, lilac-grey, acid crystal-lithic Quartz porphyry, yellowish and light grey Ignimbrite, dirty-green, with abundant cavities 500 m 25 m 300 m 50 m 150 m 150 m 250 m

53

8. 9. 10.

Quartz porphyry, light-grey and white Acid tuffs, tuff breccias and tuffites interbedded with ignimbrites and quartz porphyries Limestone, marmorized, with interbeds and lenses of pyroclastic material

300 m 200 m 150 m

The total thickness of the series in this section is 2,075 meters.

Rock types The principal rocks in the series are volcanics. Quartz porphyry, agglomerate rhyolite porphyry, rhyolite porphyry ignimbrite and crystal-lithic quartz porphyry tuff are recognized among them in the drainage areas of the Chasnud, Falez and Kalon rivers (154). Quartz-porphyry Quartz-porphyry is a strongly schistose light grey, yellowish-white, cream-colored or lilac rock having a porphyritic texture and microfelsitic quartz-feldspar groundmass. Phenocrysts 2-3 mm in size are quartz and plagioclase (30-60%). Quartz crystals are fused and often contain inclusions and embayments of crystallized glass; plagioclase crystals are sericited and albitized enclosing chlorite and fine-grained quartz in cracks. Occasionally, quartz and plagioclase crystals are expanded and recrystallized to form lentiform aggregates emplaced into a microlepidogranoblastic sericite-quartz matrix. This rock type is identified as a porphyroid. Agglomerate liparite porphyry Agglomerate liparite porphyry is distinguished from the previous rocks by the presence of microclinemicroperthite in phenocrysts and inclusion of large (up to 3 mm) fragments of quartz porphyry having a micropoikilitic and microspherulitic groundmass. Rhyolite-porphyry ignimbrite Rhyolite-porphyry ignimbrite is a light grey, bluish and yellowish, coarse-clastic (<- 3 cm.) rock having an ignimbrite texture. Quartz and feldspar phenocrysts are immersed into an uniformly crystallized groundmass exhibiting obvious relics of ash structure. Minute welded tuff lenses are oriented in a pseudofluidal plane; some of them are surrounded by opaque minerals Gust and contain fine quartz and microcline phenocrysts. The rocks are sericitized and silicified. Crystal-lithic quartz porphyry tuff Crystal-lithic quartz porphyry tuff is a medium-clastic (2.5 mm) rock having a crystallithic texture and pseudo-fluidal structure. Pyroclasts are represented by whole and broken crystals of quartz, decomposed plagioclase and orthoclase, and fragments of spherulitic quartz porphyry. These are immersed into microfelsitic mass derived from recrystallized fine pyroclastic material and glass. The contacts of fragments are strongly vitrified and thus hardly discernable. In the upper reaches of the Shewa River, the volcanics of the series are represented by variegated ignimbrites among which porphyritic, felsitic and ribbon varieties can be distinguished. (141). Two types of porphyritic ignimbrite are recognizable: (1) highly welded tuff of an obscure pyroclastic texture, and (2) highly welded tuff having a distinct pyroclastic texture. Ignimbrites of the first type Ignimbrites of the first type looks like a typical effusive quartz porphyry having a somewhat crystallized groundmass. The texture of the rock is felsitic, microfelsitic and, less commonly, felsite-spherullitic, the structure of the groundmass is fluction-fluidal and banded-fluidal. Phenocrysts are fused crystals of quartz, K-feldspar and acid. plagioclase. The feldspars are wholly sericitized. The original. pyroclastic texture of this highly welded tuff is hardly recognizable. 54

Ignimbrites of the second type Ignimbrites of the second type has distinct pyroclastic texture despite a high grade of welding. The groundmass is cryptocrystalline or microfelsitic-cryptocrystalline the texture of the fragments (at the periphery) is vitreous. The fragments are curved and often contain microinclusions. Phenocrysts are angular and highly shattered. Feldspar is completely sericitized. The pyroclastic material contains fragments of radiate- fibrous spherulites. Felsitic ignimbrite Felsitic ignimbrite differs from the above-mentioned types by the absence of phenocrysts and a more variable texture of the groundmass. Rock types having a spherulitic or mixed felsite-spherulite-perlitic texture are most common. The pyroclastic texture of the rocks is pronounced; fine lapilli are often encountered among ash particles. Ribbon ignimbrite Ribbon ignimbrite is similar in structure to felsitic ignimbrite differing by a ribboned and recrystallized perlitic structure. Felsitic and spherulitic structures are observed in places. Lapilli component is present in the rock. All the above-mentioned rock types exhibit gradual transitions to crystal-lithic tuffs, tuffites and tuff sandstones. The pyroclastic material in these consists of fragments of the above-mentioned ignimbrites and the cement of siderite and calcite. The Late Proterozoic age of the considered volcanic rocks is assumed on the basis of a close spatial and structural association with Cambrian red sandstones and siltstones. The rocks are supposed to belong to a porphyritic formation produced during the orogenic cycle of the Baikalian structures development (141).

PALEOZOIC
Formations of Paleozoic age are known from all the main regions of Afghanistan. All the systems of the Paleozoic group are distinguished in the sections. Vendian beds are tentatively considered here as a part of the Paleozoic. These are found at the base of the sequence in the South Afghanistan Median Mass and in the Suleiman-Kirthar area. The Paleozoic rocks rest unconformably on older formations. They are overlain by the Mesozoic strata either conformably or exhibiting traces of obscure or easily recognizable break, or unconformity. In many regions and zones, local and regional disconformities and unconformities are traceable at various stratigraphic levels inside the Paleozoic, e.g. at the base of the Middle Cambrian and the Lower Devonian, inside and at the base of the Upper Devonian, at the base of the Upper Tournaisian, inside the Visean-Namurian, at the base and top of the Middle Carboniferous, and at the base of and inside the Permian. The Vendian-Paleozoic sequence is composed of relatively poorly metamorphosed, chiefly terrigenous and carbonate rocks of predominantly marine origin; the Lower Cambrian and Permian include terrestrial deposits along with marine ones; the Lower Carboniferous and Lower Permian enclose acid and basic volcanics of marine origin; the Permian strata bear bauxites and bauxite-like rocks recognizable at various stratigraphic levels in several zones of the South Afghanistan Median Mass and in Middle Afghanistan. All the systems of the group contain organic remains. They were identified by (Footnote: Included in-the list are paleontologists who studied the fossils collected in the process of geological surveys conducted by Soviet and Afghan specialists. The names of the paleontologists who examined and identified other collections are mentioned in the respective papers presented in the references.) Z.A. Zhuravleva, K.B. Korde, M.A. Semikhatov and V.O. Chernov (stromatolites and algae); S.V. Meyen, G.P. Radchenko and I.N. Srebrodolskaya (terrestrial flora); M.A. Kalmykova, E.A. Kulik, E.Ya. Leven, E. A. Reitlinger, V.D. Saltovskaya and L.A. Ektova (formanifera and algae); G.S. Grinenko (stromatopores); Yu.N. Apekin and V.L. Leleshus (tabulate corals); T.V. Dobrolyubova, N.V. Kabakovich, A.I. Lavrusevich and I.V. Pyzhyanov (tetracorals); I.M. Barskov (orthocerates); M.F. Bogoslovskaya and V.S. Ruzhentsev (goniatites); N.M. Kramarenko, E.S. Levitaky, N.V. Pekrovskaya, T.I. Khairulina and K.E. Chernysheva (trilobites); V.N. Nekhoroshev (bryozoans); O.N. Andreeva, I.A. Grechishnikova, T.A. Grunt, A.S. Dagis, A.I. Ishnazarov, 55

S.S. Karapetov, N.M. Lam, O.N. Nikiforova, M.A. Rzhonsnitskaya, & H. S. Rozman and T.G. Sarycheva (brachiopods); G.N. Stukalina and T.V. Shevohenko (crinoids); and A.M. Obut (graptolites).

Vendian-Cambrian Undifferentiated Vendian-Cambrian rocks are distinguished in the Suleiman-Kirthar Folded Region and in the South Afghanistan Median Mass. They are represented by variously metamorphosed. carbonate and terrigenous rocks. These are most ancient strata in Afghanistan containing identifiable organic remains (Appendix No. 6) Suleiman-Kirthar Area Within this area, Vendian-Cambrian rocks are found only in the Kabul Stable Mass. The rocks are marbles, quartzites, metasandstones, crystalline schists and conglomerates. The strata are 700 to 2,000 meters thick. They lie unconformably on the Proterozoic and are overlain also unconformably by the Upper Permian. The sections were studied and described by G. Mennessier (278, 279, 282), V.I. Slavin et al. (391), N.M. Feruz (112, 114), Yu.I. Shcherbina et al. (381), V.G. Silkin et al. (384), V.G. Chernov (44, 45, 47) and other geologists. G. Mennesier described these rocks from various localities under different names: the Dei-Sabz Series, the Babe Kashkari marbles and quartiztes, the Khwaja Ghar, Gosfanddara and Ghol Dhrah marbles, etc. These have been referred to as the Loy Khwar Series. This name was suggested by V.I. Slavin (391). The series is subdivided into a quartzite-marble, quartzite-schist and essentially warble units. The representative section was described from a type locality in the Loy Khwar Valley (384), where the Sherdarwaza (beds is unconformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Quartzite, parallel- and cross-bedded, muscovite-biotite with lenses of small pebble and gravel conglomerates; pebbles are quartz and quartzite Mica schist, dark-grey Marble, fine-crystalline Alternating mica schists and marbles Sandstone and quartzite, micaceous Marble, banded, fine-crystalline Sandstone grey and pink or brown carbonatized, interbedded with carbonate-mica schists and marbles Marble, interbedded with quartzite-like schistose sandstones and schists Quartzite-like sandstones, quartzites and carbonatized schists with marble interbeds Marble, fine- to medium-crystalline, algal, interbedded with quartzite-like sandstones Interbedded carbonatized schists, marbles and quartzites Quartzites with marble and schist interbeds Interbedded quartzites and marbles Quartz-muscovite-cordierite, biotite and two mica schists Marble, grey, fine-grained, silicified 17 m 16 m 72 m 8m 6m 10 m 17.1 m 33 m 30 m 12 m 116 m 99 m 17 m 114 m 170 m

Above follow Upper Permian beds with traces of erosion. The total thickness of beds 1-15 in the considered section is 737 meters. Beds 1-11 (337.1 m) constitute the lower unit, beds 12-14 (230 m) comprise the middle unit, and bed 15 (170 m) the upper unit. The most common rocks in the series are marbles, calcareous or calcareous dolomite. Less common are quartzites, metasandstones and schists; conglomerates are present in markedly inferior amounts. The Loy Khwar Series was dated on the basis of stromatolite remains. Late Proterozoic Conophyton sp. were identified among the fossils collected by G. Mennessier (278, 279, 282) from the upper marbles in the 56

Kohistan Valley. A great number of stromatolites were collected in the same area in the vicinity of the village of Golbarah in 1970 and 1973 by V.P. Feoktistov and N.I. Fomin. In the opinion of M.A. Semikhatov, three groups of forms are distinguishable in the collection. One group is represented by laminated stromatolites of the Stratifera group, which occur in both the Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks. The second group is represented by columnar stromatolites, closely related to the groups Conophyton Masl. and Colonella Kom. Stromatolites of these two groups are not known from the Phanerozoic of North Eurasia. The third group is represented by peculiar columnar stromatolites with a poorly preserved microstructure. In the general appearance of their structure, these stromatolites are somewhat similar to the Precambrian forms. Among the fossils collected by V.I. Slavin and N.M. Feruz (391) from Mt. Ghundy, K.B. Korde identified Tannuofia (Footnote: Later K.B. Korde declined the identification.) remains known from the Lower Cambrian. In 1975, numerous stromatolites were collected from the middle interval of the Loy Khwar Series in sections near the viliage of Khwaja Ghar and in the Loy Khwar Valley (43, 384). Among these, V.G. Chernov tentatively identified remains of the genus Minjaria sp., known from the Upper Riphean of Australia, Africa and Siberia. To conclude, most of the organic remains available point to the Upper Proterozoic age of the Loy Khwar Series. The finding of the Lower Cambrian algae Tannuofia contradicts this conclusion. Based on this finding, the age of the series is assumed to be Vendian-Cambrian. This problem remains to be studied more thoroughly.

South Afghanistan Median Mass Formations of Vendian-Cambrian age were found in this region in the Helmand-Argandab Uplift and Farah Rod Trough. Helmand-Argandab Uplift Vendian-Cambrian rocks are known within this structural unit from the Argandab Zone. They were described by S. S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 274), Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (1944), A.H. Diomin et al. (75) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). The Vendian-Cambrian rocks from the Argandab Zone are referred to as the Zargaran Formation after the type locality. The formation starts with basal conglomerates, followed by limestones, dolomites, sandstones and siltstones. The rocks are 400 to 870 meters thick. Two units can be distinguished: an essentially terrigenous lower unit (125-400 m), and the upper carbonate (250-470 m). The rocks lie unconformably on the Upper Proterozoic Chaman Series and are conformably overlain by the Ordovician. The type section of the formation described from the Shirin Qalat area is as follows (144):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Medium and small-pebble conglomerates; pebbles consist of gneiss, crystalline schist, migmatite, amphibolite, diabase, phyllite, polymictic sandstone and siltstone Sandstone, fine-grained, quartzo-feldspathic Limestone, cream-coloured, thin-bedded, marmorized, with lenses of quartzo-feldspathic sandstone Sandstone, fine-grained, quartzo-feldspathic Limestone, cream-coloured and light grey, thin-bedded, marmorized with interbeds of quartzofeldspathic sandstone Sandstone, cream-coloured, fine-grained, quartzose Limestone, massive, marmorized Thinly interbedded grey quarto-feldspathic Dolomite, calcareous, cream-colored with light violet and deep red mottles at the base, and grey, massive at the top 32 m 13 m 20 m 55 m 50 m 10 m 70 m 25 m 280m.

The thickness of beds 1-9 in this section is 555 meters, the maximum thickness of the unit being 870 meters. This type of the Vendian-Cambrian section is persistent everywhere within the Argandab Zone exhibiting insignificant variations. 57

The organic remains collected from the rocks are represented by the following assemblage of Vendian algae: Vesioularites concretus Z. Zhur., Palaeomicrocystis kaizasensis Posp., Osagia tumolamellosa Z. Zhur. and .Algotaktus kabirsaensis Posp.

Cambrian
Fossiliferous Cambrian rocks have been found so far in Middle Afghanistan (Afghanistan-south Pamir Region) only. Relevant information is available in the works by G.G. Semionov et al. (141), D. Weippert et al. (437), R. Wolfart (442), V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 427) and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154) (Appendix No. 6). The Cambrian sequence is subdivided into three rock units. The lower unit is represented by red-colored terrigenous rocks. The middle unit is made up of grey-colored carbonate rocks and the upper unit consists of dark-colored volcanic- terrigenous rocks. These units rest unconformably on the Precambrian beds. Their relationship with the Ordovician strata is uncertain. The most complete section of the rocks is known from the Kohe Qaftarkhan Ridge in the western part of Middle Afghanistan (152, 424), where the Upper Proterozoic strata are unconformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. Conglomerate with pebbles variable in size and composed of metamorphosed limestone, dolomite, chert, greenschist-altered volcanics, gabbro-diorite, quartzite, sandstone and siltstone Dolomite, dirty-yellow, and limestone, white, algal, with chert nodules; limestone top is eroded Sandstone and siltstone, with gravelstone, small pebble conglomerate and dolomite at the top. The top bears traces of erosion. The sandstone and siltstone are essentially red and pink, quartzose; dolomite is fine- to medium-grained. The pebbles in the conglomerate and gravelstone are quartz and chert Sandstone, white, massive and thick-bedded, occasionally cross-bedded, coarse-grained, quartzose Siltstone and fine-grained sandstone; the lower one third of the bed is limestone (10 m). The siltstone and sandstone are dirty-red and lilac-violet; the limestone is grey and reddish Dolomite, thick-bedded, with dirty-red siltstone interbeds and streaks Limestone, thin-bedded, platy with rare interbeds of small-pebble liiny conglomerate and dolomite. All the beds are fossiliferous. Trilobites: Crepicenhalus (?) Agnostus ex gr. pisiformis (L.), Damesella (?) aff. eremita (Wgard), Schoriella sp. Cheilocephalus (?) sp. and Ajrinina sp. (Middle-Upper Cambrian boundary); crinoids: Pentagonocyclicus aff. monile (Eichw.) (the Lower Ordovician of the Russian and Siberian platforms); brachiopods: Orthidae Dolomite, grey and yellow, thick-bedded Limestone, light grey and white, thick- and medium-bedded, possibly dolomitized. Remains of brachiopods, Billingsella aff. gigantea Gord and Huenella sp. (the base of Upper Cambrian or Dresbachian according to the U.S. scale Limestone, variegated, banded. Remains of brachiopods, Billingsella (?) sp., Huenella sp., Palaeostrophia sp. and Aphlocorthis sp. (Upper Cambrian - Lower Tremadoc ) Tuffs, tuff conglomerate and tuff sandstone, dirty-green-grey, grading to siltstone andsandstone along strike 1.2 m 40 m 1500 m

4. 5. 6. 7.

50 m 45 m 100 m 200 m

8. 9.

50 m 40 m

10. 11.

30 m 100-200 m

Above follow Lower Devonian beds, the boundary bearing traces of erosion. The thickness of beds 1-11 is 2,156-2,257 meters. Beds 1-3 (1,541-1,542 m thick) constitute the lower unit, beds 4-10 (515 m) the middle one, and bed 11 (100-200 m) the upper unit. Based on the stratigraphic position and organic remains, the lower unit is ascribed to the Lower Cambrian, the middle one, to the Middle-Upper Cambrian, and the upper unit, to the Upper Cambrian. The two lower units, frequently occurring in separate thrust sheets and fault wedges, are traceable throughout the western part of Middle Afghanistan. They are also known in Central Badakhshan, in the Shewa Zone. In 58

the Shewa Zone, the lower unit consisting of variegated and red sandstones and siltstones (1,000-1,100 m) is referred to as the Mardar Formation (141). In the mouth of the Darrah-i-Rahman Dod River and in the midstream of the, the middle unit is composed of grey limestones and dolomites, 300-500 m thick (154). No organic remains were found in the Mardar Formation and so its Lower Cambrian age is tentative. The limestones and dolomites from the mouth of the Darrah-i-Rahman Dod River and the mid-stream of the Darrah-i-Hatef River manifest complete analogy with the rocks of the middle unit from the Kohe Qaftarkhan Ridge. They contain remains of Billingsella aff. pepina (Hall) and other Late Cambrian brachiopods. In the USSR, similar deposits Occur in Central Pamir.

Ordovician
Fossiliferous Ordovician rocks are known from the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region and South Afghanistan Median Mass. Ordovician rocks are also inferred in the Region of Hercynian Folding and within the North Afghanistan Platform (Appendix No. 7). Afghanistan-South Pamir Region In this region Ordovician rocks outcrop in thrust sheets and zones of imbricate structure. Each outcrop presents a certain portion of the sequence. Relevant information on the sequence is available in the works by G.G. Semionov et al. (141), V.M. Moraliov et al. (351), H. Wolfart (441-443), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142), V.I. Dronov et al. (152), and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). The composite section of the system was integrated of separate intervals exposed in different outcrops. But some beds or members can be missing or repeated. The total thickness of the Ordovician is about 2,000 m. Its relationship with the Cambrian remain to be elucidated; the Silurian overlies it conformably. Three units are distinguishable in the section of the system. The lower unit The lower unit (45 m) outcrops as a thrust sheet in the Neogene red beds in the Surkh Bum area (142, 152, 442). The unit consists of two layers: dirty-red, medium to thick-bedded limestones (20 m) at the base, and olive-green calcareous schists (25 m) at the top. The rocks carry Early Tremadocian (Trempeleau) trilobites and brachiopods (442, 444): Geragnostus weiprerti Wolf., Afghancephalites angustus Wolf., Onchonotellus sp., Pagodia (Wittekindia) variabilis Wolf., Saukia wirtzi Wolf., S. turgida Wolf,, Macropyge brevicaudata Wolf., Hazarania levis Wolf., Panderia ? sp., Harpides sp., Pilekia afghanensis Wolf., Lingulella sp. Paracraniopsis? surkhbumiensis Wolf., Aphloorthis sp., Trinodus sp. The middle unit The middle unit (1,000-1,500 m) occurs in Central Badakhshan, in the Shewa Zone. According to G.G. Semionov et al. (141), the unit is correlatable with the upper part of the Tagarcha Formation, and according to V.M. Moraliov et al. (351), with the entire Zorabar Formation and the lower beds of the Kozyndiy Formation (426). The unit is composed of marmorized limestones enclosing single beds and groups of beds of variegated calcareous shales and siltstones, which are responsible for the variegated and banded appearance. The base of the unit is not exposed, and it is conformably overlain by terrigenous beds of the upper unit. The most complete section of the upper part of the unit was recorded in the vicinity of the village of Rakhdez (351):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Limestone, massive and thick-bedded Limestone, thin-bedded, micro-grained, interbedded with yellow-brown siltstones Limestone, micro and fine-grained, partially brecciated Limestone, massive and thick-bedded interbedded with green siltstones Quarts-sericite schists, variegated, enclosing rare limestone interbeds Limestones, banded, bluish-green, dirty-pink, red and white, interbedded with brecciated limestones and quartz-sericite schists 70 m 390 m 120 m 160 m 125 m 100 m

59

This sequence is conformably succeeded by sandstones, shales and siltstones of the upper unit. The thickness of beds 1-6 in this section is 965 meters. Taking into consideration the fact that the lower beds of the unit are about 500 meters thick in other sections, the total thickness of the middle unit is estimated to be 1,500 meters. Organic remains are rare and poorly preserved. They are represented by leached nuclei of Orthidae brachiopods. According to its stratigraphic position, the unit is given Lower-Middle Ordovician age. The upper unit The upper unit (400-900 m) lies conformably on the middle unit and consists of bright-green and lilac-violet calcareous shales and siltstones at the base and dirty-green and dark calcareous siltstones and clayey-phyllite slates interbedded with calcareous and polymictic sandstones, at the top. G.G. Semionov et al. (141) regard the rocks to be the Saykan Formation, while V.M. Moraliov et al. (351) correlate them with, the middle part of the Kozyndiy Formation. The section given below was described two kilometers south of Amurn village (351), where the limestones of the middle unit are conformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sandstone, polymictic, fine-grained Siltstone, bluish-grey, calcareous Sandstones, green and pink, polymictic Siltstone, greenish-grey, calcareous Sandstones, feldspar-quartzose, fine- and medium-grained Siltstone interbedded with sandstones; casts of large trilobites 40 m 85 m 55 m 365 m 100 m 200 m

The thickness of the beds in this area is 845 meters; in other areas it is smaller. The unit is rich in organic remains, but the available collections have been identified roughly and incompletely. V.M. Moraliov et al. (351) report Middle Ordovician trilobites; Ptychopyge sp., Basiliella sp., Ogmasaphus sp., and Ogygiocarus sp., and Late Ordovician brachiopods: Dalmanella sp., Sowerbyella ex gr. sericea (Sow.), and Leptaena ex gr. rugosa (His). In the work by I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154), the following organic remains are listed: trilobites Illanidae; brachiopods - Lingula sp. Hesperorthis sp. and Dalmanella sp. and Tetragraptus (?) sp. graptolites. In the USSR, similar deposits occur in Central Pamir (426). South Afghanistan Median Mass Within this region, Ordovician formations are known only from the Argandab and Logar zones, where their successions and relationships with the underlying and overlying deposits are somewhat different. Argandab Zone In this zone, Ordovician rocks are known as the Nawdekh Formation. Relevant information is available in the works by Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 274), V.I. Dronov et al. (152). The formation is composed of monotonous dark grey and green-grey sandstones and siltstones 750-800 meters thick. The rocks lie conformably on the Vendian-Cambrian Zargaran Formation and are overlain by the Silurian Dewalak Formation also conformably yet exhibiting some evidence of erosion. The section of the formation reported from the Shirin-Qalat (lower part) and Nawdekh areas (upper part) is as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. Sandstone, light grey, fine-grained, quartzo-feldspathic, calcareous Siltstones, dark grey at the base, light grey at the top Irregularly interbedded quartzo-feldspathic sandstones and siltstones Sandstone, thick-bedded, quartzo-feldspathic with rare interbeds of siltstone (at the base) and organogenic limestones and quartz sandstones (at the top) 110 m 76 m 250 m 195 m

60

5. 6.

Irregularly interbedded quartz sandstones and siltstones Siltstone, dark grey, laminated

50 m 75 m

The thickness of beds 1-6 is 756 meters. Such a thickness is persistent elsewhere. Rare Brachiopod remains represented by Dalmanella sp., Nikolella sp. and Leptaena sp., of the Middle-Upper Ordovician appearance, were collected near Bado-Kalay village, 50 meters above the foot of the formation. Taking into consideration the stratigraphic position its age is assumed to be Ordovician. Logar Zone Ordovician rocks constitute the base of the Paleozoic section in the Logar Zone. These are fine terrigenous rocks lying unconformably on Proterozoic crystalline schists. The rocks are conformably overlain by Silurian Beds. The rocks are 1,270-1,470 meters thick. Relevant information is available in the works by F. Fesefeldt (115), A. Lapparent et al. (250), R. Wolfart (441, 443), D. Weippert et al. (438), R. Desparemet et al. (7072), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142-206) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). Three units are distinguished in the Ordovician sequence within the Logar Zone. The lower unit The lower unit (370 m), which outcrops in Mt. Shunshaba and adjacent areas (72), is composed of variegated slates enclosing sandstone and limestone interbeds. Organic remains collected at the top of the unit are uncommon Afghanodesma pelecypods. The stratigraphic position of the unit suggests its Tremadocian age. The middle unit The middle unit (200-300 m) consists of Arenigian beds composes of green and crimson quartzose and limy micaceous sandstones and siltstones with gravelstone lenses. Remains of Arenigian tribolites Cruziana furcifera Orb. Rouaultia lyelli (Rouault) and others were collected in the middle of the unit near Khyrskhan Pass and in the Sar-i-Porg Valley. Arenig-Llanvirnian and Arenig-Llandeilian fossils of Hesperonomiella fesefeldtensis Wolf., Goniophorina? sp., Jocrinus? sp., Cruziana ex gr. furcifera Orb., Plectorhis sp., Cryptolithinae gen. et sp. indet. and Receptaculites sp., collected in the upper reaches of the Logar River near Terkawa village, 60 and 300 meters above the base of the unit have apparently derived from the same or higher intervals (120, 438, 443). The upper unit The upper unit (700-800 m) lies conformably on the middle one representing the middle and upper series of the system. It consists of dark grey and green-grey coarse- and fine-columnar siltstones and sandstones with abundant organic remains. K. Fesefeldt (115) reported two localities where Middle-Upper Ordovician trilobites and brachiopods were found. These are Kadalak and Nawa-i-Skadeh. The fossils collected in Kadalak are Cryptolithinae gen. et sp. Receptaculites sp. and Plectorthis sp.; and those collected in Nawa-iSkadeh are Moorephylloporina sp., Paracraniops? sp., Sowerbyella sp., Quadrotheca cancellata Wolf., Zygobeyrichia sp., and others (443). French geologists (70, 250) report the following Middle Ordovician trilobites and graptolites: Diacalymene birmanica Reed, Cryptolithus sp., Cyclopygidae, Asaphidae and Didymograptus murchisoni (Beck.), derived from the same deposits. S.S. Karapetov et al. (142) collected remains of Middle Ordovician brachiopods: Evenkina sp. and Middle-Upper Ordovician trilobites: Homotelus cf. taimyricus Bal, approximately in the middle of the unit near the village of Kadalak, and remains of Middle Ordovician Synchomalonotus pamiricus Bal. trilobites further to the north-east, in the middle of the Sar-i-Porg Valley, 200 meters below the top of the unit. Afgnanistan-North Pamir Folded Region and North Afghanistan Platform In these regions, Ordovician age is provisionally ascribed to the rocks known as the Syahdara Series. Relevant information is available in the works by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350), V.P. Kolchanov et al. (314, 348), V.M. Moraliov et al. (351), A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153) and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). The series consists of monotonous grey and green-grey biotite-sericite, biotite-muscovite- quartz, sericite-actinolite, muscovite (biotite)-chlorite quartz, chlorite-albite (epidote)-actinolite and other schists metamorphosed to quartz-albitemuscovite and albite-epidote-chlorite-actinolite subfacies of greenschist facies. Interbeds and lenses of marmorized limestones are encountered very rarely. V.M. Moraliov et al. (351) indicate the presence of altered volcanics of a dacite composition. The series is 2,000 to 2,500 meters thick. It is supposed to lie unconformably 61

on the Proterozoic. The Silurian overlies it conformably. The series consists of three units; the lower and upper ones are schists and phyllites, the middle unit is composed of sandstones. In the Afghanistan North Pamir Folded Region, the most complete and thick section of the series was described in the Darrah-i-Jaway River basin (153), where a fault block reveals the following succession of strata:
1. 2. 3. Schists, quartz-sericite-chlorite and quartz-sericite enclosing 50 meters of quartzite-like sandstone Sandstone, quartzo-feldspathic interbedded with quartz-sericite and quartz-chlorite schists Schists, quartz-sericite and quartz-chlorite 450 m 750 m 700 m

The thickness of the rocks in this section is 1,900 meters. Within the North Afghanistan Platform, the thickest section of the series was reported from the Darya Balkhob River basin (148), where the bottom beds of the series are not exposed, and the section starts with;
1. 2. 3. Schists, quartz-sericite, biotite-muscovite-quartz and quartz-sericite-chlorite Metasandstones thick-bedded quartzite-like Phyllite-like slates with quartzite interbeds 500 m 850 m 700 m

These are conformably succeeded by Silurian-Devonian limestones. The thickness of the Syahdar series in this section is 2,050 meters. No organic remains were found in the rocks. The series was dated according to its stratigraphic position. in the USSR, the counterpart of the series is the Wiskharw Series of North-Western Pamir. Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region According to A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (198, 200), the Ordovician age was tentatively assigned, in this area, to dark shales and phyllite-like slates conformably underlying Silurian-Devonian strata. Their thickness in the Tashkuprok and Konar zones is 100 and 2,000 meters, respectively. Their relationships with older formations remain uncertain. No organic remains were found. In the Konar Zone, the rocks were dated as Ordovician by R. Wolfart (441, 443), Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145) and V.I. Slavin (393).

Silurian
Silurian rocks have been distinguished in the South Afghanistan Median Mass, Afghanistan-South Pamir and Hinduraj-Hazar folded regions (Appendix No.7). South Afghanistan Median Mass In this region, Silurian deposits occur in the Argandab and Logar zones only being represented by predominantly terrigenous rocks. Their boundary with the Ordovician is conformable in most regions, manifesting occasionally traces of erosion. The succession of the rocks is somewhat different in the Argandab and Logar zones. Argandab Zone Two formations, Dewolak and Badokalay, are distinguished in the Silurian sequence. Relevant information is cited in the works by Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 209, 274) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152).

62

Dewolak Formation Dewolak Formation (250-400 m) is composed of light thick-bedded inequigranular quartz sandstones enclosing lenses of gravelstone and small-pebble conglomerates with pebbles of quartz and chert. Remains of wide-range Silurian-Devonian Stronhomena sp. and Howellela sp. brachiopods were collected in the middle of the formation near the village of Dewolak. The formation is tentatively dated as Lower Llandoverian by its position in the succession. The Badokaly Formation The Badokaly Formation (630 m) lies conformably on the Dewolak Beds and consists of irregularly interbedded, essentially dark and green-grey siltstones and sandstones with limestone interbeds. The section described 6 km south-east of the village of Minon (144) exhibits the following succession of beds:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Limestone, thin-bedded, micrograined Siltstone, quartzofeldspathic with rare interbeds of sandstone and limestone Limestone, organogenic, lumpy, bearing Mesofavosites sp. Quartzo-feldspathic siltstones and sandstones Limestone, organogenic, interbedded with siltstones, bearing Rhodocrinites sp. Alternation of 15- to 70-meter members of cream-coloured fine-grained quartz sandstones and thin-bedded siltstones enclosing brachiopod crinoid limestone interbeds 12 m 335 m 10 m 75 m 60 m 138 m

The thickness of the formation in this section is 630 m This order of thickness persists throughout the Argandab Zone. Remains of Llandoverian brachiopods Dalmanella neocrassa Nikif. and Eocoelia sp., and Late LlandoverianWenlockian tabulate corals Favosites afganicus Lel., Mesofavosites sp. and Buranolites sp. were collected in the Asgar River valley, 30 meters above the base of the unit. Remains of Wenlock-Ludlovian brachiopods: Chlorinda cf. pseudolingulifera Kozl., Leptaena rhomboidalis Wilck., "Camarotcechia" cf. bindentata (Nis), Striispirifer cf. balchashensis (Nikif.), Spirigerina supramarginalis Khalf., Retziella weberi Nikif., Spirigerina supramarginalis Khalf., Retziella weberi Nikif., Cyrtina exporrecta Wahl. and Lissatrypa sp. were found in the top beds of the unit (142, 206, 209, 274). Logar Zone Two units are distinguishable in the Silurian from the Logar Zone. Relevant information is available in the works by K. Fesefeldt (115), A. Lapparent et al. (250, 253), D. Weippert et al. (438), J. Lafuste et al. (233), R. Desparmet et al. (70-72), A. Durcoop (106), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 209, 274), and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). The lower unit The lower unit (120-140 m) is composed of brown-grey and dark quartzo-feldspathic calcareous sandstones and siltstones carrying remains of Middle Llandoverian-Wenlockian tabulate corals (152): Mesofavosites brevispinus Lel., Favosites gothlandicus Lam., Subalveolites eichvaldi Sok. and Palaefavosites cf. balticus Rukh. Wenlock-Ludlovian tabulate corals: Palaeofavosites sp., Mesofavosites cf. dualis Sok., Favosites cf. tachlowitzensis Barr. and Acantohalysites sp., were collected at the top (233). The middle unit The middle unit (440 m) lies conformably on the lower one. It consists of grey and brown siltstones interbedded with sandstones and sandy limestones. Orthoceratites were found at the base, and tabulate corals, tetracorals, brachiopods, crinoids and other fossils were collected at the top of the unit. Favosites hisingeri E. et H. and Stelliporella parvistella Wantz. were identified among the collected tabulate corals.

63

The upper unit The upper unit 150 consisting of dolomitized limestones rests conformably on the middle unit. The following Ludlovian fossils were collected from various areas: (1) Hindeonella equidentata Rhodes, Kockelella variabilis Wall., Neoprianiodus multiformis Wall., Ozarkodina media Wall., Spathgnathodus primus (Brans. et Mehl), S. cf. sagittus Wall. and Trichonodela excavata (Brans. et Mehl), from the upper reaches of the Logar River; (2) Spathoagnothodus cf. inclinatus inflatus Wall., from the Malestan Jagori area; and (3) Encrinurus (Encrinurus) konghsaensis Reed, from the Spina Kada area (115, 233). Afghanistan-South Pamir Region In Afghanistan-South Pamir Region, Silurian deposits have been found in the Shewa Zone only. Relevant information is available in the works by V. M. Moraliov et al. (351) and I. M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). They compose the lower division of the system and are represented by rhythmically interbedded limestones, carbonate shales, calc-quartzose and quartzo-feldspathic siltstones and sandstones. Most abundant rocks are limestones. The sequence is 1,500 meters thick. No identifiable organic remains were found therein. The rocks were dated as Early Silurian by the comparison with similar deposits from the Central Pamir (73, 202). Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region In this region, Silurian deposits are distinguished in the Tashkuprok Zone only (198, 200), where they compose a sequence of alternating green-grey sericite-quartz-chlorite and quarts-biotite schists and dark inequibedded limestones. The rocks are 180-200 meters thick. Their relations with the Ordovician and Devonian are conformable. No organic remains were found in the rocks. The were dated as Silurian on the basis of their stratigraphic position.

Silurian-Devonian
Undifferentiated Silurian-Devonian sequence is recognized in regions of Hercynian folding and within the North Afghanistan Platform. Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region and North Afghanistan Platform Silurian-Devonian deposits occur in two type of sections, essentially carbonate and terrigenous. Silurian-Devonian carbonate deposits Silurian-Devonian carbonate deposits are widespread over most of the territory. Relevant information is contained in the works by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350), V.P. Kolchanov et al. (348), A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153) and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). After the type locality the deposits are referred to as the Durumbak Series (350). The series is composed of dark and light grey bedded and massive marmorized limestones and marbles enclosing single beds and groups of beds of dark phyllites, siltstones and quartzalbite-mica schists. The rocks lie conformably on the tentatively Ordovician Syandara Series and are overlain disconformably by Carboniferous strata. The thickness of the rocks is 1,200-1,300 meters. A type section of the series was described east of the Eshkamysh Basin, at the north-western side of the Kohe Mogol Mountains (153):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Limestone, thin-bedded, argillaceous Schist, calcareous, dark, interbedded with 4-5 meter grey and bluish-grey limestones Limestone, thin- and thick-bedded, marmorized Schist, grey quartz-albite-mica Limestone, dark, thin-bedded, marmorized, carrying remains of Lower Devonian amphipores represented by Amphora aff. karmakensis Javor., Batchatensis Javor., Paramphipora aff. vesiculosa Javor. and P. aff. dilucda Javor 75 m 40 m 320 m 145 m 130 m

64

6. 7. 8. 9.

Quartz-albite-mica schist Limestone, inequibedded, marmorized Quartz-albite-mica schist Limestone, inequibedded, marmorized, interbedded with quartz-albite-mica schist

50 m 70 m 20 m 470 m

The rocks are overlain disc conformably by Upper Tournaisian-Visean beds. The thickness of beds 1 to 9 is equal to 1,320 m. This order of thickness is persistent almost everywhere. Rare organic remains are mostly poorly preserved. The Silurian age of the rocks is based on the findings of Favosites sp. having a Silurian appearance; the Lower-Middle Devonian age was proved by the above mentioned Lower-Devonian amphipores and Lower-Middle Devonian crinoids Pentagonocyclicus ex gr. planus Schew., P. anulus Schew., Eucalptocrinus sp. and Cratalocrinites sp., and tabulate corals: Pachyfavosites sp. and Thamnopora sp. Upper Devonian deposits have not been identified anywhere in the region. The counterpart of the Durumbak Series on the territory of the U.S.S.R. is the Dikzankows Series from North-West Pamir (73). Silurian-Devonian terrigenous deposits Silurian-Devonian terrigenous deposits occur in North-West Badakhshan, in the watershed area and in the eastern side of the Kohe Safedhirs and Hazrat Sultan mountains (the Hazrat-Sultan Zone). They may be also present in the eastern side of the Khwaja Mohammad Mountains in the left-hand tributaries of the Kokcha River, upstream the Jurm Village. Relevant information is available in the works by V.M. Moraliov et al. (351), I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154), A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (153), and Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (151). The strata, 3,000-3,500 meters thick, are composed of various schists metamorphosed to the phyllite and greenschist facies enclosing interbeds and lenses of sandstone and limestone. Most widespread rocks are quartz-chlorite-albite, actinolite-epidote, biotite-albite-quartz and two-mica schists. Some schists are products of greenschist transformation of intermediate and basic volcanics. Sandstones are inequibedded and inequigranular, essentially quartzose and quartzo-feldspathic, micaceous. Limestones are marmorized. The boundaries of the rocks with the surrounding strata run along faults. No identifiable organic remains were found in the rocks, and the Silurian-Devonian age was assigned to them by analogy with the Shirgowat Formation from the Soviet Northern Pamir (73). Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region In this region, the undifferentiated Silurian-Devonian sequence is distinguished in the Konar Zone. The deposits have been studied inadequately. Two concepts have been advanced regarding the Silurian-Devonian sequence in the Konar Zone. According to R. Wolfart (441, 443), P. Weippert et al. (438), Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145, 146) and V.I. Slavin (393), the sequence is composed of various schists metamorphosed to the phyllite facies, sandstones and siltstones interbedded with marmorized limestones. As reported by A.Kh. Kafarsky (198), the Silurian-Devonian sequence in the Konar Zone composed chiefly of limestones interbedded with schists is 1,200 to 1,500 in thick. The rocks are believed to be underlain by the Ordovician, and overlain by the Carboniferous. The contact with the Ordovician is regarded as conformable by all the investigators, while that with the Carboniferous is either conformable (145, 146, 393) or unconformable (198). Organic remains found in the above rocks are mostly of poor preservation. The Michelinoceras michelini Bar and M. margus Bar. orthoceratites derived from a bed of crinoidal limestone occurring in the schists served as the reliable basis for dating the rocks as Upper Silurian (393, 438); the Lower Silurian and Devonian were assumed on the basis on their stratigraphic position.

Devonian
Devonian formations were identified in all the regions of Afghanistan with the exception of the Region of Alpine Folding. In the Afghanistan - North Pamir Folded Region, North Afghanistan Platform and Konar Zone, they are not separated from the Silurian. These formations were discussed together with the Silurian in the preceding section. Elsewhere, they are distinguished as a separate unit whose section comprises the Lower-Middle and Upper Devonian subdivisions. 65

Lower-Middle Devonian Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region Within this region, the Lower-Middle Devonian rocks occur in the Tashkuprok Zone. The sequence consists of alternating limestones, siltstones, sandstones, shales and slates, 800 meters in thickness. The sequence is conformable with the Silurian and Upper Devonian. Relevant information on the sequence is available in the reports by A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (198, 200). A section was described from an area south of Sarghard village (200), where the Silurian schists are conformably overlain by:
1. Limestone, massive, carrying remains of Lower Devonian tetracorals represented by Tryplasma aequabile Lonsd., Lyrielasma chapmani Pedder, Pseudoamplexus cf. fascicularis Soshk., P. princeps (Etheridge), Pseudomicroplasma nesterovskii (Peetz) and Acanthophyllum sp., and Pachyfavosites cf. kozlowskii Sok tabulate corals Alternating siltstones, carbonaceous shales and sandstones Limestone bearing remains of Pachyfavosites sp. tabulate corals of Lower-Middle Devonian appearance Dolomitized sandstone (100 m) at the base; coaly-staurolite slate and chlorite-tremolite schist (75 m) at the top 175 m Limestone, light, crinoidal Quartz-biotite schist 380 m

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

70 m 100 m 175 m 10 m 65 m

The rocks are conformably overlain by Frasnian limestones. The thickness of beds 1-6 is 800 m. The thickness is almost the same throughout the Tashkuprok Zone. Afghanistan-South Pamir Region In Afghanistan-South Pamir Region, Lower-Middle Devonian deposits were discovered in the Kohe Taraqa and Kohe Qaftarkhan mountains, near the village of Rabat-i-Sapcha, in the Kohe Safed and Kohe Pud mountains, and in the vicinity of the Sare Ushon village, etc. Relevant information is given in the works by V.I. Dronov et al. (143, 152). The Lower and Middle Devonian parts of the section outcrop in separate localities. The Lower Devonian was mapped in the Kohe Taraqa and Kohe Qaftarkhan mountains, near the village of Rabati-Sapcha and in the vicinity of the village of Sare Ushon. It consists of inequibedded grey and dark limestones and dolomites, which alternate with sandstones. The deposits are 260 meters thick. There is an erosion surface at the contact with the underlying deposits. The relations with the Middle Devonian remain obscure. The most representative section of the deposits is known from the Kohe Qaftarkhan Mountains, where the Cambrian strata are disconformably overlain by:
1. 2. Sandstone, variegated, parallel- and cross-bedded, essentially quartzose and quartz-carbonate Limestone, black and grey, inequibedded carrying remains of brachiopods and bryozoans of Lower Devonian appearance: Protathyris sp., Howellella sp., Salopina sp. Strophomena (?) sp., Rhipidomellidae (?) and Rhombopora sp. Dolomite and limestone, grey inequibedded, enclosing variegated. sandstone and siltstone interbeds 30 m 30 m

3.

200 m

The rocks in this section are 260 meters thick, though this is not their original thickness, since the rocks conformably overlying them were not located. The Middle Devonian rocks were mapped in the Kohe Safed and Kohe Pud ridges. Their relations with the Lower Devonian remain uncertain since they were nowhere found in normal continuous succession. The rocks are overlain disconformably by the Upper Devonian. The Middle Devonian consists of two units: thick-bedded dolomite (200-300 m) of the lower unit, and massive limestone (100-1,500 m) of the upper 66

unit. No organic remains were found in the rocks. They are dated as Middle Devonian on the basis of their stratigraphic position. South Afghanistan Median Mass In this region, Lower and Middle Devonian rocks were identified in the Argandab and Logar Zones only. Argandab Zone The undifferentiated Lower-Middle Devonian is a compositionally and facially variable sequence of terrigenous rocks with a subordinate amount of limestones known as the Kolan Deh Formation (144), whose upper beds are dated as Lower Frasnian. The rocks rest conformably on the Silurian, and are overlain disconformably by the Upper Frasnian beds. The rocks vary in thickness within 465-615 meters. Relevant information is available in the works by Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 274) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). Below follows the description of two outcrops which illustrates facies variability of the rocks in the area. The section of one outcrop was described from the Kolan Deh area (144), where the Silurian is conformably overlain by:
1. Limestone, stratified., carrying Devonian, Hexacrinites ex gr. bioconcavus Yelt. et Dubat., Rhodocrinites sp., Mediocrinus medius (Yelt.) and Pentagonocyclucus anulus Schew Sandstone, stratified, fine-grained, quartzose Sandstone, quartzose, interbedded with small- pebble conglomerates; pebbles are quartz, siltstone and quartz sandstone Sandstone, fine-grained, quartzose, enclosing limestone beds reaching 15-20 meters in thickness; remains of crinoids Medinecrinus cf. vitreus Stuk., Tetragonocyclicus sp., and Pentagonocyclicus cf. acanthaceus Yelt at top Sandstone, fine-grained, quartzose and calcareous-quartzose, carrying at base remains of tabulate corals and Eifelian brachiopods and crinoids: Favositidae (tabulate corals); Conchidiella ex gr. pseudobaschkirica (Tshern.), Carinatina ex gr., arimaspa (Eichw.), Atrypa ex gr. reticularis Lin., (Gypldula sp., Cymostrophia cf. nobilis (McCoy), Sieberella sp. (brachiopods); and Cupressocrinites cf. crassus Goldf., C. of abbreviatus Goldf., C. ex gr. minor Yelt., C. eichwaldi Schew., Hexacrinites sp., Anthinocrinus ex gr. alveatus Schew., Medinecrinus vitreus rarus Schew., Tetragonotetragonalis annexus Schew and Tetragonocyclicus deffexus Dubat. (crinoids) 120 m

2. 3. 4.

100 m 20 m 320 m

5.

55 m

The thickness of beds 1-5 in this section is 615 meters. The other outcrop was described from the area of the village of Sare Warkha (206), where the Silurian is conformably overlain by:
1. Limestone, pink-grey, dark-grey thick-bedded at the top, carrying Devonian crinoids: Pentagonocyclicus ex gr. astericus Schew., P. anulus Schew., Hexacrinites ex gr. biconcavus Yelt. et Dubat. and Mediocrinus medius Yelt. Sandstone, inequibedded, quartzose, enclosing in the middle a 15-meter unit of brown thin-bedded, limestone bearing remains of Lower Devonian fossils: tabulate corals - Favosites clarus Yanet. Pachyfavosites sp., Dictyofavosites sp., Squameofavosites singularis (Sok.) and Siringopora sp. brachiopods - Prothathyris cf. praecursor Kozl. and Mutationella cf. podolica Kozl.; and crinoids Pentagonocyclicus astericus Schew. and P. costatus Schew. Siltstones and shales interbedded with quartzose sandstones and organogenic limestones. Remains of Eifelian fauna: brachiopods - Conchidella ex gr. pseudobaschkirica (Tschern.), Carinatina ex gr. arimaspa (Eichw.), Gypidula sp., Cymostrophia cf. nobilis (McCoy) and Sieberella sp. crinoids Cupressocrinites cf. crassus Goldf., C. cf. abbreviatus Goldf., C. ex gr. minor Yelt., C. eichwaldi Schew., Anthinocrinus ex gr. alveatus Schew. and Medinecrinus vitreus rarus Schew. Limestone, yellow and violet, thin-bedded, hematitized, interbedded with red sandstones. In the middle a 20- to 60-meter unit of reef limestone occurs. The beds 85 m

2.

80-100 m

3.

200-250 m

4.

100-150 m

67

underlying the reef limestone carry remains of Givetian-Frasnian fossils: tabulate corals Thamnopora cf. reticulata Blainw., Pachyfavosites ex gr. polymorphus (Goldf.), "Cladopora" ex gr. vermicularis (McCoy) and Alveolites suborbicularis Lam.; tetracorals - Acanthophyllum ex gr. heterophyllum (E. et H.), Neostringophyllum aff. heterophylloides (Frech.) and "Phillipsastrea" hennahi (Lonsd); and brachiopods - Gypidula cf. globa Schnur., Schizophoria ex gr. striatula (Schloth.), Pugnax ex gr. acuminatus Mart., Spinatrypa cf. petosequa (Fent et Fent), Atrypa (Desquamatia) ex gr. desquamata Sow, and A. cf. velikaja (Nal.). Reef limestone bears remains of Frasnian tetracorals; Megaphyllum cf. articum (Meek) and Schluteria kostetskae Scshk. The beds above reef limestone carry remains of Early Frasnian brachiopods Agramatia petini Nal., Hypothyridina cf. cuboides (Sow.), Macrospirifer sp., Pugnax ex gr. acuminata (Mart.) and Atrypa cf. velikaja (Nal.)

The thickness of beds 1-4 in this section is 465-585 meters. Disregarding a small difference in thickness, beds 1 and 2 in the two sections are comparable, whereas the overyling beds are different. The difference is that in the first outcrop they are composed of variegated quartzose sandstones, and in the second of essentially dark shales and siltstones; limestones of bed 4 from the Sare Warkha section are missing in the Kolan Deh section. They seem to have been either replaced by quartzose sandstones making up the top of bed 5, or eroded during Frasnian time. The described sections represent two subtypes of the Lower- Middle Devonian sequence of the Argandab Zone. Logar Zone Like in the Argandab Zone, the Lower-Middle Devonian is represented in this zone by a sequence of rocks variable in composition and colour. Relevant information is cited in the works by K. Fesefeldt (115), A. Drcoop (106), G. Plodovsky (337), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206), R. Desparmet et al. (72) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). As reported by R. Desparmet et al. (72), the Lower-Middle Devonian from this zone exhibits certain regularities with respect to the vertical succession and horizontal distribution of the rocks. At the north-western periphery of the zone, in the Spina Kada Mountains the section is composed of shallowwater carbonate-terrigenous sediments, while in the south-eastern direction, closer to the axial part of the zone (the Chagona-Owjerak, Balibum Ghar and Chel-Ghazi localities), it is made up of the sediments deposited in a deeper and deeper sea, and occasionally include carbonate reef-type members. The oldest beds are exposed in the axial part of the zone while in the periphery the section starts with younger beds. The rocks lie on the Ordovician-Silurian disconformably, and are conformably overlain by the Upper Devonian. The thickness of the deposits varies from 500 to 2,300 meters. The thickest section of the sequence was described by A. Drcoop and G. Plodovsky from the northern part of the Dashte Nawer Plateau (106, 337). The lower beds of the section (embracing the entire Lower Devonian and Eifelian) consist of calcareous quartz sandstones and shales enclosing interbeds and lenses of conglomerates and sandy limestone. The thickness of the beds in this area is 1,900 meters. Gedinnian brachiopods of Delthyris sp Howellella sp., Isorthis sp., Leptaena cf. rhomboidalis (Wilck) and others were collected from the lower 250 meters. The upper part of the section corresponds to the Givetian and consists of grey and red limestones interbedded with shales and quartzites. At the base of limestones conglomerates occur with pebbles of the underlying rocks. The beds are 360 meters thick. They are abundant in brachiopod and conodont remains (Lazutkinia sp., Spinatrypa aspera (Schloth.), Atrypa independensis Webster, Icriodus curvatus). The rocks are conformably succeeded by Frasnian beds. The thickness of the Lower-Middle Devonian in this section is 2,260 meters. A considerably thinner and more carbonate section of the Lower-Middle Devonian was described from the northern side of Spina Kada (72), where the Upper Silurian is overlain disconformably by:
1. 2. 3. Calcareous sandstones, sandy limestones and shales carrying remains of Lower Devonian Quarithyris cf. tiro Barr Limestone, dolomitic with Lower Devonian - Eifelan Alatiformia, Spinatripina, and other fossils Quartz sandstone with Givetian brachiopod remains 50 m 250 m 60 m

68

4.

Limestones with Givetian-Frasnian Stromatopora sp., Hexagonaria sp., Entroques sp., and other fossils

120 m

The beds are conformably overlain by the Frasnian. The thickness of the Lower-Middle Devonian in this section is 480 meters. Lower-Middle Devonian rocks have been also reported from the extreme north-eastern part of the Logar Zone, namely from the ridge separating the Logar and Maydan rivers, where they are represented by reef limestones not less than 800 meters thick. Limestones are abundant in the remains of crinoids, corals, brachiopods, and other fossils. Only tabulate corals collected chiefly in the upper limestone beds outcropping in an area of Hyrskhan Pass and near the village of Hedron were identified.: Favosites cf. alpina Horn.Lower Devonian - Eifelian; Pachyfavosites polymorphus (Goldg.) - Eifelian; Natalophyllum sp. and Crassialveolites sp. - Middle Devonian- Frasnian (152). A collection of Eifelian and Givetian fossils reported by K. Fesefeldt (115) from the upper reaches of the Logar River seems to come from the same upper though somewhat older limestone beds. This collection comprises the following forms: Schizoshoria "striatula" (Schloth.), Douvillina interstrialis (Phill.), Productella cf. subaculeata (Murch.), Uncinulus aff. parallelepipedus (Bronn.), Atrypa aff. zonata (Schnur.), Crurithyris inflata (Schnur.), Spinatrypa ex gr. planata (Schloth.), and others.

Upper Devonian The upper Devonian was mapped as a separate unit in two regions of Afghanistan: in the Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region and the South Afghanistan Median Mass. Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region In this region, the Upper Devonian was distinguished as a separate unit only in the Tashkuprok Zone, where it is represented by Frasnian beds (198, 200). The beds are composed of various limestones with a 100-meter horizon of phyllite-like slates. The rocks are 350 to 400 meters thick. They lie conformably on the Middle Devonian and are overlain disconformably by the Lower Carboniferous. A section of the unit was described from the area south of the village of Sarghard (200), where the Middle Devonian is conformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. Limestone, light grey, banded Slates, dark, phyllite-like, enclosing in the sidle a 6-meter bed of light crinoidal limestone Limestone, light grey, crinoidal Limestone, dark, clayey, with remains of Frasnian tetracorals: Hexagonaria cf. thomasi (Steinbz), Billingsastrea cf. pentagona (Goldf.) Bardenia sp.; and tabulate corals: Favosites sp. and Pachyporidae Limestone, dark, thick-bedded Limestone, dark, sandy, bearing remains of Thamnopora cervicornis Blainv. and Alveolites sp. tabulate corals Limestone, grey, marmorized 110 m 100 m 25 m 7m

5. 6. 7.

80 m 7m 30 m

The beds are overlain by the Lower Carboniferous disconformably. The thickness of beds 1-7 is 359 meters. South Afghanistan Median Mass In this region, the Upper Devonian occurs in the Argandab, Logar and Tirin zones only. Argandab Zone An intra-Frasnian erosional surface separates the Upper Devonian sequence into two units, the Lower Frasnian and the Upper Frasnian-Famennian. The Lower Frasnian unit is closely related to the Givetian beds, It was described as part of the Kolan Deh Formation in the preceding section. Below follows the description 69

of the Upper Frasnian-Famennian unit referred to as the Kundalan Formation (144). Relevant information is available in the works by Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 274) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). The Kundalan Formation is composed predominantly of sandstones with limestone interbeds. The thickness varies from 100 to 800 meters. It lies on the eroded surface of the Lower Frasnian beds, but with no angular unconformity and unconformably on older beds. It is conformably overlain by Carboniferous strata. The succession of beds described from the area near the village of Kundalan is as follows (144):
1. 2. 3. Conglomerates, small- and medium-pebble interbedded with feldspar-quartzose fine-grained sandstones; pebbles are quartz, sandstone and siltstone Sandstone, bedded, fine- and medium-grained, quartzose with rare interbeds and lenses of conglomerates and gravelstones; pebbles are quartzite-like sandstone and quartz Sandstone, feldspar-quartzose, with rare interbeds of siltstone; siltstones bear remains of Frasnian brachiopods: Cyrtospirifer sp., Athyris cf. chitralensis Reed, Stropheodonta ex gr. interstrialis Phill., Atrypa (Desquamatia) ex gr. desquamata Sow., and Chonetes sp. Sandstone, bedded, fine-grained, quartzose Limestone, light grey, bedded Sandstone, fine-grained feldspar-quartzose, carrying remains of Upper Devonian Cyrtospirifer sp., and Camarothoechia sp. brachiopods Sandstone, fine- and medium-grained, quartzose and feldspar-quartzose with remains of Famennian brachiopods; Cyrtospirifer ex gr. pamiricus Reed, Athyris cf. chitralensis Reed and Productella cf. baitalensis Reed 125 m 105 m 115 m

4. 5. 6. 7.

190 m 20 m 50 m 195 m

The total thickness of the Kundalan Formation in this section is 810 meters. It is highly variable elsewhere, the smallest thickness being 100 meters. Apart from the above mentioned fossils, organic remains were collected in many other localities (144). They are indicative of the Frasnian age of the larger part of the Formation. Exclusively the uppermost beds belong to the Famennian. Logar Zone Like in the Argandab Zone, the Upper Devonian sequence in this zone consists of carbonate-terrigenous deposits. Their thickness varies within 530 to 210 meters. Relevant information is available in the works by K. Fesefeldt (115), A. Boutiere et al. (34), A. Drcoop (106), G. Plodovsky (337), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206), R. Desparmet et al. (72) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). R. Desparmet et al. (72) believed that the Upper Devonian, like the Lower-Middle Devonian, manifested the same regularity in vertical succession and horizontal distribution. At the north-western periphery of the zone (Spina Dada Mountains), it consists of shallow-water carbonate terrigenous sediments, while in the south-east, closer to the axial part of the zone (Chagana-Owjerak, Bolibum Ghar and Chel-Ghazi localities, it is composed of deep-sea, predominantly fine terrigenous sediments, which enclose limestone, including reef limestone beds at the base. One of the thickest Upper Devonian sections of this type was described from the Northern part of the Dashte Nawer Plateau (106, 337), where the Frasnian beds lie conformably on the Middle Devonian strata and are composed of grey and red limestones enclosing quartzose and calcareous-quartzose sandstone beds. The beds are 370 meters thick. The Famennian beds lie conformably on the Frasnian and consist of grey limestone with quartzose sandstone interbeds. They are 160 meters thick. The Frasnian rocks carry Cyrtospirifer verneulli (March.), Productella subaculeata (Murch.), and other fossils. The Famennian contains Agramatia cf. agramati (Nal.) and others. Etroeungtian Phacops accipitrinus (Phill), Eobrachythyris cf. strunianus (Gossalet) and other fossils were found at the top. The total thickness of the Upper Devonian in this section is 530 meters. A different succession and considerably lesser thickness are characteristic of the Upper Devonian from the northern side of the Spina Kada Mountains (72), where the Middle Devonian beds are conformably overlain by: 70

1. 2. 3.

Limestones, grey and pink with Receptaculites Sandstone, white, quartzous Slate, grey-green, with organogenic limestone and ferriferous sandstone inclusions

50 m 10 m 150 m

The total thickness of the deposits is 210 meters. Tirin Zone Tirin Zone, Upper Devonian beds start the Paleozoic sequence in the zone. They are composed of terrigenous or carbonate-terrigenous rocks lying strongly unconformably on the folded Proterozoic. The beds are conformably overlain by the Lower Carboniferous. Their thickness is 150 to 225 meters. Relevant information is available in the works by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 207), R. Desparmet et al. (72) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). The evidence available indicates that the Upper Devonian sections in the Tirin Zone are more complete in some areas than in others. The lower beds of the section exhibit rejuvenation from the south-east to the north-west, across the strike of the folds. This is indicative of a gradual transgressive overlap from south-east to north-west. Complete Upper Devonian sections are known from an area of Tezak Pass (72), and reduced ones from the Birka River drainage basin (206). In the area of Tezak Pass the Proterozoic rocks are unconformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sandstone, white, quartzose, grading to conglomerate; pebbles are quartz and black chert Dolomite, dirty-yellow Limestone, light, organogenic, carrying remains of Frasnian Cyphoterorhynchus koraghensis Reed, Cyrtospirifer sp., and other fossils Limestone, yellow, sandy with red quartz sandstone interbeds and remains of Famennian brachiopods: Eobrachythyris strunianus alatus (Gosselet), and others Sandstone, white, quartzose Shale, grey-green 10 m 60 m 40 m 100 m 5m 10 m

The beds are conformably overlain by Tournaisian limestones. The thickness of beds 1-6 is 225 meters. Beds 1-3 (110 m) are Frasnian, and beds 4-6 (115 m) Famennian. Beds 5 and 6 are likely to be Etroeungtian. The Upper Devonian from the Birka River drainage basin (left tributary of the Ajrestan) is represented by the Famennian consisting of light thick-bedded quartzose sandstones, which are occasionally interbedded with dark siltstones and sandy limestones. At the base, conglomerates lying unconformably on the Proterozoic strata can be observed. The total thickness of the deposits is 150-200 meters. The following brachiopod remains were collected at the levels of 7 and 30 metres above the base of the section: Agramatia cf. membranacea (Phill.), Productella cf. lachrimosa var. strigmata Hall, "Camarotoechia" baitalensis Reed, and Cyrtospirifer ex gr. pamiricus Reed.

Upper Devonian - Lower Carboniferous The undifferentiated Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous deposits are mapped in Middle Afghanistan. They occur in the Kohe Taraqa and Kohe Qaftarkhan mountains, near the villages of Rabati-Sapcha and Bawran, in the upper reaches of the Tagaw-i-Takcah River, in Kohe Pud and Kohe Safad mountains, in the Gok Rivers drainage basin, in the upper reaches of the Torbulak River, near Kirmoq-i-Kotal, Sato, Kotale and Hajigak passes, and in the Turkman, Shewa and other drainage basins. They are known in literature as the Rabat-i-Poy (165), Hajigak (178) and Zindajan (339) series. Relevant descriptions of the deposits and fossils contained therein are available in numerous publications and manuscripts of many authors, e.g. K. Griesbach (165), H. Hayden (178), F. Cowper-Reed (53), R. Furon (123), B. Maillieux (265), S. Popol and S. Tromp (339), G. Mennessier (292), E. Martina (277), A. Lapparent et al. (240, 242), A. Desio et al. (60-63), D. Brice et al. (36), W. Haas et al. (176), A. Drcoop et 71

al. (105, 106), I.K. Kusov et al. (231), G.G. Semionov et al. (141), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142), V.I. Dronov et al. (143, 152, 423) and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). The sequence is composed of grey and black inequibedded clayey and clastic-detrital organogenic limestones interbedded with sandstones, siltstones, marls and dolomites. Their thickness varies from 180 meters in the Kohe Pud Mountains to 800 meters in the Gok River drainage basin. The beds lie transgressively on Middle Devonian deposits (Kohe Taraqa, Kohe Baled, Kohe Pud, and other areas) and are transgressively overlapped by Permian beds (Kohe Pud and Kohe Safed mountains). The best studied are the Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous sections from Kohe Pud and Kohe Qaftarkhan mountains and from the Gok and Shewa river drainage basins. The sections exhibit somewhat different features. In the Kohe Pud, the section is most complete (143, 152, 423). The Middle Devonian limestones are overlain disconformably by the following succession of beds:
1. Sandstone, inequigranular, quartzose, enclosing limestone lenses. Remains of Frasnian fauna: Thamnopora boloniensis Cosselet, Alveilites suborbicularis Lam., tabulate corals, and Stromatopora aff. laminosa Lee stromatopores Limestones inequibedded, clayey and sandy-clayey, interbedded with siltstones and sandstones and enclosing a 1.5 meter bed of red iron-bearing oolitic limestone 10 meters above the base. Remains of Frasnian fauna: brachiopods - Spinatrypa ex gr. tubaecostata (Paeck.), Mesoplica ex gr. praelonga (Sow.), Cyrtospirifer sp. (C. ex gr. disiunctus Sow.), Hypothyridina aff. margarita Vern., Steinhagella aff. petini (Nal.); tetracorals -Hexagonaria aff. arcticum (Meck.), H. aff. columellare Soshk., Schluteria kostetskae Soshk. and Billingsastrea pentagona (Goldg.); tabulate corals - Thamnopora ex gr. cervicornis Blainv., Th. bolonienais Cosselet, Alveolites suborbicularis Lam. and Alveolitella pamirica Lel.; and crinoids - Hexacrinites (?) kartzevae Yelt. et Dubat and H. (?) aculeolatus Stuk Siltstone, limy-clayey Limestone, red, ferriferous at the base (15 m) and yellow-grey at the top (10 m). Remains of Famennian brachiopods - Cyrtospirifer romanowskii Nal., C. pamiricus (Reed), Praewaagenoconcha cf. speciosa (Hall), Athyris ex gr. chitralensis Reed, Schizophoria aff. impressa Hall., "Camarotoechia" ex gr. baitalensis Reed and Ptychomaletoechia (?) ex gr. deltidialis Gaet Siltstone, limy-clayey Limestone, medium-bedded, carrying chert nodules. Fauna remains: Late Tournaisian-Early Visean brachiopods - Rhipidomella michelini (Ev), Leptagonia analoga (Phill.), Eomarginifera derbiensis (M.-W.), E. ovaloides Litv., Syringothyris afghanica Plod., Tylothyris ex gr. lamellosa (McCoy), Unispirifer sp. (U. ex gr. tornacensis (Kon) Composita ex gr. megala (Tolm.) and Clyothyridina sublamellosa (Hall); Viesan-Namurian tetracorals, Caninophyllum sp., Caninia sp. Zaphrentis cf. delanovi E. et. H., Carcinophyllum sp.,Hexaphyllia sp., Kucichophyllum sp. and Stereoplasma sp Limestone, thick-bedded. Fauna remains: Late Visean-Namurian brachiopods - Inflatia uschkaralensis Litv., Gigantoproductus cf. edelburgensis (Phill.), Buxtonia ex gr. scabricula (Mart.), Punctospirifer sp., Syringothyris sp., Spirifer pentagonoides Plod. and Rotaia kusbassi Soc., Visean-Namurian tetracorals -Caninia sp., Dibunophyllum aff. turbinatum McCoy, Carcinophyllum (7) sp. and Palaeosmilia sp. Sandstone, quartzose, thick-bedded, lying on the eroded surface of the preceding limestone Limestone, thick-bedded, carrying remains of Late Visean brachiopods of Inflatia uschkaralensis Litv., Gigantoproductus cf. edelburgensis (Phill.), Buxtonia ex gr. scabricula (Mart.) 20 m

2.

55 m

3. 4.

15 m 25 m

.5. 6.

10 m 15 m

7.

20 m

8. 9.

10 m 10 m

The beds are overlain disconformably by Permian quartz sandstones. The thickness of beds 1-9 is 180 meters; beds 1-5 (125 m) are Upper Devonian, and beds 6-9 (55 m) Lower Carboniferous. In the Kohe Paraqa Ridge, the Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous sequence is as follows (152). The lower beds being unknown the section starts with:

72

1.

Limestone with interbeds of dolomite, calcareous sandstone and siltstone. All the beds are abundant in remains of Frasnian fauna: brachiopods - Atrypa vulgariformis Aleks., Plicochonetes armatus (Bouch) and Spinatrypa sp., crinoids - Pentagonocyclicus (?) aff. pandus Dubat. and P. granulosus Yelt.; and trilobites - Neocalmonia (Neocalmonia) cf. brinkmanni E. et M

250 m

Fault; the section continues to the north of the fault with:

2. Limestone, thick-bedded, fine-detrital, enclosing chert nodules and interbedded with dolomites and cherts at the top. Remains of Late Tournaisian forminifers: Parathyrammina cushmani Sul., Eotuberitina reitlingerae (M.-Maclay), Tournayella cf. maelleri Malakh., Plakoendothyra cf. comata (Schlyk.), Endothyra cf. similis Raus et Reitl. and Quasiendothyra cf. rotai Dain Limestone, clayey with chert nodules. Remains of Late Tournaisian - Early Visean brachiopods: Marginatia cf. burlingtonensis (Hall), Rhipidomella michelini L. Ev., Leptagonia analoga (Phill.), Tomiproduotus ex gr. elongantus Lus (Tolm.), Spirifer cf. subgrandis Rot., S. ex gr. missouriensis Swell.; tetracorals: Caninia cornucopiae Mich., Siphonophyllia cylindrica (Scoul.), Palaeosmilia cf. nodosa Kab., Zaphrentites delanouci E. at H., Cyathoclisia tubernaoulum Dingw., Uralina (?) sp., Ufimia C.(?) sp., Amplexus sp. Limestone, clayey interbedded with marls and calcareous shales. Remains of Late Tournaisian Early Visean brachiopods: Rhipidomella michelini LEv., A. Leptagonia analoga (Phill.), Cleithyridina kusbassica Besn., Marginatia ex gr. burlingtonensis (Hall), Unispirifer sp., Spirifer cf. missouriensis Swall; tetracorals: Zaphrentites cf. parallelus (Gaer.), Amplexizaphrentis ex gr. enniskillenia (E. et H.), Fasciculophyllum ex gr. omaluisi (X. et H.), Caninia cf. cornucopiae Mich 150 m

3.

150 m

4.

50 m

The total thickness of beds is 600 meters; bed 1 (250 m) is Upper Devonian and beds 2-4 (350 m) Lower Carboniferous. This is not the original complete thickness of the Upper Devonian - Lower Carboniferous from the Kohe Taraqa area because the base and top of the section remains uncertain. Besides, part of the Frasnian and all the Famennian and Lower Tournaisian beds are out off by a fault. In the Gok River drainage basin, the Upper Devonian -Lower Carboniferous section was described from an area along the Jare Masjed River, where the succession of beds is as follows (152):
1. 2. 3. Quartz sandstone with rare siltstone and dolomite interbeds; some of the rock varieties are cross-bedded Dolomite, thick-bedded, interbedded with quartz sandstones at the base and with siltstones at the top Limestone, clayey, bedded, enclosing marl interbeds and remains of Frasnian bracbiopods: Myrcrospirifer cf. vassinensis Ron., M. ex gr. mucronazus (Conrad), Atrypa sp. Eoreticularia (?) sp., Desquamatia sp.; tetracorals: Hexagonaria quadrigemina (Goldf.), Billingsastrae limitata (E. et H.), Tabellaephyllum aff. Livnense Soshk., Prismatophyllum schuberti Smith Limestone, light grey, thick-bedded Alternating clayey lumpy limestones and argillites Limestone, thick-bedded Alternating members 15 to 40 meters thick of siltstones and limestones carrying remains of Famennian-Etroengtian fossils Limestone with remains of Lower Carboniferous brachiopods 120 m 100 m 100 m

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

50 m 100 m 100 m 185 m 50 m

The total thickness of beds 1-8 is 805 meters. This section is different from that of the Kohe Pud Ridge by a considerably greater thickness and different succession of beds. A similar section is found in the Sare Ushon drainage basin, where the incomplete thickness of the Upper Devonian Lower Carboniferous is 460 meters. More eastern outcrops, including the outcrops from the Hajigak Pass thoroughly described in literature, are even loss complete, representing only some portions of the total section. One of the outcrops situated west of Kirmoq Kotal is interesting in that it includes Etroeungtian beds proved by findings of Bagrasia chonetiforinis Krest. et Karp. brachiopod remains. 73

In the Shewa drainage basin, the Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous is lithologically similar to the sections described above. One of the most complete sections was described from an area 1.5-2 kilometers south of the village of Qela-i-Mirza Shah (154), where the Lower Cambrian red sandstones are apparently unconformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. Sandstone, inequigranular, quartzose Dolomite, thick-bedded Marls with beds of organogenic limestone and calcareous shale with remains of Frasnian brachiopods: Cyphoterorhynchus arpaensis (Abram.), Chonetipustula? chitralensis Reed, Spinatryrpina chitralensis (Reed), Uchtospirifer cf. multiplicatus Brice, Cyrtospirifer ex gr. verneuili (Murch.), Douvillina ? asiatica, Reed Limestone, thick-bedded, dolomitized, with abundant remains of corals, amphipores and bryozoans Marls, green-grey Limestone, thick-bedded, dolomitized, composed of remains of corals, amphipores and bryozoans Limestone, sandy, thin-bedded, bearing brachiopod remains Limestone, thick-bedded, containing remains of corals and amphipores Limestone, interbedded with argillites, containing brachiopod remains Argillite, with limestone interbeds Limestone thin-bedded, intercalated with argillites Limestones, with coquinas of large Late Devonian brachiopods 5m 50 m 50 m

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

20 m 3m 10 m 15 m 30 m 50 m 30 m 30 m 210 m

The thickness of beds 1-12 in this section is 503 meters, all the beds being Upper Devonian. The Lower Carboniferous has been proved reliably in the Shewa River drainage basin only in two isolated fault wedges, at the Wuranshor and Gulzary passes. The Upper Tournaisian beds (100-150 m) outcropping at the Wuranshor Pass consist of ash-grey bedded clayey limestones with brachiopod and coral remains: (Dictyoclostus sp., Siphonophyllia cylindrica Cosul., Cyathoclisis ex gr. tabernaculum Dingw., Dibunophyllum sp. At the Gulzary Pass, Visean-Namurian or only Visean beds outcrop. They are composed of dark grey clayey limestones (50-100 m) with shale interbeds and remains of tetracorals: Caninia aff. juddi (Thom.), C. cf. subibicina McCoy, Palaeosmilia ex gr. murchisoni L et H., Ganhamophyllum (?) sp., Amygdalophyllum sp. The total thickness of the Upper Tournaisian and Visean-Namurian deposits in the Shewa River drainage basin is 150-250 meters, the overall thickness of these and the Upper Devonian strata being 650 to 750 meters. On the territory of the U.S.S.R., Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous deposits of the above-described type occur in Central Pamir (204, 205, 73).

Carboniferous
Carboniferous rocks occur in all the regions of Afghanistan. Independent units of Carboniferous system, however, are recognized only in the regions of Hercynian, Middle Cimmerian and Alpine folding, as well as in the North Afghanistan Platform. The Carboniferous sequence in these regions is subdivided into Lower Carboniferous, Middle-Upper Carboniferous, and Carboniferous, undifferentiated (Appendix No.8).

74

Lower Carboniferous The Lower Carboniferous includes Lower Tournaisian, Upper Tournaisian - Visean, Namurian and undifferentiated deposits.

Lower Tournaisian The deposits identified as Lower Tournaisian are distinguished in the regions of Hercynian and Alpine folding and within the North Afghanistan Platform. The deposits are insufficiently studied. Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region In this region, the Lower Tournaisian is found in the Tashkuprok and Konar zones. Tashkuprok Zone A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (198, 200) assigned the Early Tournaisian age to a sequence of limestones and slates including interbeds of basic volcanics. The sequence, 265 meters thick, lies on the Frasnian limestones disconformably and is conformably overlain by the Upper Tournaisian-Visean beds. A section o f the sequence was described from the Barogel Valley (200), where the Frasnian limestones are overlain disconformably by:
1. 2. Basalt porphyrite and its tuffs Limestone, thin-bedded with schist intercalations and remains of Tournaisian foraminifers: Archaeasphaera minims Sula., Asterosphaera pulchra Reitl., Plectogyra aff. tuberiformis Durk. Carbonate slate Limestone, thin-bedded marmorized Basalt porphyry and its tuff Calcareous slate Basalt, aphanitic, albitized Calcareous-sandy schist Basalt porphyry Limestone, thin-bedded, clayey Calcarerous-sandy slate Basalt, similar to bed Calcareous-sandy slate 20 m 20 m

3. 4. 5. 6 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

10 m 10 m 10 m 5m 20 m 10 m 30 m 70 m 5m 25 m 30 m

The beds are conformably overlain by Upper Tournaisian-Visean limestones. The thickness of beds 1-13 is 265 meters. The indicated fauna is not strictly Early Tournaisian as a whole. The Early Tournaisian age was ascribed to the rock sequence tentatively. Konar Zone A.Kh. Kafarsky (198, 200) assigned the Early Tournaisian age to a sequence of rhyolite and basalt porphyries, intercalated. with 0.2-0.3-meter beds of terrigenous and carbonate rocks. The latter contain unidentifiable fossil remains. The sequence is 350 meters thick. On the tentatively Devonian beds it is seemingly disconformable, being overlain conformably by the supposedly Tournaisian-Visean strata. The sequence is tentatively dated as Lower Tournaisian.

75

Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region Within this territory, the Lower Tournaisian sequence is distinguished in the Jaway and Surkhah zones consisting of greenschist - altered acid and basic volcanics enclosing beds, and lenses of terrigenous and carbonate rocks. The rocks are 1,500 to 2,500 meters thick. They lie unconformably on the Ordovician and Silurian-Devonian and are overlain disconformably (locally unconformably) by Upper Tournaisian beds. No organic remains were encountered in the rocks. They were dated as Lower Tournaisian tentatively. Relevant information is available in the works by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (347, 350), V.P. Kolchanov et al. (348), G. G. Semionov et al. (91), and A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153, 198). Jaway Zone The Lower Tournaisian deposits were studied in this zone most thoroughly. Their section was described from the Jaway and Sanglech drainage basins (153), where the Ordovician schists are unconformably overlain by:
1. Quartz and dacite porphyries 300 m

This interval is followed by a shear zone and, after some gap by:
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Diabase porphyry alternating with andesite porphyry Alternation of diabase and andesite porphyries with grey limestone interbeds Andesite porphyries interbedded with diabase porphyries at the top Dacite porphyries with rare tuff and tuff breccia horizons Felsitic albitophyres 440 m 140 m 530 m 350 m 170 m

Here the sequence is broken by fault, along which Proterozoic gneisses are thrust over the volcanics of bed 6. The upper beds of the sequence were described from the Sanglech Valley.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Felsitic albitophyres interbedded with tuffs, agglomerate lavas and tuff breccias Diabase porphyry Quartz porphyry Dacite porphyry tuff, banded, fine-grained Dacite porphyry 300 m 60 m 130 m 80 m 250 m

Above follow unconformable Middle - Upper Carboniferous limestones. The total thickness of beds 1-11 is 2,750 meters, but accounting for the fact that beds 6 and 7 may represent one unit broken by fault, the actual thickness of the section is estimated to be 2,500 meters. Table 2
Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O

Chemical composition of Lower Tournaisian volcanics from the Jaway Zone

1 71.37 0.24 12.0 1.14 1.98 0.06 1.62 3.80 3.20 1.60 2 56.61 1.08 14.20 5.61 3.56 0.09 5.29 3.96 4.72 0.92 3 74.90 0.24 11.62 1.34 2.31 0.12 0.21 2.44 4.88 0.68 4 52.78 0.39 15.42 2.48 4.62 0.14 9.61 6.38 2.22 1.48 5 55.40 0.75 17.65 0.16 6.20 0.13 6.40 6.lb 3.72 0.00 6 75.00 0.45 11.80 0.50 2.70 0.06 0.11 2.28 3.84 2.72 7 70.50 0.45 15.15 0.25 3.02 0.05 1.02 2.81 3.72 2.28 8 67.14 0.30 14.40 1.03 2.48 0.18 3.57 6.91 2.44 0.48

76

P2O5 Loss on ignition Totals

0.03 2.95

0.02 3.52

0.02 0.83

0.07 3.96

0.05 3.68

0.02 0.20

0.07 0.20

0.02 0.87

99.99

99.58

99.59

99.55

100.3

99.68

99.52

99.82

1 - quartz albitophyre (Deh Dawar River); 2 - andesite porphyry (same locality) ; 3 - quartz porphyry (Dayk village) ; 4 - epidote chlorite-actinolite schist (same locality); 5 - diabase porphyry (Jaway River); 6 - quartz keratophyre (Sanglech River); 7 - albitophyre tuff (same locality); 8 - albitophyre (same locality). The volcanics considered extend into the U.S.S.R., where their facies and stratigraphic counterpart is the Fortambek Formation (73). Surkhab Zone In this zone, Lower Tournaisian rocks were distinguished in the north-western part of the West Hendukush Ridge. They are known in literature as the Tundara Formation (350). The formation consists of epidoteactinolite, actinolite, chlorite-epidote-actinolite, actinolite-biotite-albite, actinolite-chlorite-carbonate, and other green schists. The rocks seem to have originated from volcanics. The formation is 1,500 meters thick. Turkmenistan-Horosan Folded Region and North Afghanistan Platform Within this territory, Lower Tournaisian strata outcrop in the Kohe Dawindar and Firozkoh ridges where they are composes chiefly of volcanics enclosing interbeds and lenses of phyllite-like slate and limestone. The strata are 2,000-2,500 meters thick. In the Kohe Dawindar Ridge, the most common rocks are quartz and dacite porphyry, basic volcanics, tuffs of acid and basic volcanics, and tufogenic sandstones (347). In the Firozkoh Ridge, the considered volcanics, known there as the Darrae Takht Series (91), are chiefly represented by andesite porphyries and their tuffs, and at some levels by basic tuffs and lavas enclosing interbeds and lenses of quartz porphyry, dacite porphyry and jasper. Some sections are characterized by predominance of pyroclastic rocks, others by prevalence of lavas. All the rocks had undergone albitization, epidotization, actinolitization and carbonatization. Table 3
Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 Loss on ignition Total

The chemical composition of the Lower Tournaisian Darrae Takht volcanics.

1 61.21 0.77 17.13 2.60 2.67 0.12 2.41 4.48 2.80 3.10 0.13 1.91 99.50 2 51.69 0.96 18.50 2.57 6.23 0.20 4.40 5.67 4.20 1.60 0.26 3.84 100.12 3 51.47 1.57 16.55 6:01 5.40 0.20 3.19 6.30 3.92 0.96 0.25 4.28 100.10 4 52.53 0.64 16.06 2.22 5.11 0.20 8.39 10.23 2.00 0.78 0.12 1.32 99.61 5 72.47 0.42 13.81 0.94 2.95 0.10 1.20 2.43 3.90 0.88 0.12 0.76 99.94

77

1 and 5 andesite porphyry; 2 - dacite porphyry; 3 and 4 diabase porphyry Upper Tournaisian Visean Upper Tournaisian-Visean deposits occur in the same regions as Lower Tournaisian rocks. Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region Within this region, Upper Tournaisian-Visean deposits are distinguished in the Tashkuprok and Konar zones. Tashkuprok Zone A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (198, 200) believed the Upper Tournaisian-Visean to include two conformable carbonate units, 650-700 meters thick, overlying, also conformably, the tentatively Lower Tournaisian beds. The Lower Unit (350-400 m) is composed of black thin-bedded clayey limestones with calcareous shale interbeds. Remains of Late Tournaisian-Visean foraminifers were collected 60 meters above the base: Eotuhiritina reitlingeri (M.-Macl.), Diplosphaerina maljavkini (Mikh.), Radiosphaera basilica Reitl., Asterosphaera pulchra Reitl., Earlandia sp., Plactogyra sp., Tournayellina sp., Ghernyshinelia sp., Archaediscus (?) sp., Tetrataxis sp.; 160 m above the base the were collected Early Visean foraminifers: Earlandia elegans (Raus. et Reitl.), Plectogyra ex gr. similis (Raus.), P. aff. pauciseptata (Raus.), Meadiocris mediocris (Viss.), Tetrataxis aff. paraminima Viss., Archaediscus sp. and Spiroplecta sp. Middle Visean foraminifers were collected 330 meters above the base: Earlandia elegans (Raus. et Reitl.), Rectochernyshinella ? sp., Plectogyra plisca (Raus. et Reitl.), P. ex gr. similis (Raus.), Permodiscus aff. Rotundus Tchern., Planoarchaediscus spirillinoides (Raus.), Archaediscus karreri Brady, A. karreri Brady var. nana Raus., Tetrataxis aff. paraminima Viss. and T. aff. eominima Raus. Tournaisian-Visean tetracorals were collected at the same level: Zaphrentis ex gr. omaluisi Z. at H. Middle Visean foraminifers were recovered from the top of the unit: Plectogyra similis (Raus.), Archaediscus krestovnikovi Raus., Parapermodiscus transitus Reitl., P. ex gr. transitus Reitl. and Planoarchaediscus cospirillinoides Brash. The upper unit (300 m) is composed of massive and thick-bedded light grey limestones. The lower one third of the unit carries Middle Visean foraminifers: Archaediscus krestovnikovi Raus., Tetrataxis eominima Raus. and Plectogyra aff. plisca Raus. collected 60 meters above the base; Earlandia elegans (Raus. et Reitl.), Eotuberitina reitlingerae (M.-Macl.), Radiosphaera basilica Reitl., Plectogyra plisca (Raus et Reitl.), P. similis (Raus.), P. bradyi (Mikh.), P. pulchra Brazh. et Pot., Endothyranopsis compressus (Raus. et Reitl.), Globoendothyra cf. globulus (Eichw.), Mikhailovella gracilis Raus, Archaediscus krestovnikovi Raus., A. ex gr. karreri Brady, Tetrataxis minuta Brazh., T. angusta Viss. and T. aff. digna Grozd. et Lob. were collected 125 meters above the base of the unit. The middle and upper parts of the unit are unfossiliferous. They are tentatively dated as Upper Visean. Konar Zone According to A.Kh. Kafarsky (198, 200), the Upper Tournaisian-Visean is a sequence of carbonate terrigenous rocks, which lies conformably on the beds dated tentatively, as Lower Tournaisian. The approximate thickness of the rocks is about 400 to 450 meters. No identifiable organic remains were found in the rock sequence, and it was dated as Upper Tournaisian-Visean tentatively. Afghanistan - North Pamir Folded Region. Upper Tournaisian-Visean was mapped as a separate unit in the Surkhab and Jaway zones. Surkhab and Jawaz Zones As reported by K.A. Mikhailov et al. (350), A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153, 198), and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154), the Upper Tournaisian-Visean rocks are exposed in small outcrops in the drainage basins of the Sayghan, Surkhab, Andarab, Warsach, Shabiston, Mirkon, Mashad, Ab-i-Dawang, Darrah-i-Sabz and other rivers. The rocks are limestones, shales, sandstones, argillites and conglomerates. Their thickness in the Surkhab and Jaway zones is 150-500 and 290-500 m, respectively. The rocks lie conformably on Lower Tournaisian volcanics, or uncoformably an older formations. They are conformably overlain by Namurian strata. One of the most complete sections is known from the mouth of the Amir-Amand River (153, 154, 350), where the eroded surface of plagiogranite porphyries is overlain by: 78

1. 2. 3. 4

Small- and medium-pebble conglomerates with pebbles of metamorphic slate, sandstone and quartz Limestone bearing remains of the Lower-Middle Carboniferous Compophyllum aff. amplexoides Stock tetracorals Alternating siltstone and limestone beds (10-50 m thick each) with remains of Diphyphyllum sp. Sandstones interbedded with limestones

80 m 10 m 88 m 10 m

The relation of the sandstones with the overlying rocks is uncertain. K. Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350) suggest a fault, while A. Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148) believe the contact to be conformable. The thickness of beds 1-4 in this section is 278 meters. The strata are not persistent along the strike grading facially to one another. For instance, in the Payandeh River drainage basin, almost the entire section is composed of limestone (150-220 m), while in the drainage basin of the Warsach, Sabiston, Mirkon and other rivers the lower part consists of terrigenous-carbonate rocks and the upper part is made up of limestones (500 m). Organic remains are rare. Only a few outcrops are known to contain fossils. The extreme western fossiliferous outcrop situated in the Sayghan River drainage basin exposes 73 meters) of the section consisting of sandstones and siltstones with conglomerate and limestone interbeds which carry remains of Dibunophyllum sp., Lonsdaleia sp. and Gigantoproductus sp. tetracorals and brachiopods (335, 350). Another fossiliferous outcrop was found in an area south of Doabi Mehzarin village, on the right side of the Surknab Valley where limestones and sandstones 95 meters thick are apparently slightly younger than those from the preceding exposure. They contain remains of tetracorals (350): Dibunophyllum turbinatum McCoy, Palaeosmilia sp. and Lithostrotion sp. Below follows a list of foraminifers and tetracorals collected by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350) from the left-hand bank of the Surkhab River which were referred to in the report by A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148). Foraminifers: Tuberitina colossa Reitl., Eotuberitina reitlingerae (M. -Macl.), Ammodiscus sp., Eostaffella ex gr. mosquensis Vis., E. ex gr, ikensis Viss., Neotuberitina maljavkini (Mikh.), Monotaxinoides sp.; tetracorals; Caninia juddi (Thoms.), Gangamophyllum cf. boreale Gorsky, Dibunophyllum ex gr. bristolense Garwood et Golder, Ceisakophyllum triangulatum Yu., C. cf. vesiculosum Yu., Palaeosmilia murchisoni E. et H., Lonsdaleia ex gr. tichyi Dobrol., L. duplicata Mart. and Corwenia cf. sauksaica Pyzh. Tetracorals Diphypyllum ex gr. latesentatum McCoy, and Syringoporidae tabulate corals were collected in the Warsach river drainage basin from clayey limestones at the top of the section (153). All the above fossils are indicative of the Visean the fact or Visean-Namurian age of the beds, but taking into account that the fossils were derived chiefly from the middle and top of the section, the age of the whole unit is assumed to Late Tournaisian-Visean. The rocks extend into the U.S.S.R. as the Dawlokhan Formation of North-Western Pamir (73). Turkmenistan-Horosan Folded Region and North Afghanistan Platform Within this territory, the Lower Tournaisian-Visean sequence includes the lower and middle parts of the Pahlowana Formation in Kohe Dawindar Ridge and the lower part of the Syahsang Series in the Firozkoh Ridge. The rocks were describes by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (347) and V.I. Dronov et al. (91, 147). In the Kohe Dawindar Ridge, the Pahlowana Formation lies on the eroded surface of volcanic rocks dated tentatively as Lower Tournaisian. It is composed of alternating 2- to 40-meter beds of siltstone, sandstone and limestone. The formation includes interbeds of small-pebble conglomerates, gravelstones and volcanics, quartz porphyries and their tuffs and basalt porphyries and their tuffs. Coal intercalations and lenticular seams (1-2 m) are encountered at the top. The total thickness of the formation is 600-700 meters including approximately 400 or 500 meters of Upper Tournaisian-Visean beds. Tournasian tetracorals of Cyathoclisia cf. modavense (Salee) and Siphonophyllum ex. gr. cylindrica Scouder were collected from the lower part of the formation (347). Visean fossils collected in the middle of the formation are Lithostrotion caespitosum (Mart.), L. cf. maccoyanum E et H., Cionodendron columen Bens. et Smith tetracorals, Syringopora ex gr. reticulata Goldf. tabulate corals, and Lituotubella ex gr. glomosphiroides Rauss., Palaeospiroplectommina guttula Mab., P. , Melling Mab., Endothyra kokt jubensia Maus. foraminifers (162, 347). In the Firoskoh Ridge the Syahsang Series lies on Lower Tournaisian volcanics disconformably. It consists of sandstones, shales, limestones, siltstones, conglomerates and gravelstones. The thickness of the series varies from place to place ranging within 2,000 and 4,000 meters. The lower part of the series (1,000-2,000 79

m) is tentatively dated as Upper Tournaisian-Visean. It is sub-divided into three units: (1) basal conglomerates, 60-70 per cent of which consist of pebbles of granitic and volcanic rocks (20-50 m); (2) inequibedded limestones, marls, sandstones and siltstones (150-200 m); and (3) polymictic and oligomictic sandstones and siltstones enclosing lenses and interbeds of limestones, conglomerates and gravelstones (8001,750 m). Organic remains were found in the upper and middle units. Late Tournaisian fossils derived from the middle unit are algae and foraminifers: Girvanella cf. ducci Weth, Parachaetetes palaeozoicus Masl., Diplosphaerina maljavkini (Mikh.), Tournayella cf. discoidea Dain., Septatournayella cf. segmentata (Dais); tabulate corals: Syringopora ramulosa Goldf., S. cf. reticulata Goldf.; and tetracorals: Caninia aff. cornucopiae vesicularis Salec, Compophyllum cf. coninoides Sibly and Verneuilites ex gr. konincki (E. et H.). Visean and Visean-Namurian fossils were derived from the upper unit. The collections differ depending on the site and stratigraphic level. Those collected from the drainage basins of the Jare Choqur and Espisang rivers are algae and foraminifers: Ungdarella cf. uralica Masi., Kamaena cf. delicata Antrop., Eostaffella cf. ikensis Viss., E. proikensis Raus., Mediocris cf. mediocris (Viss.), Archaediscus ex gr. karreri Brady, A. ex.gr. moelleri Raus; and Caninia ex gr. juddi Thom., C. ex gr. samsonensis Sal., Lithostrotion rossicum Stuck tetracorals. The fossils found in Kohe Gundasang Ridge are tetracorals: Dibunonhyllum cf. dobrolubovae Vass., D. turbinatum McCoy, aff. finalis Vass., Caninia cf. subibicina McCoy, Yuanophyllum ex gr. konsuense Yu, Y. ex gr. kitakamiense Yu; and tabulate corals: Chaetitipora cf. agonia Sok. The contact between this sequence and the Namurian beds is obscure and is drawn tentatively inside a uniform terrigenous rock sequence lying approximately in the middle of the section. Namurian The Namurian has been mapped as a separate unit in the same regions as the Tournaisian-Visean. Hindurai Hazar Folded Region. In this region, Namurian rocks are distinguished in the Tashkuprok and Konar zones. Identifiable organic remains were not found, and the rocks were sated as Namurian tentatively. Tashkuprok Zone As reported by A.Kh. Kafarsky (198, 200), Namurian rocks lie conformably on Visean limestones and are represented by phyllite-like slates interbedded with fine-grained sandstones. The rocks are 300 meters thick. They are conformably overlain by the tentatively dated Middle-Upper Carboniferous strata. Konar Zone A.Kh. Kafarsky (198) believes that the Namurian is wholly composed of volcanogenic rocks which are subdivided into four units. The first (lowest) unit (1,100 m) consists of tuffs of basic rocks; the second (1,000 m) of basic lava flows; the third (600 m) of acidic lava flows; and the fourth (1,500 m) of lava breccias mixed in composition. The total thickness of the rocks is 4,200 meters. They lie conformably on the beds of supposedly Visean age and are overlain conformably by tentatively dated Middle-Upper Carboniferous strata. Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region Within this territory, Namurian rocks are mapped in the Jaway and Surkhab zones. Jaway Zone In this zone the Namurian sequence consists of terrigenous rocks 300 meters thick (198). Their relations with older formations are variable; they lie conformably on Visean beds or unconformably on Proterozoic metamorphic rocks. The sequence is overlain unconformably by Middle-Upper Carboniferous strata everywhere. The rocks are dated as Namurian on the basis of their stratigraphic position. The rocks extend into the U.S.S.R., where their counterpart is the Abikharek Formation in north-western Pamir (198, 200). 80

Surkhab Zone Namurian rocks are widespread in the zone being represented by two lithological types, terrigenous and volcanogenic. Terrigenous rocks occur in the middle of the Surkhab Zone, and in the drainage basins of the Payandeh, RodeChal, Farakhar and other rivers. They are represented by dark-coloured siltstones, sandstones and limestones. The sequence varies from 800 to 1,800 meters in thickness. The composite section of the rocks exposed in the Payandeh River drainage basin and on the right-hand bank of the Surkhab River is as follows (148):
1. 2. 3. 4. Coarse-pebble conglomerate with pebbles of limestone and sandstone Siltstone interbedded with fine-grained sandstones and two beds of limestone, 2.5 and 4.5 meters thick Sandstone with siltstone interbeds Limestone bearing Upper Namurian foraminifers: Tolypammina ex gr. fortis Reitl., T. complicata Reitl., Ammovertella sp., Glomospira ex gr. elegans Lip., Haplophragmina cf. kashirica Reitl., Tetrataxis ex gr. conica Moell., Textularia sp., Globivalvulina parva Tschern., G. cf. bulloides (Brady), Endostafella sp., Mediocris? sp. Bradyna ex gr. cribrostomata Raus. et Reitl., B. cf. concinna Reitl., Endothyra sp., Bolasiodisous aff. conbassicus Reitl., Archaediscus sp., Asteroarchaediscus bashkiricus (Krest. et Teod.), Eostaffella parastruvei Raus., E. ovoidea Raus Sandstone with siltstone interbeds Limestone with siltstone interbeds Siltstone and sandstone 15 m 550 m 50 m 75 m

5. 6. 7.

5m 15 m 40 m

The top of the section is eroded. The thickness of beds 1-7 is 790 meters. In the Farakhar River basin, the rocks are 1,800 meters thick. Volcanogenic rocks of Namurian age occur in the exterior north-western part of the Surkhab Zone. Extensive outcrops of the rocks are known from two areas, the Andarab River drainage basin and the left-hand bank of the Panj River. In the Andarab River drainage basin the rocks are greenschist-altered diabase, andesite and augite porphyries, quartz porphyries, felsites and amygdaloidal variolites, which lie conformably on Upper Tournaisian- Visean terrigenous-carbonate beds. The thickness of the volcanic rock sequence is 2,600 meters. Relevant information is available in the works by A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153, 198). The section of the rocks recorded from the right-hand side of the Andarab Valley is as follows (153):
1. 2. 3. 4. Diabase porphyry, epidotized, enclosing quartz porphyry interbeds Quartz porphyry and its tuffs enclosing felsite interbeds Augite porphyry, interbedded with quartz porphyry Alternating andesite, diabase and augite porphyries and amygdaloidal variolites with spheroidal parting 450 m 500 m 350 m 1,300 m

These are followed by unconformably lying Middle-Upper Triassic terrigenous beds. The thickness of beds 1-4 is 2,600 meters. Organic remains were not found in the rocks, and they were dated as Namurian tentatively. The Namurian sequence of volcanic rocks outcropping along the left-hand bank of the Panj River consists of three units correlatable with the Aspandow, Ushkharw and Jak formations from North-Western Pamir (73, 432). The rocks were described by V.M. Moraliov et al. (351).

81

Table 4 Chemical composition of Namurian volcanic rocks from the Andarab and Labghard drainage basin.
Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO N a2O K2O P2O5 LI Total 1 52.60 0.99 16.00 4.06 7.98 0.28 5.56 5.93 4.00 1.28 0.14 1.00 99.73 2 77.50 0.18 8.86 1.00 2.04 0.19 2.92 1.63 4.56 0.48 0.06 0.12 99.54 3 63.54 7.27 1.97 2.52 0.08 15.40 2.58 2.24 0.44 0.01 3.64 99.70 4 49.70 0.36 16.12 2.66 4.28 0.37 7.56 10.78 2.68 1.20 0.20 3.97 99.70 5 67.64 0.60 12.50 0.77 4.00 0.08 2.24 2.66 3.04 0.24 0.07 5.70 99.54 6 53.96 0.66 15.92 3.40 4.78 0.17 3.56 7.90 3.20 1.04 0.02 4.88 99.49 7 46.19 0.54 15.74 1.06 5.54 0.14 10.46 7.44 2.32 0.80 0.02 9.74 99.99 8 63.82 0.60 13.44 1.89 4.83 0.12 2.48 4.86 3.40 0.68 0.02 3.63 99.77

Argandab River drainage basin: 1 - diabase porphyry; 2 - quartz porphyry; 3 - felsite; 4 - porphyrite; 5 - albitophyre; Labghard River drainage basin: 6 - diabase porphyry lava breccia; 7 - porphyrite lava breccia; 8 - andesite porphyry The lower unit (1,100-1,900 m) was traced along the left bank of the Panj River from the midstream of the Darrahe-i-Sabz River to the meridian of the village of Nisay. It consists of variegated andesite and dacite porphyries and their tuffs interbedded with diabase porphyries and agglomerates with limestone lenses. The middle unit (2,000 m) outcrops along the left bank of the Panj River from the upper reaches of the DaukaShakhtaty River to the village of Mustiw. It is composed of green dacite and andesite porphyries and their tuffs inter-bedded with diabase porphyries, tuff breccias and agglomerates enclosing limestone lenses. The upper unit (1,700 m) occurs along the left bank of the Panj River south of the village of Arzishk, in the Darrahe-i-Sabz Valley and in the right side of the Kufob Valley. It lies either conformably or with traces of erosion on the middle unit and consists of dacite and andesite porphyrite tuff interbedded with lavas of the same rocks, as well as of agglomerates, tuff breccias, tuffaceous siltstones and gravelstones with limestone lenses. The maximum thickness of all the three units is 5,600 meters. No organic remains were found, and the units were dated as Namurian on the basis of comparison with similar rock sequences from NorthWestern Pamir (73, 432). Turkmenistan-Horosan Folded Region and North Afghanistan Platform Within this territory, Namurian rocks compose the upper 200 meters of the Pahlowana Formation (377) in Kohe Dawinder Ridge and the lower 500 to 1,000 meters of the portion of the Syahsang Series in the Firozkoh Ridge (91). The rocks are dark and variegated sandstones and siltstones enclosing interbeds and lenses of limestone, conglomerate and gravelstone. In the Kohe Dawindar Ridge, the rocks bear Namurian brachiopods: Gigantoproductus aff. superbus Sar., Spirifer bisukcatus Sow. (347). In the Firozkoh Ridge, the rocks are unfossiliferous and were dated as Namurian on the basis of their stratigraphic position. Their relations with the Visean and Middle Carboniferous are conformable. Lower Carboniferous, undifferentiated [Footnote: The undifferentiated Lower Carboniferous sequence refers here and below to that shown in the geological map of 1:500,000 scale (140).] 82

Undifferentiated Lower Carboniferous sequence is recognized in several zones of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region, in the south-east of the North Afghanistan Platform, and in the Region of Alpine Folding. The sequence is poorly studied. It is composed of terrigenous and volcanogenic rocks exhibiting intricate facies relationships. The rocks are poor in organic remains and were dated as Lower Carboniferous mostly on the basis of their stratigraphic position and by comparison with similar fossiliferous formations from other areas. Afghanistan - North Pamir Folded Region and North Afghanistan Platform In these regions, undifferentiated Lower Carboniferous sequence is distinguished in the Maymana Fault Block and in the Bamyan and Faydzabad zones. The sections of the sequences are somewhat different. Maymana Fault Block Two types of Lower Carboniferous rock sections are distinguished within this area, viz, the North Surkhab and the Balkhob types. The North Surkhab The North Surkhab type of Lower Carboniferous rocks is found within the left tributaries of the Surkhab River. The rocks are similar in facies to the Lower Carboniferous rocks from the Surkhab Zone. In this area, the Lower Carboniferous is represented by the Qala-i-Murat Formation of sedimentaryvolcanogenic rocks (154, 350). The formation starts with a 1 to 6-meter bed of basal conglomerates consisting of pebbles of the underlying rocks; these are followed by sandstones, shales and silt- stones enclosing interbeds and lenses of marble and schistose intermediate and basic volcanic rocks. The thickness of the formation is 2,000 to 2,500 meters. It lies on various levels of the Ordovician and Silurian-Devonian and is overlain disconformably by Middle Carboniferous and younger beds. No identifiable organic remains were found in the rocks. The Lower Carboniferous age was assigned tentatively. The Balkhob type Lower Carboniferous rocks of The Balkhob type occur in the middle of the Bande-Amir Valley. Two units are distinguishable (148). The lower unit The lower unit (800 m) lies disconformably on Silurian-Devonian limestones and consists of alternating dark-grey shales, sandstones, siltstones and limestones. The unit starts with a 120- to 150-meter bed of medium pebble basal conglomerates. The rocks contain remains of Lower Carboniferous tetracorals of Lithostrotion sp., Lophophyllum sp. The upper unit The upper unit (1,000 m) lies conformably on the lower one and is overlain disconformably by Permian beds. It consists of greenschist-altered schistose basic volcanics. The unit is unfossiliferous and was dated as Lower Carboniferous tentatively. Bamyan Zone In this zone, the Lower Carboniferous is represented by metamorphosed sandstones, shales and siltstones including interbeds and lenses of limestones, greenschist-altered intermediate and basic volcanics, cherts, conglomerates and gravelstones. The rocks are over 2,000 meters in thickness. Their relations with the underlying strata are uncertain. They are assumed to be transgressive. The rocks are overlain unconformably by Permian beds. No organic remains were found in-situ, though fragments from gravelstones and conglomerates occurring in the mouth of the Shingharin River were found to contain middle Visean foraminifers of Archaediscus krestovnikovi Raus., A. magnus Schlyk, A. convexus Grozd. et Leb. Tetrataxis minuta Brazhn., T. aff. eominima Raus. Permodiscus retundus (Tschern.). Hazrat Sultan Zone In this zone, undifferentiated Lower Carboniferous sequence occurs in the water-divide area and in the eastern sides of Kohe Safedhirs, Hazrat Sultan and Khwazja Mohammad ridges. The rocks were described by 83

V.M. Moraliov et al. (351), Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (151), A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (153) and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). The rocks are actinolite, actinolite-chlorite, albite-epidote-actinolite, muscovite chlorite-feldspar-quartz, quartz- sericite-chlorite, quartz-sericite, sericite, sericite-biotite-quartz and other schists, which apparently were formed due to greenstone transformation of basic volcanics. The schists enclose interbeds and lenses of marmorized limestones or pebblestones, as well as less altered porphyries. Table 5
Oxides SiO2 TiO2 A12O3 Fe203 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 Loss on ignition

Chemical composition of Lower Carboniferous volcanics from Hazrat Sultan Zone.

1 57.26 0.46 16.00 2.31 4.13 0.09 7.83 5.70 2.12 0.72 0.06 2.97 2 51.46 1.35 16.15 2.61 6.37 0.21 6.53 8.36 2.20 1.84 0.21 2.11 3 51.90 1.95 15.52 2.44 7.25 0.23 6.48 9.27 2.52 0.64 0.17 0.93 4 51.37 1.23 14.45 3.84 8.23 0.31 5.64 9.73 3.92 0.48 0.12 0.59 5 53.52 0.41 14.81 3.59 5.25 0.14 7.72 8.28 3.56 0.68 0.07 2.20 6 45.13 1.50 17.60 2.38 8.50 0.22 7.66 11.62 1.52 0.24 0.29 2.84

Total

99.67

99.40

99.30

99.91

100.23

99.50

1-3 - diabase porphyry (Darrahe-i-Seh Ab River); 4 - apobasalt-amphibole schist (Caj-Darya River); 5 porphyry (same locality); 6 - porphyry (Darrah-i-Rawenjab River) The rocks are over 2,000 meters thick. The overlying beds were not identified; the underlying beds consist of Silurian-Devonian terrigenous rocks. Organic remains are very rare. Only in one site, in the Gkharam River drainage basin, a bed of metamorphosed limestone enclosed in schists was found to contain remains of Textularidae (151). These findings suggest, though with great uncertainty, that the enclosing rocks are of Early Carboniferous age. On the territory of the U.S.S.R., the counterpart of the sequence described is the Darwaza-Sarykol complex of terrigenous-volcanogenic rocks (73). Suleiman-Kirthar area According to V.M. Chmyriov and A.Kh. Kafarsky, formations of Lower Carboniferous age occur in the north of the Khost Matun Uplift where they consist of greenstone-altered volcanics of mixed composition, widespread at the southern foothills of the Spin Ghar Ridge. The thickness of the rocks and their relations with older and younger formations remain uncertain. The rocks are unfossiliferous and are dated as Lower Carboniferous tentatively. Previous investigators believed them to be of Early Cretaceous age (371).

Middle-Upper Carboniferous Middle-Upper Carboniferous rocks are distinguished as a separate unit in regions of Hercynian folding and within the North Afghanistan Platform. The lithology and succession of the rocks differs from region to region.

84

Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region Within this region, Middle Upper Carboniferous rocks are distinguished in the Surkhab, Jaway and West Hendukush zones. Surkhab Zone Middle Upper Carboniferous rocks occur here in three isolated areas: (1) in the northern side of the West Hendukush Ridge; (2) in the drainage basin of the Rode Namakab River; and (3) in the Panj area. They are represented by limestones with a subordinate amount of terrigenous rocks and lie unconformably on Namurian sedimentary-volcanogenic strata. They are overlain conformably by Permian beds. Their thickness varies within 80 to 900 meters. Relevant information is available in the works by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350), V.P. Kolchanov et al. (348), A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153, 182, 198) and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). At the northern foothills of the West Hendukush Ridge Middle-Upper Carboniferous rocks are not widespread; they are exposed in small outcrops along the right bank of the Surkhab River and in the drainage basins of the Khanjan, Waljan and Payandeh rivers. These rocks are represented by limestones 300 to 500 meters thick lying unconformably on the Shengan Granites and Namurian terrigenous beds. The sequence starts with basal conglomerates (20-250 m) with pebbles of granite, granodiorite, quartz porphyry, sandstone, limestone, and other rocks. Middle-Late Carboniferous fossils were collected in the limestones west of the Waljan River (Payandeh River drainage basin). These are foraminifers represented by Tuberitina collossa Reitl., Pseudostafella sphaeroides Ehr., Fusulina cf. samarica Raus. et Bel., F. elegans Raus, et Bel., Profusulinella librovitschi Dutk. and Ozawainella aff. mosquensis Raus., Petalaxis maccoyna multiliseptata Fomitsch tetracorals (148). Besides, foraminifers, algae and corals of Bashkirian, Moscovian and Late Carboniferous age were identified from the findings collected by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350) at the left bank of the Sayghan River and at the right bank of the Srukhab River (148). Listed below are Bashkirian foraminifers and algae: Tolypammina ex gr. elegans Reitl., Globivalvulina cf. minima Reitl., Endothyra cd. spirillinoides Brach., Bradyina nautiliformis Moell., B. cf. cribrostomata Raus. et Reitl., Lasiodiscus sp., Asteroarchaediscus rugosus Raus., Pseudostaffella antiqua (Dutk.), Profusulinella sp., Ozawainella sp., Ungdarella uralica Masl.; Early Moscovian foraminifers: Profusulinella sp., Schubertella obscura Lee et Chen., Aljutovella sp., Eofusulina sp., Pseudostaffella sp., Bradyina cf. nautiliformis Moell., Tetrataxis sp. Late Moscovian foraminifers and corals: Tuberitina collosa Reitl., Monotaxinoides sp., Pseudostaffella sphaeroidea Ehr., Fusulina cf. samarica Raus. et Bel., F. elegans Raus et Bel., Profusulinelia librovitschi Dutk., Fusulinella aff. tokmakensis Raus. et Dam., F. aff. vozhalensis Sat., Ozawainella aff. moscuensis Raus., Petalaxis maccoyana multiseptata Fomitsch. and Late Carboniferous foraminifers: Triticites ex gr. acutus Dunb. et Skinn., Rugosofusulina ex gr. alpina Raus. In the Namakab River drainage basin, this unit seems to be represented by the Upper Carboniferous only and consists of thin- and medium-bedded limestones (80 m) interbedded with shales and siltstones (153). The rocks lie unconformably on Namurian terrigenous beds and are conformably overlain by Lower Permian strata. The limestones contain remains of Upper Carboniferous foraminifers: Triticites articus (Schell.) and Quasifusulina (?) sp. In the Panj area, V.M. Moraliov et al. subdivide the Middle Upper Carboniferous into the Upper Moscovian substage and the Upper Carboniferous. The Upper Moscovian sub stage consists of two parts: light grey thin-banded limestone with interbeds of dacite and andesite porphyries (120 m) at the base, and dark-grey crinoidal limestone (130 m) at the top. The total thickness of the rocks in the Rawanak area is 250 meters, and in the upper reaches of the Kuwand River 400 meters. The Upper Carboniferous is wholly composed of limestones, which lie conformably on the Upper Moscovian beds, and unconformably on all the older formations. The thickness of the limestone beds is 350 to 400 m (Darrahe-i-Shipun River drainage basin), 300 to 400 m (Darrahe-i-Sabz River drainage basin), 450 m (Darya-i-Bacay River drainage basin), 100-150 m (east of Ghumay), 150 to 200 m (the upper reaches of the Darrah-i-Kuwand and Darya-i-Jaway rivers), and 500 to 700 m (the middle reaches of the Rasti-Darrah River). The Late Carboniferous age of the limestones is proved by Axelithophyllum sp., Campophyllum aff. stuckenbergi Fomitsch corals collected from the upper reaches of the Bacay River.

85

Jaway Zone The Middle-Upper Carboniferous is mapped as an undifferentiated unit. The section described from the Sanglech River drainage basin is as follows (153). Lower Tournaisian volcanics are unconformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Limestone, massive, marmorized Limestone with crinoid remains Limestone, stratified, bearing remains of Pseudostaffella sp., Ozawainelia sp. Limestone, medium-bedded with remains of tabulate corals Shale with pyrite crystals Detrital limestone 120 m 50 m 15 m 25 m 35 m 45 m

The deposits are 290 meters thick. In the Caj River drainage basin, the section of the Middle Upper Carboniferous is somewhat different: at the base occur carbonaceous shales interbedded with marmorized limestones, calcareous siltstones and sandstones, and at the top, limestones, like in other regions. The thickness of the beds varies within 50 to 250 meters. West Hendukush Zone In this zone Middle-Upper Carboniferous deposits outcrop in the watershed area of a ridge east of the Salang Pass. According to A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148), the dark grey and light grey inequibedded limestones and phyllite-like slates give rise to a sequence, 300 to 350 meters thick, resting unconformably on the Proterozoic metamorphic rocks and conformably overlain by Lower Permian strata. No identifiable organic remains were found in the rocks. So, they were dated as Middle-Upper Carboniferous tentatively. Turkmenistan-Horosan Folded Region and North Afghanistan Platform Within this territory, the Middle Upper Carboniferous deposits are mapped in Kohe Dawindar and Firozkoh ridges and within the Maymana Fault Block. They are lithologically different. Kohe Dawindar In this area, the Sangezard Formation is assigned to the Middle-Upper Carboniferous (347). It consists of inequibedded and massive aphanitic and organogenic- detrital limestones including interbeds of carbonaceous argillites, sandstones and siltstones. Middle-Upper Carboniferous fossils were collected in the middle and top portions of the formation. These are Cyclocyclicus rugosus Yelt. et Schew., C. ex gr. arenarius Yelt. et Schew., Pentagonocyclicus circumvalatus Yelt. et Schew. crinoids and Campophyllum nikitini Stuckenb., Bothrophylium sp. corals. The formation is 100 to 500 meters thick. It lies conformably, occasionally with traces of erosion, on the terrigenous Pahlowana Formation and is overlain disconformably by Permian red beds. Kohe Firozkoh The Middle-Upper Carboniferous constitutes the upper portion of the Syahsang Series of terrigenous rocks (91, 147) and consists of dark, occasionally variegated, polymictic sandstones, shales and siltstones including interbeds and lenses of conglomerates, gravelstones and limestones. The rocks lie conformably on Namurian strata and are overlain disconformably by Permian red beds. The whole thickness of the Syahsang Series is estimated to be within 2,000-4,000 meters. The upper 500-1,000 meters is Middle- Late Carboniferous in age. The fossils collected in limestone interbeds and lenses occurring at the top of the series inside terrigenous rocks were identified as Middle Carboniferous (Late Moscovian) foraminifers (91): Eostafella acuta Grozd. et Leb., Ozawainella sp., Fusulinella subpulchra Putrja, Pseudostaffella ex gr. sphaeroidea Ehr., Bradyina ex gr. lepida Reitl., Dekerella tenuissima Reitl., Tetratexis ex gr. angusta Viss. (Podolsk horizon); Fusulinella aff. schwagerinoides adjuncta Raus., F. ex gr. pulchra Raus., F. ex gr. bocki Moell., Ozawainella 86

ex gr. kuzakborensis Lee, Quasifusulinoides (?) sp. (Myachkowian horizon). No organic remains were found in the Upper Carboniferous rocks. Mayama Fault Block The Middle-Upper Carboniferous constitutes part of the folded basement of the platform, outcropping from beneath the platforms sedimentary cover in the cores of anticlines and in the deeply incised valleys. Two types of sections are distinguished, namely the North Surkhab and the Bande Turkestan types. The North Surkhab The North Surkhab type of Middle-Upper Carboniferous deposits is found within the left-hand tributaries of the Surkhab River, where they are represented by various limestones (200-400 m) laying unconformably on all the pre-Middle Carboniferous deposits and unconformably overlain by Cretaceous strata. The sequence starts with 1- to 3-meter bed of basal conglomerates. The organic remains collected in the lower 60 or 80 meters of limestones near the village of Ka'in are represented by a Late Namurian Bashkirian assemblage of foraminifers (154): Tolypammina fortus Reitl., Ammobaculites beshevensis Brazh., Endothyra ex gr. bradyi Mikh., E. irregularis Reitl., E. bradyi compressa Reitl., E. cf. aljutovica Reitl., Bradyina oribrostomata Raus. et Reitl., B. venuta Reitl., Eostaffella parastruvei Raus. K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350) reported a list of Moscovian foraminifers and Late Carboniferous tetracorals derived from the same areas, but, apparently, from higher beds. These are foraminifers: Tuberitina collossa Reitl., Eotuberitina reitlingerae (M.-Macl.), Bradyina cf. nautiliformis Moell., Ozawainella sp., Aljutovella sp., Profusulinella sp.; algae: Ungdarella uralica Masl.; and tetracorals Caninia ex gr. nosovi Fomitsch., C. cf. schechunovi Fomitsch., Chaetetes ex gr. radians Fisch. The Bande Turkestan type The Bande Turkestan type of Middle Upper Carboniferous deposits outcrops from under the platform sedimentary cover in the Bande Turkestan mountain system in an area of the village of Khwaja Surkhion. The deposits are red sandstones and siltstones with limestone lenses. The lower contact of the sequence is not exposed, and the upper contact with Permian red bed remains uncertain. The thickness is roughly estimated to be 500 meters. The fossils collected from limestone lenses are Middle Carboniferous (Late Moscovian) foraminifers (90, 147): Ozawainella ex gr. angulata (Colani), Pseudostaffella cf. formosa Raus., Fusullina ex gr. elshanica Put. et Leont., Fusulinella ex gr. helenae Raus., F. cf. eopulchra Raus., Eofusulina sp. Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region Within this territory, Middle Upper Carboniferous deposits were mapped in the Tashkuprok Zone. They are subdivided into two units whose total thickness is 530 meters (198, 200). The lower unit (220 m) lies conformably on the shale beds dated tentatively as Namurian. It consists of dark, thick- bedded and massive detrital limestones bearing poorly preserved remains of Late Paleozoic brachiopods: Brachytirina grandis (Schell.), Reticulatia sp., Juresania sp., Neospirifer sp., Stenoscima sp. The upper unit (310 m) lies conformably on the lower and is represented by phyllite-like carbonaceous shales enclosing a 50-meter member of fine-grained sandstones in the middle. No organic remains were found in the rocks. They were supposedly dated as Middle Upper Carboniferous on the basis of their stratigraphic position. Besides, according to A.Kh. Kafarsky (198), Middle-Upper Carboniferous deposits are present in the Konar Zone.

Carboniferous undifferentiated This unit is supposed to represent a rock sequence which occurs in the Nakhchir Par Zone (Middle Afghanistan) west of the Darah-i-Syah Jar (Furmoragh) River. The underlying rocks remain unknown. The sequence is overlain with a visible conformity by Permian-Upper Triassic (Carnian) metamorphosed limestones. It consists of three conformable parts. The lower part (300-500 m) consists of green-grey feldspar-quartz sandstones; the middle part (20-50 m) of white, rusty-red when weathered, marmorized limestones and dolomites; and the upper part (1,500-2,000 m) of black regularly interbedded polymictic sandstones, shales and siltstones. The total thickness of the sequence is 1,820-2,550 meters. The rocks are 87

unfossiliferous and are dated as Carboniferous on the basis of their stratigraphic position. In the U.S.S.R., a counterpart of the sequence is the lower part of a sequence of terrigenous metamorphosed rocks which occur in the drainage basins of the Qudara, Bashurvdara and Khawrezdara rivers in the Central Pamir.

Carboniferous-Lower Permian [Footnote: In accordance with the stratigraphic classification adopted in the U.S.S.R. for the Permian in Central Asia (57), the Permian is divided here into two series; the series are divided into horizons. The Lower Permian includes (upwards) the Karachatyrian, Uluk and Kubergandinian horizons, and the Upper Permian consists of the Murghabian and Pamirian horizons.] Undifferentiated Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence is distinguished in the South Afghanistan and Nurestan-Pamir median. masses, in the Afghanistan-South Pamir and Suleiman-Kirthar regions. In all the above-said regions the sequence consists of monotonous predominantly marine, fine-terrigenous rocks with rare lenses and beds of limestone, or, in some areas, volcanic rocks. The rock sequence does not cover the whole of the Carboniferous and Lower Permian representing only some intervals, the latter varying from place to place. Apart from the Helmand-Argandab Uplift, the lower boundary of the unit is unknown, and the upper boundary drifts from the middle of the Uluk to the top of the Kubergandinian horizon of the Lower Permian. South Afghanistan Median Mass Within this territory, undifferentiated Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence is mapped within the Helmand-Argandab Uplift and in the Farah Rod Trough. Its stratigrapho-lithological succession varies from area to area. Helmand-Argandab Uplift Undifferentiated Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence is recognized in the Argandab, Logar and Tirin zones. Relevant information is available in the works by K. Fesefeldt (115), A. Lapparent et al. (243), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 208, 274, 409), Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144), R. Desparmet et al. (72) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). The sequence in all the zones is montonous, consisting of variegated and grey, predominantly quartzose, sandstones, shales and siltstones with a bed of organogenic limestone in its lower part. In the Argandab Zone, the sequence is referred to as the Shalkalay Series (144, 274), and in the Logar Zone, it is divided into three units, Wakak, Bokan and Dony-Yarchy (243). In the Argandab Zone, the rocks lie conformably on the Devonian everywhere, while in the Tirin Zone, their relations with the underlying deposits are variable. They lie conformably on the Upper Devonian over most of the zone and they rest unconformably on the Proterozoic in the extreme north-east of the uplift (Nawe Farukh area) (72). The rocks are overlain conformably by Uluk-Kubergandinian limestones, though indications of erosion are observed in some areas. The sequence is 500 to 1,000 meters thick. The type section was described in the Argandab Zone from an area of Shalkalay village (144) where Upper Devonian quartz sandstones are conformably overlain by:
1. Limestone, organogenic bearing remains of Tournaisian Caninia aff. cornicopiae Mich., Siphonophyllum sp.; tetracorals; remains of Dictyoclostus ex gr. crawfordawillensis Well. brachiopods were collected from the same bed in another area Siltstone, dark-grey, obscurely bedded Sandstone, cream-coloured fine-grained, quartzose Interbedded siltstones and quartz sandstones Sandstone, fine-grained, quartzose Siltstone, thin-bedded Sandstone, fine-grained, quartzose, interbedded with grey siltstones Siltstone, obscurely bedded Sandstone, fine- and medium-grained, quartzose, enclosing quartz gravelstone lenses and interbeds 35 m

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

8m 12 m 15 m 25 m 17 m 117 m 15 m 140 m

88

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Siltstone, thin-bedded Sandstone fine-grained, quartzose Siltstone, calcareous, bearing remains of Carboniferous productids Sandstone, fine- and medium-grained, quartzose, interbedded with siltstone Siltstone, thin-bedded Sandstone, medium-grained, predominantly quartzose Siltstone, calcareous, bearing brachiopod remains Sandstone, fine- and medium-grained, quartzose, enclosing interbeds of siltstone at base and lenses of gravelstone and small-pebble conglomerate in the middle and top Sandstone, fine-grained, calcareous, feldspar- quartzose, including rare thin siltstone interbeds

17 m 33 m 10 m 62 m 60 m 35 m 15 m 115 m 62 m

Above follow conformably lying Uluk-Kubergandinian limestones. The thickness of beds 1-18 in this section is 893 meters. This succession of Carboniferous - Lower Permian beds with some insignificant variations in thickness and lithology is observed everywhere in the Argandab, Logar and Tirin zones. Apart from the above-mentioned fossils, an assemblage of Early Carboniferous tetracorals was collected from the bottom layers in various localities: Palaeosmilia aff. murchisoni E. et H., Stereolasma sp,, Zaphrentis aff. subcarruthersi Voss., Heterophyllia (?) sp., Zaphrentoides sp., Clinophyllum sp., Rotiphyllum ex gr. ruschianum (Vaughan), Fasciculophyllum aff. repressum Schindev., Cloviphyllum cf. magnificum Schindev. Early-Middle Carboniferous crinoids were collected from the middle. These are: Hexacrinites sp., Moscovicrinus (?) sp., Parisocrinus asiaticus Jakovl., Pentagonocyclicus simplex Schew. Late Carboniferous - Early Permian brachiopods and fusulinids represented by Neospirifer nitiensis Dien., Cancrinella cancriniformis (Tschern.), Triticites (?), sp., Pseudofusulina ex gr. tschernyschewi (Schell.), Parafusulina cf. fergenica M.-Macl. were collected from the upper beds near the Yakhshy Khurd village and in other localities. Numerous remains of new species of pseudofusulinids of Uluk appearance were collected in various sites from the topmost beds. In the same interval, Lower Permian tetracorals of Ufimia elongata (Grab.), Caninia sp. were collected. Farah Rod Trough In this area, Carboniferous-Lower Permian deposits were found only in the Khash Rod zone. As reported by V.I. Dronov et al. (152), they outcrop from beneath the Jurassic-Cretaceous strata in the drainage basin of the Pushte Rod River. They are black polymictic sandstones, shales and siltstones enclosing interbeds of organodetrital limestone at the top. The latter were found to contain unidentifiable remains of fusulinids having a Carboniferous-Permian appearance. The deposits are 4,000 to 5,000 meters in thickness. Their relations with the underlying and overlying strata are uncertain. Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass Carboniferous-Lower Permian deposits were proved only in the Wakhan Zone, and are inferred in the Nurestan Fault Block. Wakhan Zone The Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence consists of black siltstones and black phyllite-like slates enclosing interbeds and lenses of polymictic and quartz sandstones. The sequence was estimated to be over 1,800 meters thick (200). Its relationship with the underlying Proterozoic metamorphic rocks is not clear. The sequence is overlain disconformably by Upper Permian beds. The schematic section of the rocks outcropping in the Darah-i-Sarhad Valley appears to be as follows:
1. 2. 3. Siltstone, black, schistose Sandstone, medium-bedded Slate, foliated 960 m 5m 75 m

89

4. 5 6. 7.

Sandstone, calcareous-quartzose Phyllite, foliated with quartz sandstone at top Chert Limestone, dark grey, bearing remains of fusulinids having a Lower Permian appearance, Pseudofusulina (?) sp., Quasifusulina (?) sp., Jangchienia (?) sp.

5m 780 m 20 m 10 m

These beds are overlain disconformably by Upper Permian limestones. The thickness of beds 1-7 in this section is 1,855 meters. The above-listed fossils indicate the Early Permian age of the upper beds. Most of the lower part of the sequence was assigned to the Carboniferous-Lower Permian on the basis of its stratigraphic position. In the U.S.S.R., its counterpart is the Bazar-Darya Series in South-Eastern Pamir. The Carboniferous-Early Permian age of the latter was provided by fossils (73, 79, 174, 175, 258). Nurestan Fault Block The Carboniferous-Early Permian age was assigned within this area, to similar but highly metamorphosed dark sandstones, slates and siltstones occurring as roof pendants of granite masses and as thrust sheets and wedges in fault zones. The rocks are unfossiliferous. Their Carboniferous-Early Permian age is tentative. Thickness is supposed to be 2,000-2,500 meters. The lower contact of the sequence is obscure. The rocks are conformably overlain by Upper Permian-Carnian carbonate-chert beds. Afghanistan-South Pamir Region In Afghanistan-South Pamir Region, undifferentiated Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence is known from the Khwaja Morad, Nalbandan, Qarghanaw, Turkman and other zones. It was described by V.I. Dronov et al. (78, 97, 143, 152, 374, 421). Like in the Wakhan Zone the Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence consists here of black siltstones and slates enclosing polymictic sandstone interbeds. At the top occur quartz sandstones, gravelstones and limestones. In the Qarghanaw Zone, a unit of greenstone altered schistose diabase and andesite reaching 400 meters in thickness is found at the top of the section. The total thickness of the sequence is 4,000 to 5,000 meters. The rocks do not exhibit normal stratigraphic relations with the underlying formations; they are conformably overlain by Upper Permian carbonate and carbonate-chert rocks. Tournaisian-Visean tetracorals of Caninia sp., Zaphrentis cf. delanouei E. et H., were collected in ferruginous crinoid limestones interbedded in black siltstones at the base of the unit in the area of the village of Sheberg. Poorly preserved remains of microfossils, algae and ammonoids were found at the top. For instance, Carboniferous Early Permian foraminifers and algae represented by Textularidae (?) gen. ind., Millerella (?) sp., Anthracoporella cf. spectabilis Pia. were collected from clastic limestones interbedded in volcanogenic-terrigenous rocks in the Qarghanaw Zone, near the village of Qarghanaw. In the Nalbandan Zone (the Hasan-Sansalagay River basin), remains of Late Uluk goniatite Metaperrinites sp. were collected from rusty calcareous schists occurring at the top. The above fossils indicate that the rocks are of Carboniferous-Early Permian age. In the U.S.S.R., a counterpart of the sequence described is the Bazar-Darya Series of south-eastern Pamir. Suleiman-Kirthar Area Undifferentiated Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence is mapped in the Kabul Stable Mass and in the Katawaz Trough. Kabul Stable Mass Carboniferous-Lower Permian deposits occur chiefly in the south of the area, where they form two independent series whose total thickness is 5,300-5,500 meters. The lower series known as the Chinazar Series (145, 381) consists of slightly metamorphosed fine- terrigenous rocks including interbeds and lenses of marmorized limestone, dolomite and schistose volcanic rocks of intermediate and basic composition. The series is 3,650 meters thick. The lower contact is not exposed. The series is overlain unconformably by Upper Permian beds. Three units of rocks are recognizable in the series.

90

The lower unit (1,000 m) consists of phyllite-like slates enclosing interbeds and lenses of marmorized limestone, dolomite, sandstone, siltstone, conglomerates and greenstone-altered volcanics. Individual volcanic interbeds are 20 to 40 meters thick. The middle unit (2,000 m) consists of the same rock types but has no volcanics. The upper unit (650 m) consists of phyllite-like slates including rare interbeds 5 to 7 m thick of quartzite, siltstone, marmorized limestone and dolomite. Organic remains are rare and poorly preserved. The upper series is exposed in an area north-east of the outcrops of the Chinazar Series in the drainage basin of the Tozin River. The contact between these two series is faulted (381). The series consists of slightly metamorphosed argillites, siltstones, sandstones and limestones with rare layers of greenstone-altered volcanics. The volcanics are represented by spilite, basalt, andesite porphyry, trachyte porphyry and their tuffs. The volcanics occur in the lower part of the series only. On this basis the series is distinguished into the lower (650 m) and upper (1,200 m) units. The total thickness of the series is 1,800 meters. The rocks are commonly greengrey in colour, cross-bedded and have ripple marks. Organic remains are rare. Only in one locality, poorly preserved remains of fusulinids, brachiopods and crinoids were found in a limestone member 80 meters thick occurring in the lower one third of the upper unit. The series is supposed to be Early Permian in age. Katawaz Trough Undifferentiated Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence is mapped in the Altimur Ridge where it is known as the Abchakan Series (145, 381). The series consists of dark grey graywacke and quartz sandstones and siltstones enclosing thin lenses and interbeds of grey limestone and inequipebble conglomerates. The thickness and amount of conglomerates increases eastwards from the Altimur Pass. The series is 800-1,300 meters thick. Its lower contact is unknown. It is conformably overlain by Upper Permian beds. Organic remains are rare and are chiefly contained in the upper third of the section. Early Permian foraminifers and corals were collected from limestones interbedded in sandstones and siltstones along the Abchakan River. These are foraminifers: Glomospira sp. Climacammina sp., Parafusulina cincta Reich., and corals: Lophophyllidium (?) sp., Triophyllum (?) sp., Simophyllum ex gr. pendulum Grab., Ugimia elongata Grab. The lower two thirds of the series are unfossiliferous and are tentatively dated as Carboniferous.

Permian
Permian deposits are widespread in Afghanistan and are represented chiefly by marine carbonate-terrigenous types. In the north-west of the country, terrestrial red beds are rather abundant. The Permian deposits lie conformably and in some structural-facies zones unconformably on the Carboniferous. The contact between the Carboniferous and Permian was not established in continuous sections of the terrigenous type. The Permian-Triassic contact is easily recognizable in most areas. It is marked either by erosion or by a masked stratigraphic break, or, in some areas, by angular unconformity. The Permian deposits are classified into the Lower and Upper Permian and the undifferentiated Permian (Appendix No .8)

Lower Permian
The Lower Permian consists of the Karachatyrian, Uluk-Kubergandian and undifferentiated Lower Permian units.

Karachatyrian Horizon Karachatyrian deposits are mapped as a separate unit in the Afghanistan - North Pamir Folded Region and in the North Afghanistan Platform. Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region Karachatyrian deposits occur in the Surkhab Zone. Their outcrops are known in three areas: in the Panj area, in the Rode Chal-Namakab interfluve, and in the right-hand tributaries of the Surkhab River. In the Panj area, the rocks are limestones, 300-500 meters thick, and in the other areas, fine-terrigenous rocks inducing limestone interbeds and lenses, 500 to 1,300 meters in thickness. Relevant information is available in the works by G. Hinse (181), K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350), V.P. Kolchanov et al. (348), V.M. Moraliov et al. 91

(351), A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 149, 198), E.Ya. Leven (261) and others. The sections of the rocks were studied in detail in the Rode-Chab-Namakab interfluve and in the right tributaries of the Surkhab River. In the Rode Chal-Namakab interfluve the succession of beds was described as follows (153, 350). The Upper Carboniferous beds are conformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sandstone and siltstone, polymictic, interbedded with gravelstones and small-pebble conglomerates Limestone, lumpy interbedded with argillites Siltstone and argillite Limestone with argillite interbeds Siltstone interbedded with gravelstones, small-pebble conglomerates and limestones. Organic remains: Quasifusulina cf. paracompacta Chang, Q. aff. cayeuxi (Depr.), Pseudofusulina ferganensis (Dutk.), P. cf. uralica (Krot.), P. sulcata Korzh., Rugosofusulina cf. complicata (Schell.), Robustoschwagerina cf. micleolata (Ciry), Paraschwagerina sp. Sandstone and siltstone with argillite interbeds Argillite including limestone nodules and interbeds with Quasifusulina aff. cayeuxi (Depr.), Rugosofusulina complicata (Schell.) and Paraschwagerina Bensh Sandstone, fine-grained, lumpy, interbedded with limestones which contain Schwagerina ex gr. minuta Chang, Paraschwagerina ex gr. pseudomira M-Macl., Pseudofusulina sp., Quasifusulina sp., Eoparafusulina sp. Siltstone with sandstone interbeds Limestone with siltstone intercalations. Organic remains: Paraschwagerina pseudomira M-Macl., Pseudofusulina parasolida Bensh., P. uralica (Krot.) Quasifusulina paracompacta Chang, Q. cf. cayeuxi (Depr.) Sandstone, polymictic and arkosic Limestone with frequent siltstone and argillite interbeds. Organic remains: Paraschwagerina inflata Chang, Pseudofusulina parasolida Bensch. P. cf. Ferganensis (Dutk.), Quasifusulina. aff. paracompacta (Chang., Q. aff. cayeuxi (Depr.), Rugosofusulina complicata (Schell.) Sandstone, arkosic and polymictic 136 m 22 m 26 m 22 m 55 m

6. 7. 8.

26 m 10 m 45 m

9. 10.

110 m 15 m

11. 12.

29 m 15 m

13.

4m

These beds are unconformably overlain by Rhaetian volcanics. The thickness of beds 1-13 in this section is 515 meters. In an area of the right-hand tributaries of the Surkhab River the section of Karachatyrian horizon was described from Waljan Valley (lower beds) and from the Syahgal Valley (the rest of the section) (148). The Middle-Upper Carboniferous limestones are overlain by:
1. Siltstones and shales interbedded with limestones with Schwagerina sp., Minojapanella sp., Rugosofusulina sp., Pseudofusulina sp. 50 m

The relations between these and the following beds are unknown.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sandstones and siltstones with Schwagerinidae gen. ind. Sandstones, fine to medium-grained, interbedded with calcareous-clayey siltstones. At the base a 0.5-meter bed of black limestone occurs with Quasifusulina sp., Pseudofusulina sp., Nankinella sp. Siltstones with interbeds of fine- to medium-grained greywacke sandstone with Textulariidae gen. ind., Schubertella sp., Nankinella sp., Schwagerinidae gen. ind. Clayey limestone with Climacammina sp., Schubertella sp. Nankinella sp Siltstone, calcareous-clayey, interbedded with medium- to fine-grained sandstones 300 m 250 m 140 m 55 m 165 m

92

7.

Sandstone interbedded with dark limestones carrying Schubertella sp., Biwaella.sp., Quasifusulina sp., Rugosofusulina ex gr. Latiolaris Raus., Schwagerina sp., Pseudofusulina ex gr. paragregaria Raus., Pseudoschwagerina sp. Limestone, yellow-grey, clayey Siltstone interbedded with sandstones and limestones bearing Schwagerina sp., Quasifusulina sp. Sandstone, medium-grained, calcareous, enclosing siltstone interbeds

70 m

8. 9. 10.

5m 160 m 100 m

The thickness of beds 1-10 is 1,295 meters. North Afghanistan Platform Karachatyrian rocks were distinguished in the east of the Maymana Fault Block, along the left bank of the Surkhab River. They are slightly metamorphosed fine-terrigenous and carbonate rocks lying unconformably on the Carboniferous and older deposits. Relevant information is available in the works by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350), I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154) and E.Ya. Leven et al. (261). The representative sections are known from the mouths of the Amir-Amand and Kayon rivers. In the Amir-Amand River mouth, Middle Carboniferous conglomerate-like limestones are overlain disconformably by:
1. 2. Shales with polymictic sandstones interbedded at the base with sandy limestones bearing remains of Late Carboniferous - Early Permian Quasifusulina sp., Triticites (?) sp. and Pseudofusulina (?) sp. Limestone, stratified, platy, carrying Boultonia sp., Biwaella sp., Schubertella sp., Triticites sp., T. (?) ex gr. pusillus (Schell.), Rugosofusulina aff. splendida Bensh. R. ex gr. complicata (Schell.), R. ex gr. alpina (Schell.), Darvasites sp., Schwagerina cf. sphaerica Scherb., Zellia amedaei (Depr.). E.Ya. Leven is of the opinion that this fusulinid assemblage is indicative of the Sakmarian age according to the Ural scale, or the Karachatyrian top according to the Central Asia scale Sandstones and shales Limestone, lumpy, marly, bearing unidentifiable tetracorals, crinoids and goniatites Conglomerates with pebbles of limestone, sandstone and quartz 1,000 m 150 m

3. 4. 5.

80 m 4m 25 m

The thickness of beds 1-5 is 1,259 meters. In the Kayon River mouth, the succession of the Karachatyrian beam was described as follows (154). Ordovician schists are unconformably overlain by:
1. 2. Conglomerates limy, enclosing violet-red shale and siltstone interbeds Limestone with Darvasites ex gr. ordinatus (Chen), Pseudofusulina chamchitensis (Colani), Quasifusulina longissima (Moell.), Rugosofusulina ex gr. latioralis Raus., R. ex.gr. alpina (Schell.), Minojapanella sp., Triticites sp. Shale, interbedded with black platy limestones Limestone with Pseudofusulina sp., Schubertella sp., Triticites sp., Zellia amedaei (Depr.) Sandstone, interbedded with argillites, siltstones and sandy limestones Limestone, thin-bedded, crinoidal 43 m 200 m

3. 4. 5. 6.

150 m 400 m 400 m 100 m

The total thickness is 1,293 meters.

Uluk-Kubergandinian Horizons Rocks of this age are mapped as a separate unit in the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region and within the North Afghanistan Platform. 93

Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region Uluk-Kubergandinian rocks occur in this region in the Surkhab and Bamyan zones, the sections being different in each zone. Surkhab Zone Within this zone, Uluk-Kubergandinian beds outcrop in the Panj area, in the drainage basin of the Andarab River and in the right-hand tributaries of the Surkhab River. They are composed of carbonate and terrigenous rocks. Relevant information is available in the works by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350) A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153, 198), and J. Boulin (31, 32). Panj area. Uluk-Kubergandinian deposits occur here in two facially different units: (1) predominantly carbonate unit exposed in the lower course of the Ab-i-Tangi River, and (2) carbonate-terrigenous unit outcropping near the village of Hohan. The carbonate unit outcropping in the right side of the Ab-i-Tangi Valley has the following succession of beds (153). The Karachatyrian beds are conformably overlain by:
1. 2. Limestone, massive, containing Schubertella sp., Robustoschwagerina sp., Pseudofusulina sp., Darvasites sp. Limestone, medium-bedded with Nankinella sp., Schubertella sp., Pamirina sp., Darvasites sp., Pseudofusulina cf. kraffti (Schell. et Dyhr), P. fusiformis (Schell. et Dyhr), Misellina dyhrenfurthi (Dutk.) Limestone, medium-bedded, clayey, bearing Schubertella sp., Boultonia sp., Pseudofusulina cf. kraffti (Schell. et Dyhr.) Limestone, massive, with Pseudofusulina sp. Limestone stratified, with Rugosofusulina cf. vulgariformis Kalm., Darvasites ordinates (Chen), D. contractus (Schell. et Dyhr.), Schubertella sp., Pseudofusulina sp., Toriyamai sp., Misellina dyhrenfurthi (Dutk.) Limestone, dark grey, stratified, with Pseudofusulina cf. kraffti (Schell. et Dyhr.), P. ex gr. ambigua (Depr.), Parafusulina sp. Limestone, light grey, marmorized, containing Eostaffella sp., Pseudoendothyra sp., Schubertella sp. Pseudofusulina cf. kraffti (Schell. et Dyhr.), P. ex gr. ambigua (Depr.) Limestone, pink, massive, with Pseudoendothyra sp., Nankinella sp., Darvasites aff. contractus (Schell. et Dyhr.), Pseudofusulina sp., Misellina dyhrenfurthi (Dutk.) Limestone, grey, with Schubertella sp., Pseudofusulina kraffti (Schell. et Dyhr.), P. ex gr. ambigua (Depr.) 180 m 120 m

3. 4. 5.

50 m 250 m 10 m

6. 7. 8. 9.

15 m 10 m 5m 175 m

A break followed upwards by:

10. Siltstone and sandstone with limestone interbeds and lenses 250 m

The total thickness of the beds is 1,105 meters. The carbonate-terrigenous unit outcropping in the Hohan area has the following succession of beds (153):
1. 2. Limestone of Uluk (?) age Conglomerates, grey, enclosing green sandstone interbeds. Pebbles are quartz, sandstone, shale and limestone. Limestone interbeds occurring at the top contain early Kubergandinian foraminifers (Misellina zone): Pseudoendothyra sp., Pseudoreichelina sp., Nankinella sp., Darvasites ordinatus (Chen.), Rugosofusulina vulgariformis Kalm., Pseudofusulina ex gr. vulgaris (Schell. et Dyhr.), Misellina dyhrenfurthi (Dutk.), M. Maliciae (Depr.) Sandstone, green, calcareous, with limestone beds containing Early Kubergandinian foraminifers (Misellina Zone): Pseudoendothyra sp., Schubertella sp., Darvasites sp., Rugosofusulina vulgariformis Kalm., Misellina dyhrenfurthi (Dutk.) 200 m 400 m

3.

15 m

94

4. 5. 6.

Conglomerate, with medium-size pebbles of limestone Sandstone, red, with chlorite-carbonate cement, interbedded with siltstones; fragments of acidic volcanics are encountered Conglomerate medium-pebble, violet-red, with pebbles consisting of quartz, sandstone, diabase porphyry and limestone

85 m 220 m 450 m

The overlying deposits are missing. The total thickness of beds 1-6 is 1370 meters. Variegated to red rocks of beds 2-6 (1,170 m) extend into the USSR territory, where similar beds referred to by E.Ya. Leven as the Kuliakhin Formation occur in an area of the village of Chosk. Andarab River drainage basin. The Uluk-Kubergandinian beds outcropping at the left-hand bank of the Andarab River are almost wholly composed of limestone. The section described from this area is as follows (148). The Karachatyrian beds are conformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Limestone, black, thin-bedded, with sandstone interbeds and foraminifer remains Limestone, grey, thin-bedded Limestone, black, thin-bedded with sandstones and shales at the base (20 m), massive at the top (10 m) Limestone breccia Limestone, black, thin-bedded Limestone, grey, plicated, interbedded with calcareous-clayey siltstones Limestone, grey, massive Siltstone and sandstone, dark grey 5m 100 m 30 m 5m 65 m 80 m 150 m 100 m

In the north, the beds and against Triassic strata along a fault. The rocks are 575 meters thick in this section. East of the Khenjan River, bed 8 reaches 300-400 meters in thickness. A similar section of the Uluk-Kubergandinian beds is found at the right-hand bank of the Surkhab River, northeast of the Payandeh River. The beds consist of the dark grey limestone interbedded with calcarerousclayey siltstones at the base and top. The beds are over 500 meters thick. The fossils collected at the base are foraminifers: Quasifusulina sp., Occidentoschwagerina cf. galloway (Chen), Parafusulina (?) cf. pamirica Lev., and those derived from the middle are tetracorals and foraminifers: Iranophyllum sp., Minojapanella (?) sp., Schubertella sp., Pseudofusulina sp., P. cf. fusiformis (Schell. et Dyhr.). Bamyan Zone The rocks of the unit concerned start the Permian section being represented by Kubergandinian beds only which lie unconformably on Lower Carboniferous volcanogenic-terrigenous strata. The most recent information on the beds was provided by E.Ya. Leven (162, 261). Previously they had been described by H. Hayden (178), F. Cowper-Reed (54), M. Thompson (425), S. Popol and S. Tromp (339), G. Mennessier (292), A. Lapparent et al. (246, 247, 412), A. Siehl (383), E. Bouyx et al. (58), H. Termier et al. (418), M. Lys (264) and others. E.Ya. Leven described the following succession of the Kubergandinian beds from the Bamyan Zone (261):
1. 2. Conglomerate with pebbles of quartz and chert Sandstones and gravelstones interbedded with limestones with Pamirina sp., Nankinella sp., Yangchienia (?) sp., Rugosofusuline vulgariformis Kalm., Darvasites ordinatus (Chen), D. contractus (Schell. et Dyhr.), Psuedofusulina aff. vulgaris (Schell. et Dyhr.), P. ex gr. kraffti (Schell. et Dyhr.), Misellina termieri (Depr.),M. aliciae (Depr.) Limestone interbedded with marls, shales and sandstones, containing Nankinella sp., Parafusulina sp., Misellina cf. ovalis (Depr.) 5-10 m 65-80 m

3.

70-80 m

95

4.

Limestone, black, stratified, bearing Neofusulinella phairayensis Col., N. tumida Lev. Pseudofusulina chihsiaensis Lee, Polydiexodina shabalkini Lev. P. praecursor Lloyd, Cancellina primigena Hayden, C. cf. pamirica Lev., C. cf. dutkevitchi Lev., Armenina asiatica Lev. Brachiopods remains are abundant at the base

120-150 m

The beds are conformably succeeded by Murghabian limestones. The thickness of beds 1-4 is 260-320 meters. North Afghanistan Platform In this region, Uluk-Kubergandinian rocks were distinguished only in the east of the Maymana Fault Block, in the northern tributaries of the Surkhab River and in the Balkhob Uplift. In the drainage area of the Surkhab Rivers left tributaries of the Uluk-Kubergandinian beds are composed of limestones including interbeds and lenses of fine-terrigenous rocks (154, 350). The deposits are over 1,000 meters thick. In the Balkhob Uplift like in the Bamyan Zone, the units are, apparently, represented by Kubergandinian beds only, which lie unconformably on Lower Carboniferous volcanogenic-terrigenous strata. The rocks are poorly studied. Their presence is proved by the findings of Pseudofusulina postpusilla Bensh. and P. tschernyschewi (Schell.) (148, 162, 261).

Lower Permian, undifferentiated

Undifferentiated. Lower Permian sequence is mapped in the South Afghanistan Median Mass and in regions of Hercynian folding. South Afghanistan Median Mass Undifferentiated Lower Permian deposits are found in the Helmand Zone only, where they lie unconformably on Upper Proterozoic strata and form an independent stratigraphic unit below Upper Permian carbonate strata. They are represented by variegated, and grey terrigenous rocks with an insignificant amount of limestones. The deposits vary in thickness within 285 to 482 meters. They are overlain disconformably by Upper Permian limestones and dolomites but with no angular unconformity Their section was described from the Urkhona area (152), where intensely folded Upper Proterozoic strata are overlain with a strong angular unconformity by:
1. 2. Sandstone, parallel- and cross-bedded, inequigranular, quartzose Siltstone and argillite interbedded with organogenic limestones bearing remains of Early Permian brachiopods: Paeckelmannella cf. expansa (Tschern.), Echinoconchus punctatus (Mart.), Linoproductus cora (Orb.), Neospirifer nitiensis (Dien.), Reticularia uralica (Tschern.), "Cancrinella" ex gr. lyoni (Prehd.), Callispirina ornata (Waag.), and others Limestone, dark, inequibedded, containing remains of Uluk fusulinids and Carboniferous Early Permian tetracorals. The fusulinids are: Triticites ex gr. nussilus (Schell.), Globivalvulina sp., Geinitzina sp.; the tetracorals are represented by Neokoninokophyllum (?) sp., Caninia sp., Lonsdaleiastrea ex gr. asseretoi Flugel 50 m 50-70 m

3.

34 m

Eroded surface is overlain by:

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Siltstone including clayey limestones and limy sandstones Sandstone with interbeds and lenses of conglomerate-like limestone bearing remains of EarlyLate Permian tetracorals of Ipsiphyllum aff. irregularis (Font.) Calcareous sandstone and siltstone, interbedded with limestones Siltstone interbedded with coarse-grained sandstones Limestone, grey, sandy, enclosing pebbles of light coloured limestone Sandstone, variegated, parallel- and cross-bedded, coarse-grained, quartzose and limyquartzose, including light limestones with remains of tetracorals and Globivalvulina sp. foraninifers 71 m 20 m 95 m 30 m 10 m 102 m

96

The beds are overlain disconformably by Upper Permian dolomitized limestones and dolomites. The thickness of beds 1-9 in this section is 462-482 meters. In more eastern areas, D.A. Starshinin et al. (155) divided the Lower Permian sequence into three units. The lower unit (75-120 m) consists of alternating quartz sandstones, argillites and siltstones; at the base a 1- to 12-meter bed of small-pebble conglomerate occurs whose pebbles are quartz and chert. The fossil remains collected in the rocks are represented by Carboniferous Early Permian brachiopods and foraminifers: Spiriferidae, Rhynchopora sp., Dictyoclostidae, Linoproductidae, Rinchonellidae, Globigerina sp. The middle unit (100-180 m) is composed of quartz sandstone with rare 0.1 to 0.5-meter beds of siltstone and argillite. The upper unit (110-170 m) is represented by red siltstones and argillites alternating with white quartz sandstones; limestone interbeds and lenses are found at the top. Organic remains are abundant but poorly preserved. Linoproductidae, Buxtoniidae, Sprifericidae, Reticularidae, and other brachiopods were identified. The total thickness of the sequence is 285 to 470 meters. Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region Undifferentiated Lower Permian deposits were distinguished in the Tashkuprok Zone (200), where they outcrop in two roughly E-W-trending strips between the Kotale Ershod Owik and Kotale Wabhart passes. The deposits are represented by massive limestone with a 30- or 40-meter member of stratified limestone in the middle. The thickness of the deposits is 1,000 meters. They lie conformably on the Carboniferous strata. No overlying deposits were found. Limestone is fossiliferous throughout the section. The fossils are Early Permian fusulinids Triticites sp., Pseudofusulina sp., Schwagerinidae collected at the base, and fusulinius and tetracorals of Pseudofusulina kraffti (Schell. et Dyhr.) P. magna Tor., P. fusiformis (Schell. et Dyhr), Parafusulina (?) kushlini Lev., Schubertella sp., Toriyamai sp., Pseudoendothyra sp., Minojapanella (?) sp., Paracaninia cf. intermedia (Huang), P. cf. tzuchiangensis (Huang) recovered from the middle of the section. Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region Undifferentiated Lower Permian sequence occurs in the Jaway and West Hendukush zones. Relevant information is available in the works by V.M. Moraliov et al. (351) and A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153, 198). The sequence consists everywhere of carbonaceous, biotite, two-mica, mica-carbonate and garnetbiotite schists and quartzo-feldspathic sandstones. Interbeds and lenses of marmorized limestones occur at the base. The sequence is 1,000 to 2,400 meters thick. It lies conformably on Middle Upper Carboniferous limestones. The overlying rocks are missing. In the Jaway Zone (the Egab River drainage basin), the upper one third of the section contains remains of Lower Permian fusulinids: Schwagerinidae, Nankinella (?) sp. (153). The sequence extends into the USSR territory, (the North-West Pamir), where it is known as the Lower Permian Pshikharv Formation (73, 272).

Upper Permian
Upper Permian deposits occur within the North Afghanistan Platform, in the regions of Hercynian, Middle Cimmerian and Alpine folding, as well as within the South Afghanistan Median Mass. In all these regions the Upper Permian sequence consists of carbonate rocks. Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region and North Afghanistan Platform In these regions, Upper Permian deposits occur in the Bamyan Zone and in the Maymana Fault Block. Bamyan Zone Upper Permian deposits constitute the principal part of the Permian sequence in the Bamyan Zone and are represented by limestones. The Upper Permian beds lie conformably on the Uluk-Kubergandinian strata. The overlying deposits are missing. The latest data on the rocks was introduced by E.Ya. Leven (162, 261). They were described previously by H. Hayden (178), F. Cowper-Reed (54), M. Thompson (425), G. Mennessier (292), A. Lapparent et al. (246, 247, 412), A. Siehl (383), S. Popol and S. Tromp (339), E. Bouyx et al. (58), H. Termier et al. (418), and M. Lys (264). 97

According to E.Ya. Leven, the succession of Upper Permian beds in the Bamyan Zone is as follows. The Kubergandinian beds are conformably overlain by:
1. Limestone, light grey, massive and thick-bedded, algal, bearing remains of Neofusulinella sp., Pseudofusulina chinsiaensis Lee, Polydiexedina sp. Cancellina pamirica Lev., C. cutalensis Lev., Armenia asiatica Lev., A. aff. karinae M.-Macl., Pseudodoliolina cf. ozawai Yabe et Hanz fusulinids collected in the lower part, and Neofusulinella sp., Yangchienia haydeni Th., Pseudofusulina cf. nupera Lev., Polydiexodina sp., Neoschwagerina ex gr. simplex Ozawa, Praesumatrina neoschwagerinoides (Depr.), Armenina salgirica M.-Macl., Verbeekina sp., derived from the upper part Sandstone with interbeds and lenses of gravelstone, conglomerate and sandy limestone bearing Polydiexodina afghanensis Th . Limestone, black, bedded, sandy, interbedded with calcareous sandstones. Fossils: Yangchienia haydeni Th., Pseudofusulina nupera Lev., Parafusulina yunnanica Sheng, Polydiexodina afghanensis Th., Neoschwagerina haydeni Dutk. et Khab., Afghanella schencki Th., A. tereshkovae Lev., Pseudodoliolina sp., Verbeekina verbeeki (Gein.) Limestone, light, massive and thick-bedded, algal, containing Pseudofusulina furoni Th., Parafusulina gigantea (Depr.), Polydiexodina afghaensis Th., Neoschwagerina aff. kojensis Toum., N. ex gr. margaritae Depr., Afghanella schencki Th., A. sumatrinaeforsis (Gubl.), Sumatrina longissima Depr., Verbeekina verbeeki (Gein.) 250-300 m

2. 3.

50-80 m 100-150 m

4.

300 m

No overlying deposits were encountered. The thickness of beds 1-4 is 706 to 830 meters. The above list of fusulinids is indicative of the Murghabian age of the respective beds, and the fusulinids derived from the lower part of the former unit suggest that the age of the enclosing beds is transitional from the Kubergandinian to the Murghabian. No rocks of the Pamir horizon have been found in the Bamyan Zone. However, the fact that they do occur in the zone is proved by the findings of Colaniella parva Colani reported by the expedition of A. Desio. Permian deposits of the Bamyan type occur on the territory of the U.S.S.R. in the North-Eastern (Qara-Kul) Pamir, in the Zulumart and Qara-Jilga zones (73, 272). Maynana Fault Block Upper Permian deposits were distinguished in the south of the Balkhob Uplift. As reported by G.Sh. Achilov (148), they are represented by limestones with Murghab fusulinids of Kahlerina sp., Neoschwagerina haydeni Dutk. et Khab., N. cf. margaritae Depr., Afghanella sp. (162, 261). It is supposed that the sequence lies conformably on the Kubergandinian beds and is overlain unconformably by Cretaceous strata. The sequence is 700 to 800 meters thick and is similar to the Upper Permian sequence from the Bamyan Zone being, in fact, the extension of the latter. Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region Upper Permian rocks are known only in the Konar Zone, 40 kilometers east of Jalalabad. They constitute, together with Triassic strata, several isolated low hills scattered along the Kabul River. The rocks are light and dark grey thick-bedded dolomitized limestone and dolomite, which were identified as the Khoknawar Formation (145). The deposits are 300 to 350 meters thick. They lie unconformably on the folded OrdovicianCarboniferous and are overlain disconformably by Lower Triassic beds. The fossils collected in the rocks are Late Permian, Yatsengia cf. asiatica Huang, Waagenophyllum sp., Lonsdaleiastraea sp. corals (438). Suleiman-Kirthar Area In this area, Upper Permian deposits are distinguished in the Kabul Stable Mass and in the north-western part of the Katawaz Trough. Kabul Stable Mass Upper Permian deposits constitute the lower part of the Chingil Series (178) referred to as the Tangi-Garu Formation (291, 292). The formation consists of grey dolomitized limestones and dolomites. A 50- to 80- meter unit occurs at the base. It is composed of dark grey and reddish sandy limestones and calcareous-sandy shales enclosing interbeds of red and grey quartzite-like sandstones and small-pebble conglomerates and gravelstones with fragments and pebbles of quartz, quartzite and various metamorphic rocks. The thickness of the formation 98

varies within 150 to 500 meters. The formation lies unconformably on all the underlying deposits and is overlain disconformably by Lower Triassic beds. The rocks are fossiliferous, but the fossils are poorly preserved and are not guide fossils. G. Mennessier (291) reported the presence of Spirifer cf. curzoni Dien., Taeniothaerus, Spiriferellina (?) sp., and others, and Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145) reported Nodosaria sp. remains. The deposits concerned have been known in the Kabul Stable Mass since the time of the investigations conducted by Hayden (178). Apparently, they are correlatable with the Upper Permian Pamirian horizon. In 1973 V I. Dronov and Yu.I. Shcherbina distinguished a new type of Upper Permian deposits in the Kabul Stable Mass, which is represented by a sequence of terrestrial metamorphosed sandstones, siltstones, conglomerates and volcanics that contain terrestrial plant remains of Kazanian (Murghab?) age: Pecopteris sp., Sphenopteris sp., Lobatanniaria sp., Pursongia (?) sp., Cordaites sp., Taenionteris sp., Phylladoderma sp., Walchia sp.-l, Walchia sp.-2, the latter being morphologically similar to W. Piniformis. According to S. B. Meyen, the listed flora is phytogeographically very similar to the contemporaneous plants from the Russian Platform. Outcrops of the beds with plant remains have been encountered in one locality only: in the right-hand side of the middle course of the Rajan River, 3 to 4 kilometers north of the village of Rajan. So, the sequence will be named the Rajan Formation. The formation is 100 to 200 meters thick or thicker. Its relations with the underlying metamorphosed limestones and shales of indefinite age are not clear. The overlying rocks are missing. The relations of the formation with the Tangi-Garu Formation remain uncertain. It is seemingly older than the latter and occupy a lower position in the stratigraphic column. Apart from terrigenous rocks, a specific feature of the formation is the presence of volcanics. Though the extent and composition or the volcanics are unknown, their amount may be significant. This problem necessitates special investigations. North-western part of Katawaz Trough In the strip of the Altamur Ridge and the villages of Kasymkhel, Alikhel and Azrab, Upper Permian deposits are chiefly represented by limestones with a small amount of dolomites. The deposits are 700 to 1,500 meters thick. Their relations with the underlying rocks are not quite clear. According to A. Siehl (383), M. Kaever (193) and G. Mennessier (287, 288), they lie unconformably on older strata. As reported by Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145), their relationships with the underlying deposits are variable: in the south of the Altamur Ridge, they lie conformably on the undifferentiated Carboniferous-Lower Permian, and in the north of the ridge the village of Chinazar, they lie unconformably on all the older strata. In the south of the Altamur Ridge, the Upper Permian sequence consists predominantly of light and dark grey (black at the top) inequibedded limestones, 500 to 700 meters thick. Organic remains are represented by a Murghabian foraminifer assemblage (145). Foraininifers collected in the lower 50 to 100 meters of the sequence are Monogenerina sp., Gribrogenerina sp., Textularia sp., Nodosaria sp., Glomospira sp., Boultonia sp., Geinitzina sp., Minojapanella sp., Pachyphloia sp., Kahlerina sp. Afghanella sp., Parafusulina ex gr. gigantea (Thomps.), Pseudofusulina ex gr. tunetana Douv., Yangchienia cf. tobleri Thomps., Y. Haydeni Thomps., Neoschwagerina cf. kojensis Toum., Polydiexodina afghanensis Thomps., Sumatrina sp., Verbeekina sp.; and those derived from the upper portion are Pachyphloia sp., Kahlerina sp., Neoschwagerina sp., Pseudofusulina (?) sp., Rugososchwagerina sp, Chusenella (?) sp., Polydiexodina sp. In the collection of H. Flugel (118) obtained from the same area and, apparently, from the same limestones, the following Upper Permian tetracorals are known: Waagenophyllum indicum indicum Waag. et Wentz., Wentzelellites molengraffii (Gerth), Iranophyllum carcinophlloides Dougl. The relations between the limestones discussed and the limestone with cherts (250 m) and dolomites (100 m) described by A. Siehl (383) are unknown. A. Siehl mentioned Pamirian Colaniella sp. foraminifers collected from the middle interval of the limestones and from the dolomites. In the strip extending between the villages of Kasymkhel and Alikhel, the Upper Permian sequence consists of three parts (193): the lower part (1,200 m) composed of algal limestones with Gymnocodium sp., Permocalcus plumosus Elliott, Mizzia velebitana Schubert., Pseudovermiporella sodalica Elliott; the middle part (140-200 m) of fusulinide limestones with Yangchienia haydeni Thomps., Schwagerina sp., Polydiexodina afghanensis Thomps., Neoschwagerina craticulifera (Schwager), Afghanella schencki Thomps.; and the upper part (50 m) of bryozoan-algal limestones. The total thickness of the Upper Permian sequence in this area is to 1,390-1,450 meters. The lower and middle limestone parts (1,330-1,400 m thick) are of Murghabian age, those at the base may be of Kubergandian age; and the upper part of the sequence 50 meters thick, seems to be Pamirian. 99

In the Azrab area, the Upper Permian deposits are known as the Sangay Limestone and the Abchakan Lower and Upper limestones (286). The Sangay Limestone (500 m) start the section and include remains of Parafusulina cf. matsubaishi P. shiptoni Dunb., Neoschwagerina craticulifera cf. paradoxica Dunb. et Skin. The Abchakan Limestone (900 m) constitutes the upper two-thirds of the section and contain Polydiexodina persica Kahl., P. afghanensis Thomps., Yangchienia haydeni Thomps., Pseudofusulina furoni Thomps. at the base. Both rock sequences seem to be of Murghabian age. Their total thickness is 1,400 meters. The investigators studying the Permian in the Kabul massif and adjacent areas constantly encountered many difficulties in establishing the relations between the Tangi-Garu Formation and the Upper Permian beds from the Altimur Ridge and surrounding areas. The Tangi-Gary Formation was believed to be approximately of the same age as the Upper Permian from the Altimur Ridge and its surroundings, though the Tangi-Gary rocks were regarded as more intensely metamorphosed and hence virtually unfossiliferous. This view seems to be wrong. Most of the Tangi-Gary Formation is of Pamirian age and, only its basal beds are probably of Late Murghabian age. Stratigraphically, it lies at a higher level than all the Murghabian limestone beds in the Allimur Ridge overlying the latter conformably or disconformably, and resting on all the older strata conspicuously unconformably. A higher grade of metamorphism of the Tangi-Garu rocks is only seeming. This is accounted for by the predominant dolomitic composition of the rocks, which may also be responsible for the scarcity of fossils. The only possible counterpart of the Tangi-Gary Formation in the Altimur Ridge may be the Pamirian limestones with cherts (250 m) and dolomites (100 m) described by A. Siehi (383). Such a relationship may be accounted for by the following paleogeographic evolution of the territory. At the beginning of Late Permian epoch most of the Kabul massif rose as an uplift surrounded by the sea. The terrestrial volcano-terrigenous deposits of the Rajan Formation were accumulated on the uplift, while the Murghabian limestones exposed presently in the Altimur Ridge deposited in the sea. In hate Murghabian-Pamirian time, the Kabul massif subsided, and the Tangi-Garu Dolomites were accumulated within the massif and the surrounding areas. South Afghanistan Median Mass. Helmand-Argandab Uplift This section deals with the closely related Upper Kubergandinian and Upper Permian beds. Taken together, they form a continuous sequence 400 to 900 meters thick, which once covered the entire Helmand-Argandab Uplift, and was subsequently eroded from most of the area. The upper contact of the sequence is everywhere coincident with the top of the Pamirian horizon, and the lower limit glides from the top of the Kuberganda beds in the Tirin Zone to the middle of the Murghabian horizon in the Helmand Zone. The relations of the sequence with the underlying deposits are different in various parts of the uplift. For instance, in the Tirin Zone, the rocks lie conformably on the Carboniferous-Lower Permian, while in the Helmand and Argandab zones, they rest on the Lower Permian with traces of erosion, and unconformably on all the older formations. The sequence was described by A. Lapparent (246, 343, 412), M. Lys (264), A. Siehl (383), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 208, 409), Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144), V.I. Dronov et al. (152), E.Ya. Leven et al. (162, 261), and D.A. Starshinin et al. (155). The lithology and succession of beds are different in various parts of the uplift. Tirin Zone Within this zone, the sequence is separable into two formations, Ajrestan and Parida. Relevant information is available in the works by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 208, 409) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). TheAjrestan Formation (220-250 m) starts the section of the sequence. It consists of three members. The lower member (20-25 m) is composed of distinctly bedded brownish limestones (sandy at the base and clayey at the top) carrying remains of Kubergandinian foraminifers: Nodosaria sp., Globivalvulina sp., Pachyphloia sp., Geinitzina sp., Nankinella sp., Boultonia sp., Schubertella sp., Neofusulinella sp., derived from sandy limestones, and Parafusulina ex gr. yabei Hanz., P. cf. cincta Reich, Minojapanella sp., and others, collected from clayey limestones. Numerous remains of brachiopods and tetracorals were collected in the debris derived from this member and, possibly of the overlying one. These are brachiopods: Kochiproductus porrectus (Kut.), Linoproductus lineatus (Waag.), Compressoproductus mongolicus (Dien.), Avonia echiniformis Grabau, Krotovia cf. pseudoaculeata (Krot.), Echinoconchus aff. punctatus (Mart.), Institella leonardensis (King), Reticulata transversalis (Tschern.), Choristites ex gr. fritschi (Schell), Brachythyrina (?) ex gr. pinguis (Waag), Dielasma giganteum Tschern.; and tetracorals: Ufimia elongata (Grabau), Jokojamaella ex gr. jokojamae (Ozava).

100

The middle member (100-120 m) consists of dark grey and black distinctly bedded limestones including nodules and discontinuous interbeds of chert. Limestones contain Kubergandinian foraminifers and tetracorals. Foraminifers are: Climacammina sp., Agathamina sp., Staffella ex gr. sphaerica (Abich), Parafusulina ex gr. grupperaensis (Thomps. et Mill.), P. ex. gr. yabai Hanz., P. ex .gr. kinosakii (Mor.), Cancellina cf. primigena Hayd., Minojapanella (Wutuella) cf. wutuensis (Kuo), Neofusulinalla ex gr. tumida Lay. Tetracorals are: Praewentzelella ex gr. magnificum (Dougl.), Wentzalella ex gr. szechusnensis Huang., Wentzelophyllum ex gr. wengchengense Huang. The upper member (100-120 m) is composed of grey thick- bedded limestones bearing remains of Kuberganda-Murghabian foraminifers and tetracorals. Foraminifers are: Parafusulina cf. nakamigavai Mor, at Hor., P. cf. vinogradovi Lev., Staffalla sphaerica (Abich), Schubertella sp., Misellina (?) sp., Cancellina cf. primigena Hayd., C. cf. cutalensis Lay., C. cf. pamirica Lay., Afghanella sp., Yangchienia sp., Polydiexodina (?) sp., Verbeekina sp. Tetracorals are: Waagenophyllum cf. simplex Wu, W. cf. virgalense (Waag. at Wentz.), W. ex gr. indicum Wu, W. ex gr. pulchrum Hamada. The Parida Formation (500-600 m) lies conformably on the Ajrestan Formation. It consists of grey thickbedded dolomitized limestones and dolomites. No organic remains were found in the rocks. The stratigraphic position suggests Pamirian age of the formation though its lower beds may be of Murghabian age. The total thickness of the Ajrestan and Parida formations is 720 to 850 meters. Argandab Zone The sequence under discussion is known as the Chokhan Series. Relevant information is available in the works by Yu. M. Dovgal et al. (144), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 208, 274, 409), V.I. Dronov et al. (152), E.Ya. Leven (162, 261), and I.V. Pyzhyanov et al. (336). Two units of rocks are distinguished in the series, one unit is made up of limestones and the other of dolomites. The section from the Chokhan Ridge, near the village of Chyna has the following succession of beds (144). The eroded surface of Upper Devonian sandstones is unconformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. Conglomerate with pebbles of quartz, sandstones, siltstone and limestone Limestone, grey, massive, bearing remains of Kubergandinian tetracorals: Lophophyllidium (?) sp., Carinthiaphyllum cf. maklayi Pyzhjanov Limestone, banded, light and dark gray Limestone, light grey, thick-bedded. Remains of Upper Permian tetracorals represented by Sinophyllum sp., Iranophyllum (?) sp., Pavastephyllum cf. reticulatum Dougl., were collected in the upper portion Dolomite, limy, dark grey, massive and thick-bedded; remains of Pamirian foraminifers represented by Geinitzina cf. caucasica M.-Macl., Robuloides sp., Pachyphloia aff. robusta M.-Macl., Colaniella cf. cilindrica M.-Macl., Frondicularia sp., Globivalvulina sp., Reichelina cf. media M.-Macl., Nankinella sp., Kahlerina sp. were collected from the middle portion Dolomite, limy, dark and light grey, medium- and thick-bedded . 15 m 175 m 150 m 300 m

5.

115 m

6.

170 m

Above follow Lower Triassic beds. The thickness of beds 1-6 is 925 meters. Beds 1-4 (640 m) constitute the lower unit, being possibly corralatable with the Ajrestan Formation from the Tim Zone, and beds 5-6 (285 m) constitute the tipper unit which probably corresponds to the Parida Formation. Helmand Zone In this zone, the sequence under consideration also consists of two units. Relevant information is available in the works by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 208, 409), V.I. Dronov et al. (152), and D.A. Starshinin et al. (155), The lower unit (55-130 m) is composed of dark distinctly bedded, lumpy clayey and sandy limestones including intarbeds and lenses of chert, argillite and siltstone. Organic remains are represented by Kuberganda-Murghabian foraminifers, algae, brachiopods, tetracorals, and other fossils. The foraminifers are: Glomospira sp., Nodosaria sp., Geinitzina sp., Staffella sp., Nankinella sp., Pachphloia sp., Yangchienia sp., Pseudodoliolina sp., Neoschwagerina sp.; algae are: Pseudovermiporella sp.; brachiopods are represented 101

by Spinomarginifera bamiana (Reed), Juresania (?) translata (Reed), Orthotetina ex gr. Persica (Schell.), Echinoconchus postpunctatus (Step.), Reticularia ex gr. donetziana (Lich.), Brachithyrina carnica (Schell.), Ogbinia ex gr. dzhagrensis Sarytch.; and tetracorals are Wentzelella (Wenzelloides maiyaensis Yabe at Minata. Ipsiphyllum persicum Dougl. The upper unit (350-600 m) consists of medium- and thick-bedded dolomites. It lies on KubergandaMurghabian beds disconformably but with no angular unconformity, and unconformably on Upper Proterozoic strata having a 1- to 10-meter conglomerate bed at the base. All the collected fossils were recovered from the lower beds. The fossils collected near the village of Bashlang several tens of meters above the dolomite base were identified as Middle Murghabian foraminifera: Neoschwagerina haydeni Dutk. et Khab., and tetracorals: Jatsengia sp., Iranophyllum splendens Dougl., and Pavestephyllum sp. (152). In the area of Kotale Qonak Pass, the lower 30-35 meters of banded dolomites ware found to contain Late Murghabian foraminifers represented by Globivalvulina sp., Glomospira sp., Hemigordiopsis sp., Staffella cf. dushanensis Gund., Reichelina (?). sp., and Boultoniinae (155). Near the village of Shekhristan and to the east of it in the drainage basin of the Tdyrabat River Murghabian foraminifers were collected at the base of the dolomite unit, in breccia-like limestones (155): Gribrogenerina sp., Nankinella sp., Sphaerulina cf. ogbinensis Mom, Staffella sp., Glomospira sp. In the Syah Bum Mts., Upper Permian corals were collected from limestone interbeds at the base of the dolomite unit. These are: Iranophyllum cf. splendans Dougl., Waagenophyllum indicum (Waag. at Wentz.), Tschussovmkenia cf. captiosa Dougl., Yatmengia asiatica Huang., Lophophyllum sp. (155). The above fossils suggest that the lower dolomite beds include Middleand Upper Murghabian beds, whereas the overlying dolomite sequence is considered; as Pamirian on the basis of its position in the stratigraphic column. In the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region Upper Permian carbonate rock sequence is distinguished in the Sange Dushah, Khwaja Morau, Nalbandan, Turkman and Qarghanaw zones. This sequence distingushed by V. I. Dronov et al. (97, 143, 152) includes not only the entire Upper Permian but the Kubergandinian and the upper portion of the Uluk horizon, as well. The sequence lies conformably on the undifferentiated Carboniferous-Lower Permian fine-terrigenous deposits and is overlain disconformably by Lower Triassic beds. This sequence consists of organic-detrital limestones, dolomites, marls, limestone conglomerates, sandstones and siltstones whose total thickness varies within 30 to 500 meters, The section of the unit is highly variable in the facies in each on the zones. In the USSR, the counterparts of the sequence are the UlukKubergandinian and Upper Permian beds from the South-Eastern Pamir. Sange Dushah Zone Sange Dushah Zone is transitional between the Haftkala and Khwaja Morad zones. The deposits concerned have the greatest thickness in this zone and are characterized by varied fossils. The section described from Dahane Shoh along the Sange Dushah canyon has the following succession of beds:
1. Limestone, grey, medium- and thick-bedded, detrital, bearing Early Kubergandinian fusulinids represented by Pseudofusulina globosa (Schell.), P. cf. vulgaris (Schell at Dyhr.), Parafusulina cf. postkraffti Lev., P. vulgariformis Mor., P. ex gr. grupparaensis (Thomps. at Mill.), P. dzamantalansis Lev., P. ex gr. krafftiformis Lev., Misellina dyhrenfurthi (Duth.), M. parvicostata (Depr.), M. termieri (Depr.), M. cf. subelliptica (Depr.), Occidentoschwagerina cf. postgalloway sarikolensis Lev., Schubertella sp., Boultonia sp Limestone, organic-detrital, bearing remains of Late Kubergandinian fusulinids: Parafusulina cincta Reich., P. grupperaensis (Thomps., et Mill.), Armenina sp, Yangchienia sp., Pseudofusulina chihsiaensis Less Limestone, massive, lumpy Limestone, grey and black, interbedded with sandstones and siltstones and bearing Late Permian brachiopods of Leptodus nobilis Waat., and Late Kubergandinian fusulinids of Parafusulina ex gr. grupperaensis (Thomps. at Mill), Cancellina sp., Armenina sp., Schubertella sp. Limestone, grey, massive and thick-bedded containing Early Murghabian fusulinids represented by Parafusulina dronovi Lev. Boultonia sp., Schubertella 70 m

2.

8m

3. 4.

10 m 60 m

5.

30 m

102

6.

Limestone, grey and black, interbedded with sandstones and siltstones, bearing Early Murghabian fusulinids of Glomospira sp., Parafusulina ex gr. multiseptata (Schw.), Praesumatrina neoschwagerinoides (Depr.), Pseudodoliolina ozawai Yabe at Hanz., Neoschwagerina simplex Ozawa, N. schuberti K.-Dev., Boultonia sp., Textularidae Dolomite, grey, thick-bedded Limestone, white, massive, organogenic, carrying Late Murghabian, Boultonia sp., Schubertella sp., Chusenella sp., Nankinella sp., Kahlerina sp., Verbeekina sp., Neoschwagerina sp., Parafusulina sp., and Staffella sp. Fusulinids Ferriferous red and green-grey bauxite- like rock of pisolitic texture Sandstone and siltstone with limestone interbeds containing remains of marine Pamirian foraminifers; sandstones carry remains of Middle-Late Permian terrestrial flora. Foraminifers are: Glomospira sp., Geinitzina sp., Pachyphloia sp., Staffella sp., Nodosaria sp., Reichelina sp.; flora: Pecopteris orientalis (Schenk.), Potonik, P. nerinii Halle, Neoggrerathiopsis, sp.

100 m

7. 8.

100 m 20 m

9. 10.

0.5-5 m 100 m

The thickness of this Permian interval in the Sange Dushah Zone is 503 meters. Beds 1-4 (78 m) correspond to the Kubergandinian beds 5-8 (250 m) to the Murghabian, and beds 9-10 (105 m) to the Pamirian horizons. But this is not the complete original thickness of the Permian Sequence in the Sange Jdushah Zone. The lower 50 to 70 meters of the Permian section consisting of medium-and thick-bedded clastic-detrital limestones have not been studied as yet. This interval is believed to correspond to the lower portion of the Kubergandinian horizon and, possibly, the upper portion of the Uluk horizon. The Khwaja Morad Zone The Khwaja Morad Zone is situated south-east of the previous one. Outcrops of Upper Permian rocks ware described from the Kohe Kamola Mountains and the Jare Sebak and Koha Mushtghol creeks (152). The composite section manifests the following succession of beds. Carboniferous-Lower Permian black siltstones and shales (the Syahkoh Series) are conformably overlain by:
1. Limestone, gray, medium- and thick-bedded, clayey, and clastic-detrital, interbedded with marls and argillites The lower beds include fusulinids, and the upper, goniatites. Fusulinids indicating upper part of Uluk horizon are: Schwagerinidae, Pseudofusulina ex gr. postpusilla Bensh. Pseudoendothyra sp. - Uluk top; goniatites of Artinskian age are: Medliocottia sp., Agathyceras sp. Limestone, grey, with marl and limy shale interbeds, carrying Uluk fusilinids: Pseudofusulina cf. kraffti (Schell. et Dyhr.), P. ex gr. parafraklinensis Raus., P. ex gr. pediassequa Visa., P. aff. paraconcessa Raus., P. cf. kutkanensis Raus., Pseudoendothyra sp., Eostaffella (?) sp., Pamirina sp., Bradyina sp., Nodoseria sp., Tuberitina sp. Limestone, grey and dark, thick-bedded and massive, including limestone conglomerates (1-3 m) at the base, which are easily recognizable only in the Kohe Kamola Mountains and in the upper reaches of the Jare Sebak creek. The rocks contain Kubergandinian fusulinids: Globivalvulina sp., Schubertella sp., Pamirina sp., Pseudofusulina fusiformis (Schell., et Dyhr.), P. kraffti (Schell. et Dyhr.), Parafusulina ex gr. dzamantalensis Lay., Misellina sp., Boultonia sp. Limestones divided into two parts by a 12- 15-meter member of sandstones. The Kubergandinian fossils derived from the lower 3-6 meters of limestone are Cancellina sp., Armenina sp., Schubertella sp., Parafusulina sp., and those collected from the upper 6-7 meters are Cancellina sp., Armenina sp., A. salgirica M.-Macl., Schubertella sp., Parafusulina sp., Nankinella sp., Rauserella sp., Eostaffella sp., Glomospira sp Limestone with Chert nodules and interbeds, bearing remains of Murghabien fusulinids: Parafusulina sp., Sumatrina ex gr. annae Volz., Yangchienia ex gr. haydeni Thomps., Pseudofusulina cf. chihsiaensis Lea, Neoschwagerina sp. Verbeekina verbeeki (Gain.), Boultonia sp., Schubertella sp. Dolomite, thick-bedded and massive Dolomite interbedded with limestones and cherts. These beds are distinguishable only in the outcrops from the Koha Kamola Ridge Coral-sponge-algal lumpy limestones, limestone conglomerates and shales. The rocks 6-55 m

2.

5m

3.

9-15 m

4.

21-28 m

5.

50-85 m

6. 7. 8.

10-100 m 25 m 30-70 m

103

contain a Pamirian foraminifers: Miliolidae, Nankinella sp., Reichelina sp., Colaniella sp., Sphaerulina sp.; brachiopods: Scacchinella sp., Alaxenia cf. grotiodentalis Lich., Krotovia jissuersiformis Sar., Compressoproductus compressus Waag Wellerella arthaberi Tachern., Strophalosiina multicostata Lich., Martinia sp. Traces of erosion are present at the base and inside this bed 9. Limestones aim dolomites, organic, bearing Cribrogenerina sp. These are the topmost Permian beds in the Khawaja Morad Zone. They were observed only in the Kohe Kamola Ridge 100 m

The maximum thickness of beds 1-9 in the Kohe Kamola Ridge is 14.83 meters, that in the Jare Sebak and Mushtghol creeks is 233 and 72 meters, respectively. The fossils collected are indicative of the Kubergandinian, Murghabian and Pamirian horizons. Beds 1-3 (20-75 m), bed 4 (21-28 m), beds 5-7 (60-210 m), and beds 8-9 (30-170 m) correspond to the lower Kubergandinian, upper Kubergandinian, Murghab and Pamirian horizons, respectively. In the U.S.S.R., the counterpart of the sequence concerned is the contemporaneous sequence from the Intermediate Zone in the South-Eastern Pamir (79). Nalbandan and Turkman Zones In these zones the Upper Permian sequence (including the Kubergandinian beds) is characterized by a small thickness. The rocks ware studied most thoroughly in the Nalbandan Zone. The section described from the watershed area of the Hasan-Sansalagay and Shehlowast rivers is as follows (152). The Carboniferous Lower Permian black siltstones and shales (Syahkoh Series) are conformably overlain by:
1. Limestone, clastic-detrital, containing Kubergandinian Parafusulina cf. grupreraensia Thomps. et Mill., P. cf. dronovi Lay., Pseudofusulina cf. ozawai Yabe et Hanz., Armenina cf. ariatica Lev., Misellina sp., Neofusulinella sp., Tetrataxis sp. Marl and limy shale, green-grey, lilac-violet and red, enclosing fragments, nodules and lenses of clastic-detrital limestone with Parafusulina sp. Limestone, grey, fine- and medium-clastic Limestone, grey, massive, including chert nodules. The surface dividing this bed from the previous bears traces of erosion. The fossils are Misselina sp., Kahlerina (?) sp., fusulinids Marl and limy shale, violet and green- grey, clastic-conglomeratic, foliated Limestone, grey, massive, clastic- detrital, enclosing lenses and discontinuous interbeds of conglomerate-like limestone. The collected fossils were identified as Murghabian fusulinids; Parafusulina (?) sp., Neoschwagerina sp. and Kahlerina sp. Sandstone, calcareous 4m

2. 3. 4.

5-7 m 1-4.5 m 1-2.5 m

5. 6.

1m 2.5-3 m

7.

5-10 m

The thickness of beds 1-7 in this section is 19.5 to 29 meters. They range from Kubergandinian to Pamirian in age. The Kubergandinian and Murghabian beds are proved by fossils, and the Pamirian horizon is inferred inside sandstone of bed 7 on the basis of its stratigraphic position. In the U.S.S.R., the counterpart of the sequence described is the contemporaneous sequence from the Marginal Zone of the South-Eastern Pamir (79). Qarghanaw Zone This zone is situated in between the Sharak and Sarchashma villages. The Upper Permian sequence is different from that in the previous zones. The succession of beds described from the Mane Bum valley, north of Qarghanaw, was described as follows (152). The Lower Permian greenstone-altered volcanics are conformably overlain by:
1. Limestone, reef white, massive, containing Pseudofusulina sp., Schwagerinidae gen. ind., Nankinella ex gr. inflata (Col.), Climacammina sp. foraminifers 100 m

104

A fault followed in the north by: 2. 3. Limestone, grey, thick-bedded Limestone, black enclosing rare chert nodules and interbeds of sandy-silty rocks. Late Murghabian foraminifers ware recovered from the top: Nodosaria sp., Miliolidae gen. ind., Textularidae gen. ind., Globivalvulina sp., Glomospira sp., Geinitzina sp., Climacammina sp., Pachyphloia sp., Nankinella sp., Pseudofusulina aff. solida (Skin.), Parafusulina sp., Misellina sp., Sumatrina (?) sp., Neoschwagerina sp., Verbeekina sp., Pseudodoliolina sp., Metadoliolina sp., Armenina sp., Yabeina sp., Boultonia sp. Bauxite-like pisolitic rock, dirty-green-grey, grading obscurely to dirty-tobacco-green siltstone along the strike. Indications of erosion are recognizable at the base Siltstones and sandstones, calcareous, bearing biostromes and interbeds of organogenic hydroid-algal limestone Dolomite, thick-bedded 40 m 40 m

4. 5. 6.

0-10 m 50 m 40 m

Above follow Lower Triassic platy limestones. The contact is obscure, possibly erosional. The thickness of the beds 1-6 m this section is 280 meters. Judging by the position in the sequence and fossils, bed 1 (100 m), 2-3 (80 m) and 14-6 (90-100 m) correspond to the Kubergandinian, Murghabian and Pamirian horizons, respectively.

Permian, undifferentiated
Undifferentiated Permian sequence is mapped in. the Suleiman-Kirthar region, in the west of the North Afghanistan Platform, in the Turkmenistan-Horosan and Afghanistan-South Pamir regions, as well as in the South Afghanistan Median Mass. Almost everywhere the sequence consists of marine carbonate or carbonate-terrigenous rocks. Within the North Afghanistan Platform and the Turkmenistan-Horasan Region, the sequence is made up of terrigenous rocks, of assumingly terrestrial origin. North Afghanistan Platform and Turkmenistan-Horasan Region Undifferentiated Permian deposits are widespread in these regions. They are represented by red, presumably terrestrial, fine- and coarse terrigenous rocks distinguished as the Sangesurh Series (90, 91). The thickness of the series varies within 1,000-3,800 meters. It rests on the Lower-Middle Carboniferous (?) disconformably and is overlain, also disconformably by Lower Triassic beds. The series is unfossiliferous; it was dated as Permian on the basis of its stratigraphic position. Relevant information is available in the works by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (347), V.P. Azhipa et al. (5), and V.I. Dronov et al. (90, 91, 147). The lithology and succession of beds of the series is different in Kohe Dawindar, Firozkoh and Tir Bande Turkestan ridges. In the Kohe Dawindar Ridge, three units were distinguished in the series (347). The lower unit (700-800 m) starts with basal conglomerates followed by red-brown argillites, siltstones and sandstones. Limestone and marl interbeds are found at the top. The middle unit (2,000 m) lies conformably on the lower one and is represented by violet-grey sandstones, alternating with siltstones and argillites Occasional beds and lenses of gravelstones and conglomerates are encountered. The upper unit (800-1,000 m) rests conformably on the middle one and consists of brownish- and cherry-red argillites and fine-grained siltstones. Ash-grey, lilac and violet-gray sandstones, green-grey siltstones and red-brown gravelstones and conglomerates are subordinate. Limestone and marl interbeds are rarely encountered. The total thickness of the three units is 3,500-3,800 meters. Firozkoh Ridge In the Firozkoh Ridge the Permian sequence consists of two units (147). The lower unit (1,000 m) is composed of pale-red and green sandstones and siltstones with interbeds and lenses of gravelstones and conglomerates. The sandstones are polymictic and quartzose. The gravelstones are 105

predominantly quartzose. In some places the pebbles in the conglomerates consist solely of quartz, in others, the conglomerates are polymictic with abundant pebbles of limestone. The thickness of conglomerate beds varies within 0.5 to 20 meters and their number in the unit is small. The upper unit (1,500 m) is a monotonous sequence of thin-bedded bright-red argillites and siltstones with rare sandstone beds. The thickness of the two units is 2,500 meters. Tir Bande Turkestan Ridge In the Tir Bande Turkestan Ridge Permian rocks outcrop in the cores of anticlines traceable in the west of the ridge (147). These are dirty-red sandstones, siltstones and argillites 1,000 meters thick. In the U.S.S.R., the counterparts of the Sangesurkh Series are the Permian red beds from the Berth Caucasus and West Turkmenia (16). Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region In Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region, undifferentiated Permian deposits are mapped in the Haftkala, Shewa and Warw zones. The lithology, thickness and succession of beds are different in each of the zones. Haftkala Zone In this zone, which includes the whole of the Kohe Safed and Kohe Pud ridges, Permian deposits lie on Lower Carboniferous strata distinctly disconformably. These are represented predominantly by limestones and dolomites; quartz sandstones are distinguished at the base of the sequence, and a bauxite horizon at the top. The total thickness of the deposits is 250 to 280 meters. Relevant information is available in the works by V.I. Dronov et al. (97, 143, 152). The section described from the Kohe Pud Ridge has the following succession of beds (152). The eroded surface of Lower Carboniferous limestones is overlain by:
1. Quartz sandstone with interbeds of gravelstone and small-pebble conglomerate, bearing remains of Carboniferous-Permian foraminifers of Pseudoendothyra sp., Tetrataxis sp. Limestone and marl with remains of Uluk- Kubergandinian brachiopods and tetracorals. Brachiopods: Permundaria sp., Globiella (?) rossiae (Fant. Sest.), Linoproductus cora (Orb.), Marginifera typica (Waag.); tetracorals; Paracaninia sp., Bradyphyllum sp., Amplexus sp., Caninia sp Dolomite, massive and thick-bedded Reef limestone, white, massive, encountered in the Kohe Safed Ridge only. The rock contains Uluk foraininifera: Pseudoendothyra ex gr. pseudosphaeroidea (Dutk.), Pseudofusulina ex gr. concessa Viss., P. ex gr. kutkanensis (Raus.), P. ex gr. forakarensis (Skin), P. ex gr. pedisequa Viss., Pseudoreichelina cf. darvasica Lev., Schubertella sp. Limestone, dark, medium- and thick-bedded carrying remains of Early Kubergandinian fusulinids: Nankinella sp., Staffela sp., Schubertella sp., Pseudofusulina ex gr. gundarensis Kalm., Rugososchwagerina (?) sp. and tabulate corals: Michelinopora aff. sigangensis Reed., M. grandispinosa (Haug. ) Dolomite, grey, thick-bedded with Nankinella sp., Staffella sp. Limestone, white, massive, oolitic bearing remains of Late Murghabian foraminifers represented by Hemigordiopsis sp., Glomospira sp., Globivalvulina sp., Pachyphloia sp., Staffella sp., Nankinella sp., Neoschwagerina cf. cratikulifera (Schw.) Bauxite, dirty-green and brown, oolitic and granular, ferriferous, forming lenses on the uneven surface of white limestones 7 and serving as a basal bad of the overlying limestones 9 Limestone and dolomite, grey, carrying Glomospira sp., Milliolidae gen. ind. 80 m

2.

25-30 m

3. 4.

15-20 m 10 m

5.

20 m

6. 7.

60-70 m 6-12 m

8.

0-4 m

9.

40 m

The thickness of beds 1-9 in this section is 256 to 286 meters. The beds are succeeded by Lower Triassic red limestones and marls carrying Claraia with no apparent angular unconformity but possibly disconformably. 106

Shewa Zone Outcrops of Permian deposits were found in a narrow thrust sheet, which extends for 13 km from north to south along the watershed crest of the Darya-i-Shewa and Darya-i-Torgun rivers. The rocks were described by V.I. Dronov et al. (89) and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). The section described from the right side of the Darya-i-Shewa valley, near the Darya-i-Torgun estuary has the following succession of beds, which outcrop in an area west of Lower Ordovician limestones, beyond a fault.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Dolomite, thick-bedded with a 2-meter bed of grey limestone at the top Siltstone, black, enclosing interbeds of quartz sandstone and remains of Lower Permian, Reticularia sp. brachiopoda Dolomite, thick-bedded Bauxite-like rock, rusty-green, mottled, pisolitic, with indications of erosion at the base Limestone, grey, medium-bedded, detrital, bearing remains of crinoids and bryozoans. Schwagerinidae remains were found in thin sections 100 m 60 m 10 m 2m 70 m

A fault breaks this outcrop in the west, where Upper Triassic sandstones and siltstones with terrestrial plant remains are exposed. The thickness of beds 1-6 in this section is 242 meters. This is not the complete thickness of the Permian sequence of this area, since the beds are faulted at the base and top. In the U.S.S.R., the counterpart of the Permian sequence from the Shewa Zone is the Permian unit from Lake Jilga-Kul, the West Pshart Rivers drainage basin, Kalak-Tash and other areas of Central Pamir (87). Warw Zone Permian deposits compose a wedge-shaped fault block 50 kilometers in length and from 2 to 7 kilometers in width. No underlying rocks having normal stratigraphic relations with the Permian beds were encountered. The deposits are overlain by Lower Triassic beds with indications of a break but with no angular unconformity. The most thoroughly studied section lies in the middle of the Darrah-i-Begaw Valley, where the following beds are exposed from west to east.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Intermediate to basis volcanics Slate, black, phyllite-like Alternation of 2-30 m beds of limestone, sandstone and shale Dolomite, pale-ruddy, thick-bedded Shale, steel-grey Dolomite, grey, thick-bedded Intermediate to basic volcanics Limestone, green-grey, foliated Intermediate and basic volcanics Dolomite, pale-red, enclosing chert nodules Intermediate to basic volcanics Dolomite and dolomitic limestone, variegated, bedded, banded Limestones, light grey, massive and thick-bedded, detrital reef limestone at the top. The upper 50 meters abound in crinoids, sponges, algae, corals, gastropods and foraminifers. Late Murghabian Neoschwagerina sp., Hemigordiopsis sp. and Yabeina (?) sp. were identified among the latter 100 m 150 m 82 m 5m 15 m 8m 10 m 3m 2m 5m 50 m 200 m 1,000 m

107

14.

Limestone, dark, marly, interbedded with phosphorite-bearing polymictic sandstones. The whole interval has abundant foraminifers and tetracorals. Foraminifers are Colaniella sp., C. cf. media M.-Macl., Hemigordiopsis sp., Geinitzina cf. inflata M.Macl., Pachyphloia sp., Nodosaria sp., Climacammina sp., Tetrataxis sp., Globivalvulina sp., Staffella sp., Gribrogenarina sp.; tetracorals are Waagenophyllum ex gr. pulchrum Hamada, W. cf. compactum Minato et Kato, W. ex gr. virgalense (Waag. et Wantz), Iranophyllum sp.

50 m

15.

Dolomite, grey, thick-bedded

70 m

Above follow Lower Triassic brownish-red marls. The thickness of beds 1-15 in this section is 1,750 meters. The upper 170 meters are fossiliferous. They correspond to the upper part of the Murghabian plus Pamirian horizon of the Upper Permian. The underlying 1,580 meters of the section contain no fossils. Judging by their stratigraphic position, they were tentatively assigned to the base of the Upper Permian and to the Lower Permian. The section described is distinguished by a great thickness, abundance of reef limestones and presence of intermediate to basic A. volcanics in the lower portion (beds 1, 7, 9 and 11 with the total thickness of 162 meters). South Afghanistan Median Mass. Farah Rod Trough In this region, undifferentiated Permian deposits are mapped in the extreme north-west of the Zuri Zone, where they constitute three isolated thrust sheet in Kohe Gulanji, Kohe. Gologha and Selsela Koh-i-Bande Bedah ridges. They are represented by limestones and dolomites with beds of variegated terrigenousvolcanic rocks in the lower one-third of the section. The thickness of the deposits is 238-336 meters. The sequence is bounded by faults from all the surrounding units. The composite section described from the outcrops in the Kohe Gulanji and Selsela Koh-i-Bande Bedah ridges is as follows (152):
1. 2. Dolomite with nodules, interlayers and lenses of dark chert. The base of the beds is uneven, ferruginous A variegated member consisting of calcareous sandstones, shales, foliated limestones and marls with interbeds and lenses of basic volcanics. The rocks contain remains of Upper Paleozoic foraminifers represented by Textularidae and Fusulinidae Limestone, grey, thick-bedded 10-100 m 28-36 m

3.

50 m

Beds 1-3 were described from the outcrops in the Selsela Koh-i-Bande Badah Ridge, where their section is continuous. The limestones of bad 4 (see below) were described from the Koha Gulanji Ridge. Their relations with beds 1-3 remain uncertain.
4. Limestone, dark and light, thick-bedded, carrying remains of Murghabian foraminifers of Neoschwagerina sp., Verbeekina sp., Sumatrina aff. annae Volz, Afghanella sumatrinaeformis (Gulbar), Chusanella sp., Gribrogenerina sp., Geinitzina sp. 150 m

In this section, beds, 1-3 (88-186 m) are tentatively dated as Lower Permian, and bed 4 (150 m) as Murghabian. No older Permian beds were found in this locality. Suleiman-Kirthar Area In this area, undifferentiated Permian sequence is recognized in the north and north-east of the Katawaz Trough. According to I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (371), it consists of carbonate-terrigenous rocks exceeding 2,100 meters in thickness. Its relations with older strata are obscure. The rocks seem to be conformably overlain by Triassic beds. The most complete section was described along the motor road linking the Bekaray and Chakmani settlements (371).

108

1.

Limestone, black, massive, including contemporaneous breccias. The rock contains remains of Upper Paleozoic brachiopods represented by Chonetidae gen. et sp. ind., Productida (?), Athrididae gen. et sp. ind. Orthida (?) sp., Terebratuloida (7), Notothyrididae Rhythmically alternating platy limestones and foliated phyllite-like slates Limestone, black, massive, marmorized, A. including contemporaneous breccias Limestone, black, foliated, interbedded with shales and bearing fusulinid remains Black shale and phyllite-like slate Limestone, black, massive and bedded containing fusulinids and interbedded with phyllitelike slates Limestone with shale interbeds Phyllite Limestone, black, massive

200 m

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

250 m 50 m 300 m 200 m 350 m 250 m 100 m 400 m

Above follows a sequence of rhythmically alternating limestones and shales dated tentatively as Triassic. The thickness of beds 1-9 in this section is 2,100 meters. However, this is not the complete original thickness of the Permian sequence in the north-eastern part of the Katawaz Trough. Since the lower beds are cut off by a fault. Apart from the above Late Paleozoic brachiopods, Early and Late Permian corals represented by Lonsdaleiastraea cf. vinassai Gorth., Waagenophyllum indicum (Waag. at Wentz.), Ufimia sp., and others ware collected in various localities of the trough from different stratigraphic levels. Murghabian fusulinids of Neoschwagerina cf. haydeni Dutk. et Khab. were found south-west of Khost. Besides, M. Kaever (193) reported a finding of Upper Permian Rauserella sp. foraminifer from the Khost area.

Permian-Triassic undifferentiated
This section deals with carbonate and carbonate-cherty rocks constituting the middle portion of the Carboniferous-Triassic sequence of the Central Badakhshan (the Nakhchir Par Zone) and the Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass. Commonly these poorly studied and often metamorphosed rocks contain scarce fossil remains and have a comparatively small thickness. These rocks have been classified into two units: (1) Upper Permian-Carnian and (2) Permian-Carnian.

Upper Permian-Carnian This unit is mapped in the Wakhan Zone and in the Nurestan Fault Block. Wakhan Zone The Upper Permian-Carnian sequence of carbonate-terrigenous - cherty rocks lies in between the Carboniferous-Lower Permian and Norian-Rhaetian sequences of sandstones, shales and siltstones. The sequence is 340 meters thick. According to A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (198, 200), the section described in the Darahe Sargat valley has the following succession of beds. The eroded surface of Lower Permian beds is overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Limestone, conglomerate-like, bearing fusulinids Sandstone, silty, dark-colored Chert Limestone, dark gray Chert 50 m 210 m 60 m 13 m 7m

109

The beds are overlain conformably by Norian-Rhaetian sandstones and siltstones. The thickness of beds 1-6 in this section is 340 meters. No identifiable organic remains were found in the rocks. They are tentatively dated as Upper Permian-Carnian on the basis of their position in the sequence and the comparison with similar formations from the Marginal Zone in the Soviet South-Eastern Pamir (79). Nurestan Fault Block The Upper Permian-Carnian age was assigned tentatively to a sequence of carbonate-terrigenous rocks which outcrop in small thrust sheets and fault wedges traceable along fault zones and in roof pendants of granitoid massifs. The sequence, 350-600 m thick, consists of alternating beds of limestones, phyllite-like slates and sandstones. The limestones are predominant. The most representative section was described at the upper reaches of the Tagabe Munjan valley, on its lefthand side (151):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Limestone, dark grey, thin-banded with pyrite Alternation (1-2 m) of silty sandstones and limestones Limestone, dark gray, banded Silty sandstone and phyllite-like slate Limestone, thin-bedded, banded, including silty sandstones and phyllite-like slates. The limestone carries remains of Upper Permian (Pamirian) bryozoans and foraminifera identified as Polypora sp., Cadonofusiella sp. Phyllite, black Limestone, gray, massive, fine, crystalline Phyllite and silty sandstone interbedded with limestones Limestone, dark grey, massive 25 m 7m 65 m 40 m 200 m

6. 7. 8. 9.

100 m 100 m 50 m 10 m

Bed 9 ends the visible part of the section reported from the drainage basin of the Tagabe Munjan River where the section is 597 meters thick. In the drainage basin of the Alingar River, near the Alingar village, the deposits concerned are represented by grey and pink-grey massive marmorized limestones with interbeds of yellowish-grey quartzite and quartzsericite schist. The deposits are 350-1400 meters thick. Limestone beds include poorly preserved remains of brachiopods and corals identified as Upper Permian Waagenophyllum and Mesozoic Montlivaltiidae (?). On the basis of the fossils available and the stratigraphic position, the unit is tentatively dated as Upper Permian-Carnian.

Permian-Carnian The rocks included into this unit are mapped in the Nakhchir Par Zone. They are chiefly mamorized limestones and marbles with a small amount of terrigenous rocks at the base and top. The rocks are 350 to 400 meters thick. They lie on the tentatively Carboniferous rocks with a seeming conformity and are conformably overlain by Norian-Rhaetian beds. The rocks were described by G.G. Semionov et al. (141), I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154), and Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (151). The representative outcrops of the rocks are known from the area located near the Furmoragh Village and in the drainage basin of the Kokoha River. In the Furmoragh area, the rocks dated tentatively as Carboniferous are overlain conformably by the following Permian-Carnian beds (154):
1. 2. Limestone, marmorized, containing staurolite crystals Alternation of beds (0.2-2 m thick) consisting of green-grey marmorized limestone 8m 6.7 m

110

3. 4.

Limestone, dirty grey, bearing scapolite crystals Sandstone and siltstone interbedded with limestone that bears Triassic corals

220 m 150 m

Beds 1-4, 384.7 m thick in the section described, are overlain conformably by Norian-Middle Jurassic rocks that contain terrestrial flora remains. In the Kokcha Rivers drainage basin, south of the Jurm Village, the sequence under discussion consists of dark grey and black marmorized limestones interbedded with sericite and biotite-sericite schists (151). Here the sequence is 400 m thick. It exhibits fault contacts with the adjacent rock units. The limestones contain Permian fusulinids represented by Pseudofusulina bactriana Thomps., P. kreffti (Schell et Dyhr.), derived supposedly from the lower beds of the sequence. Coral remains mentioned above have derived from the upper beds of the sequence. In the USSR, the counterpart of the sequence described are Permian-Carnian marmorized limestones exposed in the drainage basins of the Kundary, Bashurvdary and Khawrezdary rivers, in the Central Pamir (73).

MESOZOIC
Mesozoic rocks are widespread in Afghanistan. The Mesozoic section includes all the systems of the group that are mainly represented by marine carbonate and terrigenous deposits; Volcanics are markedly subordinate. In the north, the Lower and Middle Jurassic rock units contain coal beds and the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous have evaporite deposits. The relationship of the Mesozoic with the other rock; units varies from place to place. In the Afghan-North Pamir Folded Region and in the eastern part of the North Afghanistan Platform the Mesozoic strata rest unconformably on various Paleozoic and Precambrian folded formations. In the western part of the North Afghanistan Platform the Mesozoic rocks overlie those of Permian age disconformably with no angular unconformity. In other regions the Mesozoic rocks overlie the Upper Permian either conformably or with the gap but with no angular unconformity. The relationship of the Mesozoic with younger formations is also varied. Within the North Afghanistan Platform the Paleogene strata rest conformably on the Cretaceous while in all other regions an erosional unconformity between then can be observed. Indications of erosion and angular unconformity can be found in the Triassic sequence, at the base and inside the Jurassic and in the basal and middle portion of the Cretaceous. All the systems of the group are fossiliferous. They have been studied and identified by I.M. Loseva, T.A. Sikstel, I.N. Srebrodolsksya (land flora); Yu.M. Kuzichkina, T.N. Kuznetsova (spora and pollen); A.V. Gerke, V.I. Korchagin, E.V. Mamontova, M.E. Hamid (foraminifera); T.G. Ilyina, E.I. Kusmicheva, G.K. Melnikova, V.M. Reiman (corals); T.F. Andreeva, P.I. Anuprienko, N.N. Bobkova, T.N. Bogdanova, A.G. Isayeva, L.D. Kiparisova, V.I. Kuznetsov, B.K. Kushlin, E.A. Rapman, A A. Savelev, L.V. Sibiriakova, A.Ya. Frolenkova, O.V. Cherkesov, I.D. Yushina (pelecypods); M.R. Dzhalilov, Z.F. Kriachkova (gastropods); A.A. Atabekiyan, A.S. Dagis, V.V. Drushits, G.I. Krymgolts, B.K. Kushlin, N.P. Luppov, S.S. Stankevich, I.A. Shevyrev (ammonoids); A.S. Dagis, S.V. Lobacheva, V.N. Ovcharenko, B.L. Prozorovskaya, N.V. Titova (brachiopods); G.N. Dzhabarov, E.S. Poretskaya, O.I. Shmidt (urchins), Klikushin (crinoids).

Triassic
Triassic rocks occur almost in all the regions of the country. The sequence consists of carbonate-terrigenous rocks and in some areas of volcanic rocks of marine origin. Continental deposits compose the NorianRhaetian strata in some areas of Middle Afghanistan, in the Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass. and in the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region. The Triassic sequence of Afghanistan includes all the divisions of the system and also some undifferentiated units (Sketch Map 6)

Lower Triassic
Lower Triassic rock unit is distinguished in the North Afghanistan Platform, within the Turkmen-Khorosan Region and the territory of the Central Afghanistan Median Mass.

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North Afghanistan Platform and Turkmen-Khorosan Region The Lower Triassic sequence consists within this region of variegated marine terrigenous-volcanic rocks, 150 to 2,000 m thick. They rest on Permian red beds with erosional unconformity, but with no angular unconformity and are overlain either conformably or disconformably by Middle Triassic strata. Information on the lower Triassic sequence can be found in the works by K.Ta. Mikhailov et al. (347), V.V. Kulakov et al. (225, 227), V.P. Azhipa et al. (5) V.I. Dronov et al. (147, 427), V.I. Slavin (388, 393), Yu.S. Perfilyev et al. (162). The section of the unit exposed in the Kohe Dawindar, Firezkeh and Tir Bands Turkestan ridges exhibits some variations. Kohe Dawindar Ridge In the Kohe Dawindar Ridge, K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (347) distinguish the Jawza and Chohak formations in the Lower Triassic sequence whose total thickness is 720 to 2,000 m The Jawza Formation (520-1345 m) starts the Lower Triassic sequence. It is divided into two members. The Lower Member (300-700 m) starting with basal conglomerate, 5 to 20 m thick, consists variegated sandstones, argillites and siltstone including interbeds and lenses of limestone, gravelstone and acid to intermediate volcanics. No fossils were found in the rocks, and the member was assigned Early Triassic age on the basis of its stratigraphic position. The Upper Member (220-645 m) rests conformably on the Lower Member. It is composed of limestones including interbeds and lenses of sandstone, argillites, siltstones and acid to intermediate volcanics (trachyandesite tuff, albitophyre welded tuff, andesite porphyry, albitophyre, plagioporphyry, quartz porphyry). The fossils collected in the rocks are Eumorphotis multiformis (Bitt., Myophoria cf. laevigata Ziet.); brachiopods Naticella (Nathiria) ex gr. costata Mstr. and ceratites Kaschmirites sp. The Chohak Formation (200-660 m) overlies the Jawza Formation conformably and consists of grey and variegated polymictic sandstones and siltstone including occasional interbeds and lenses of medium-pebble conglomerates limestones and quartz porphyry tuffs. The rocks contain Tirolites sp. ceratites.

Firozkoh Ridge In the Firozkoh Ridge, the Lower Triassic sequence referred to as the Spinzaw Series (42) is exposed at the water divide portions of the Bande Sangisurokh, Bande Khwaja Muzdan and Teghe Sangi Safed ridges. The most complete section of the series was described from the southern slope of the Bande Sangisurokh Ridge (147), where red sandstones of Permian age are overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Conglomerate with pebbles of sandstone, siltstone, rhyolite, dacite, plagiogranite, limestone and other rocks Alternation of red-lilac and green coarse-grained sandstones, gravelstones and conglomerates Interbedding of variegated tuff, chert, sandstone and arenaceous limestone. The beds enclose gastropod and pelecypod remains of Early Triassic appearance Red-grey and lilac-violet sandstones and arenaceous limestones with pelecypod remains of early Triassic appearance Acid and intermediate tuffs 20 m 300 m 100 m 50 m 300 m

Bed 5 is overlain disconformably by Anisian limestones. The total thickness of beds 1 to 5 is 770 m. To the east and north-east of the above-mentioned outcrops, Lower Triassic beds are exposed in the cores of anticlines in the Rakhna area, in the upper reaches of the Murghab Valley and in the south-western side of the Yakowland Graben (147). Everywhere the beds represent the upper portion of the sequence and are composed of acid to basic volcanics. The exposed thickness of the rocks is 100 to 150 meters.

112

Tir Bande Turkestan Ridge In the Tir Bande Turkestan Ridge, the Lower Triassic rocks are referred to as the Khwaja Surkhion Series (147, 427) consisting of variegated polymictic sandstones, gravelstones, and conglomerates 150 m thick, resting with erosional unconformity on Permian red beds and overlain conformably by Middle-Upper Triassic strata. The rocks are unfossiliferous, and they are assigned to Early Triassic age on the basis of the stratigraphic position.

The South Afghanistan Median Mass In this region the Lower Triassic deposits form a separate unit only within the Helmand-Argandab Uplift. They are described by Y.M. Dovgal et al. (144), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 274, 409) V.I. Dronov et al. (152), V.I. Slavin (392, 393), Yu. S. Perfiliyev et al. (162), D.A. Starshinin et al. (155). The unit consists of thin and medium-bedded limestones, calcareous dolomites and marls which form in the relief conspicuous horizon occurring in between the thick-bedded and massive limestones and dolomites of Late Permian and Middle-Late Triassic ages. The thickness of the rocks is 75 to 150 m. They rest on Permian strata with obvious conformity but with stratigraphic gap and are overlain conformably by Middle Triassic beds. The sections of the Lower Triassic sequence exhibit variations from zone to zone in spite of its seemingly monotonous character. In the Helmand Zone, the sequence consists of thin-and medium-bedded limestones, dolomites and marls interbedded with limestone and dolomite conglomerates and conglomerate-type breccias. Argyllite interlayers carrying Claraia cf. aurita (Hauer) and other fossils occur at the base. The rocks are 140 meters thick. In the Tirin Zone, the Lower Triassic beds are known as the Ajar Formation (207, 274, 409), which is composed of grey, yellowish and, occasionally, pink thin-bedded and flaggy dolomitized clayey limestones. A 7 to 10 meter member of dark thick-bedded dolomitized limestone occurs in the middle of the formation. Remains of Early Triassic pelecypods represented by Claraia aurita (Hauer), C. cf. subaurita (Krumb.), C. cf. griesbachi (Bitt.) have been collected from the lower beds of the formation. The formation is 120 to 150 meters in thickness. In the Argandab Zone, the Lower Triassic sequence is referred to as the Nawrozi Formation (144, 274) which consists of light and dark grey, occasionally yellowish and pink, thin-and medium-bedded limestones and marls. Early Triassic pelecypods represented by Eumorphotics cf. tenuistriata Bitt., Claraia sp. and others., have been collected from the lower beds. The formation is 75 meters thick. The above-mentioned fossils date the unit concerned as Lower Triassic. However, they were derived from its lower portion. The upper beds of the unit are unfossiliferous and are dated tentatively as Lower Triassic though some of the beds or the formation as a whole may appear to be Anisian in age.

Lower-Middle Triassic
The undifferentiated Lower-Middle Triassic sequence occurs in the Khinduraj Hazar and Suleiman-Kirthar regions. It consists everywhere of grey and variegated thin-and medium-bedded limestones, dolomites and marls, which form an easily recognizable thin horizon at the base of the Triassic portion of the section. The rocks are 50-220 m in thickness. They rest without any angular unconformity but with erosional unconformity on Permian strata and are overlain conformably by the Middle and Upper Triassic beds. In most areas the sequence includes Lower Triassic and Anisian beds. As a rule, some of the Lower Triassic beds are missing.

Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region In this region the Lower and Middle Triassic deposits occur 40 km east of Jalalabad. They are described by P. Weippert et al. (438), Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145) V.I. Slavin et al. (392, 393). In 1974 these deposits 113

were studied by A.Kh. Kafarsky and A.S. Dagis (198). Three members are distinguished in the Lower Middle Triassic sequence whose total thickness is 160 m. The sequence starts with grey and dirty-pink breccia-like limestone (2-4 m) which abounds in the remains of Indian Lytophiceras sp. ceratites. This bed is succeeded by 5-6-meter bed of dark grey, red-mottled breccia-like dolomitized limestone. The sequence is capped by 150 m of grey, in places reddish, thin- and medium-bedded limestone with Anisian ammonoids of Gymnites cf. sankara (Dien.), Isculites cf. hauerianus (Stol.), Gryphoceras cf. griesbachi (Dian.), Hollandites sp. An assemblage of Anisian conodonts is likely to come from this limestone horizon : Gladiogondolella cf. malayensis Nogami. G. tethydes (Huckr.). Gondolella cf. gracilis Clark et Ethington, Hindeodella multihamata Huckr., Lonchodina cf. venusta Huckr., Neogondolella aegaea Bender, N. mombergensis (Tatge), N. navicula (Huckr.), Ozarkodina tortilis Tatge, O. cf. turgida Bender, Parachirognathus petraeaviridis (Huckr.), Prioniodella ctenoides Tatge, Spathognathodus gondolelloides Bender. (436).

Suleiman-Kirthar Area In this area undifferentiated Lower-Middle Triassic sequence is recognized in the Kabul Stable Mass and in the north-western part of the Katawaz Trough.

Kabul Stable Mass The Lower - Middle Triassic sequence represents a part of the Chingil Series (178) and is equivalent to a unit of cephalopod limestones described by G. Mennessier (281). It consists of grey and brown thin-bedded siltstones interbedded with shales and calcareous shales. The thickness of the beds is 50 m. They abound in fossils but these are poorly preserved. The lower half of the section encloses Indian pelecypods and ammonoids represented by Claraia? sp., Emorphotis sp., Ophiceras sp., Gyronites fisheri Bando, Kymatites cf. typus Waag., Parakymanites sp. In the upper portion of the section there occur Olenekian and Anisian ceratites: Pseudosaeceras multilobatum Boeckh, Meekoceras sp., Flemengites sp., and Dunabites sp.

North-western part of the Katawna Trough This territory comprising the Altamur Ridge and the Asraw area is known for good sections of LowerMiddle Triassic beds bearing abundant fauna. Unlike the Kabul Stable Mass, the Lower Triassic is represented in this area by the Olenekian stage only. The rocks were described by G. Mennessier (251, 286, 290), B. Kummel et al. (229, 230), D. Ficher (117), K. Ishii et al. (185), Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145), V.I. Slavin et al. (392, 393), M. Collignon ( 52), Perfilyev et al. (162). In the Altamur Ridge, the Olelekian stage (20 m) is represented by grey and red thin-bedded flaggy limestone and marl enclosing ammonoids of the Owenite and Prohungarite zones. Owenite zone fossils are: Pseudosageceras multilobatum Moelt. Subinayites cf. Kashmiricus (Dien), Dieneroceras knechti Hyat et Smith, Owenites slavini (Popow), Anasibirites Kingianus (Waag.), Anakashmirites anguste costatus (Welt.) Prohungarite zone remains are represented by Albanites triadicus (Arth.), Procarnites Kokeni (Arch.) and Subcolumbites perrinismithi (Arth.). The Anisian stage (200 m) is composed of grey thin- and medium-bedded limestones bearing Beyrichites khanikofi (Oppel), Malietoptychites malletianus (Stol.) ammonoids. In the Azraw area the Lower to Middle Triassic sequence is similar to that of the Altamur Ridge, but here the rocks are more abundant in ammonoid remains which prove the presence of the Olenekian and Anisian stages (52). The dominant ammonoids in the Olenekian rocks are represented by Dieneroceras, Flemingites, Owenites, Paranannites and Anakashmirites genera. The Anisian rocks enclose remains of Malletoptychites malletianus (Stol.), Aristootychites amarassicus Welt., and Gymnites cf. urga Dien.

114

Middle Triassic
As a separate unit, the Middle Triassic is distinguished only within the Helmand-Argandab Uplift where it is composed of inequibedded, predominantly thick-bedded. limestones and dolomites, which are referred to in the Tirin zone as the Chakar Formation (800 - 900 m) and in the Argandab Zone as the Alaghzar Formation (450 m). In the Helmand Zone they have no name of their own. The rocks have been described by Y.I. Dovgal et al. (144), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 274, 409), V.I. Dronov et al. (152), and D.A. Starshinin et al. (155). No fossils have been found in the rocks. They are assigned Middle Triassic age on the basis of their stratigraphic position. If the supposition is correct that the Anisian beds make up the upper portions of the Ajar and Nawrozi formations considered above, this unit includes the Ladinian stage only.

Lower-Upper Triassic
Below follows a description of the undifferentiated sequence recognized in various regions of Afghanistan. This sequence comprises the Lower, Middle and Upper Triassic fully or partially. It involves the undifferentiated Indian-Carnian and the Middle-Upper Triassic stages.

Indian-Carnian
The undifferentiated Indian-Carnian sequence is distinguished in Middle Afghanistan, in the Afghano-East Iranian Folded Region and in the South Afghanistan Median Mass. Most of the section is Indian-Carnian but some zones include also Norian beds.

Middle Afghanistan The-Indian-Carnian rocks are distinguished in the Warw, Haftkala, Khwaja Morad, Nalbandan, Turkman and Qarghanaw zones These are marine carbonate and carbonate-chert rocks overlying Permian strata with a profound gap. In most of the areas they are capped conformably by Norian-Rhaetian beds. In the Haftkala Zone, they are overlain disconformably by Norian-Rhaetian beds. Their thickness varies from 85-120 m, in the Nalbandan Zone, to 620 m, in the Haftkala Zone. The rocks were described by V.I. Dronov et al. (95, 102, 147), I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). Perfilyev et al. (162). The facies of the rocks vary from place to place.

Warw Zone In this zone the undifferentiated Indian-Carnian sequence is recognized only in the basins of the DarraheiBegaw, Darya-i-Gomai and other rivers (154). It exhibits no angular unconformity and rests with indications of a stratigraphic gap on Upper Permian dolomites being overlain conformably by Norian-Rhaetian shales. Three units are distinguished in the sequence: 1) variegated marl (3 m) with brachiopod remains: Lingula ex gr. tenuissima Bron. 2) medium- and thick-bedded dolomite (200 m) and 3) thick-bedded and massive reef (?) limestone with gastropods of Carnian appearance (200 m). The total thickness is 403 m. The immediate continuation of the sequence on the USSR territory are the carbonate deposits found on the right-hand slope of the near-mouth area of the Wanch River valley and, apparently, the reef limestones of the South Rangkul (73). Haftkala Zone The undifferentiated Indian-Carnian sequence is recognized in the Kohe Pud and Kohe Safed ridges. It consists of limestones and dolomites resting with no angular unconformity but with a stratigraphic gap on the Upper Permian limestones. They are overlain disconformably by Norian-Rhaetian sandstones. Four units are distinguished in the sequence: 1) variegated thin-bedded limestone and marl (70 m) containing remains of Indian pelecypoda: Claraia aurita (Hauer). C. aff stachei (Bitt), C. cf. australasiatica Krumb. Anadontophora cf. canalensis Cat. 2) grey and cream-coloured thick-bedded dolomite (50 m); 3) thick-bedded dolomite (500 m) and 4) white massive reef limestone (20 m) with Megalodontidae fossils of Carnian-Norian appearance. The total thickness is 620 m. 115

The lower age limit of this unit is proved by the presence of Early Triassic pelecypods at the base of the succession. The upper limit is obscure. It may correspond to the Carnian top or Norian base. The findings of Megalodontidae do not contradict either of these datings. Khwaja Morad Zone Indian-Carnian sequence is represented here by various limestones and limestone conglomerates having a total thickness of 290 m. They rest disconformably on the Upper Permian beds and are overlain conformably by Norian-Rhaetian beds. The section of rocks has been described from the Khwaja Morad area (143, 152) where Permian beds are overlain disconformably by:
1. Limestone conglomerates interbedded with limestones and dolomites The pebbles consist predominantly of oolitic limestone of white and black colour and the cunent is carbonate. The pebbles and cement enclose remains of Early Triassic pelecypods: Eumorphotis cf. beneckei (Bitt.), B. venetiana (Hauer), E. cf. kittli (Bitt.), B. cf. tenuistriata (Bitt.), Anodontophora sp., Velopecten sp., Gervillia sp. Dark thin-bedded limestone with dolomites and limestone conglomerates. Abundant crinoids Dolomite, grey, thick-bedded Limestone, light-coloured intercalated with chert and enclosing Ladinian pelecypods; Daonella taramellii Mojs., D. cf. reticulata Mojs, D. cf. picchleri Mojs Limestone, light-coloured with Carnian Halobia ex gr. cassiana Mojs., pelecypods Limestone, dark-coloured with chert intercalations, lenses and nodules and remains of Early Norian pelecypods: Halobia cf. fallax Mojs., H, cf. salinarum Bronn., H. cf. distincta Mojs. 110 m

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

110 m 10 m 10 m 25 m 25 m

The beds are overlain conformably by Norian-Rhaetian terrigenous rocks. The thickness of the section described is 290 m. Fauna fossils and stratigraphic position suggest that beds 1-3 (230 m) are lower TriassicAnisian, bed 4 (10 m) is Ladinian, bed 5 (25 m) is Carnian and bed 6 (25 m) is Lower Norian. Consequently, here the upper age limit of the rocks described runs at the base of the Norian rather than at the top of the Carnian. Equivalent rocks on the USSR territory are the Indian-Carnian rocks of the Intermediate Zone of the South-East Pamir (73, 79).

Nalbandan Zone In this zone the succession of the Indian-Carnian rocks is essentially different. The composite section exposed in the valleys of the Hasan-Sansalagay and Nalbandan rivers has been described as follows (143, 152). Brown calcareous sandstone of Late Permian age is overlain disconformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Conglomerates consisting of limestone pebbles and interbedded with limestone and dolomite Limestone, flaggy, thin-bedded Charts, white, thin- and medium-bedded Cherts grey and green-grey, thin-bedded with remains of Carnian pelecypods: Halobia styriaca (Mojs.), H. cf. cassiana (Mojs.), H. ex gr. austriaca Mojs. Chart and calcareous-chert shale interbedded with calcareous siltstone and marl and containing remains of Carnian pelecypods; Halobia tropitum Kittl., H. cf. transversa Gemm., H. cf. styriaca (Mojs.), H. aff. brachyotis Kittl., H. cf. comata Bitt. 10-20 m 15 m 15 m 30-35 m 15-35 m

These are overlain conformably by sandstones and siltstones of Norian-Rhaetian age. The total thickness of the beds described is 85 to 120 m. What is distinctive about the Lower Triassic-Carnian sequence in the Nalbandan Zone is its small thickness and the fact that the Ladinian-Carnian beds are composed of chart. 116

Equivalent rocks on the USSR territory are the Indian-Carnian rocks of the Marginal Zone of the South-East Pamir. (73, 79).

Qarghanaw Zone In this zone the Indian-Carnian sequence exhibits a different succession of beds. Its section described from the Mene Bum ravine is as follows. Permian dolomites are overlain with a stratigraphic gap by the following beds:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Limestones, dark and grey, thin-bedded with abundant remains of mud-eaters and algae at the bedding surfaces Limestone, grey, occasionally lumpal, with crinoid and pelecypod remains in the upper portion Limestone, black, layered, argillaceous with rare chart nodules, lenses and bands Dolomite, gray and dark, layered, occasionally fragmental Bauxite of pisolitic and fine-grained texture, variegated, with a well-defined horizon of grey limestone abounding in gastropod and pelecypod remains of Carnian appearance in the middle part Dolomite, thick-bedded 200 m 40 m 20 m 30 m 30 m

6.

20 m

The thickness of the sequence is 340 m. By the position in the section and by comparison with similar deposits from other zones, bed 1 (200 m) corresponds to the Lower Triassic-Anisian level and beds 2-6 (140 m) to the Ladinian-Carnian level. The distinctive feature of the Lower Triassic-Carnian beds from the Qarghanaw Zone, as compared with those of the Nalbandan Zone, is the greater thickness of the beds, and particularly that of the Lower Triassic-Anisian flaggy limestones, the absence of limestone conglomerates at the base, a gap in the Carnian sequence and the presence of bauxite and dolomite there.

Afghanistan-East Iran Region In Afghanistan-East Iran Region, the undifferentiated Indian-Carnian sequence is known in the Kashmiran Uplift, where it makes up the Home Koh Mountains at the Iran frontier. V.I. Dronov et al. (152) distinguished two conformable units in the sequence: 1) the lower Triassic-Anisian unit (200 m) consisting of dark flaggy thin-bedded limestones and dolomites with ammonoids and 2) the Ladinian-Carnian unit (800 m) composed of dolomites. The total thickness is 1,000 m. Neither underlying nor overlying deposits were encountered.

Farah Rod Trough In this area the undifferentiated Indian-Carnian sequence has been distinguished in the north-eastern segment of the Khash Rod Zone to the south and southeast of the path connecting the villages of Dehkundi and Shekhmiran. Representative outcrops of this sequence occur in the Darwaza Ridge. The sequence under consideration bear the name of the Darwaza Series after the Darwasa Ridge. As reported by V.I. Dronov et al. (152) and D.A. Starshinin et al. (155), it consists of irregularly alternating sandstones, shales, siltstone, limestones, conglomerates, gravelstones, cherts, tuffs and lavas of basalt and andesite-porphyries enclosing light-coloured limestone bioherms. The thickness of the series is 2,000-2,500 m. Its relations with older and younger deposits remain uncertain. Organic remains are abundant and usually occur in limestones. They are poorly preserved. The fossils identified from the beds of the series are Carnian-Norian pelecypods and corals: Megalodon sp., Montlivaultia? cf. norica Fresh. The rocks are assigned the Early Triassic-Norian age due to their large thickness.

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Middle-Upper Triassic
Undifferentiated Middle-Upper Triassic sequence is recognized in the areas of Hercynian and Alpine folding and within the North Afghanistan Platform. It consists of marine deposits everywhere.

Turkmeno-Khorosan Folded Region and North Afghanistan Platform The Middle-Upper Triassic sequence is composed here predominantly of terrigenous rocks with a small amount of limestones and volcanics. Its thickness varies from 100 m to 4,000 m. In the sequence under discussion the Anisian and Ladinian-Norian stages can be identified. Anisian stage The Anisian stage consists of carbonate-terrigenous rocks, 180-890 m thick. The sections described from the Kohe Dawindar, Firozkoh and Tir Bande Turkestan ridges are different. In the Kohe Dawindar Ridge, K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (347) distinguished two formations in the Anisian sequence, viz. the Kahmard-i-Zard and Sang Jar formations whose total thicknessis 840 to 890m.The Kahmard-i-Zard Formation (430-480 m) rests conformably on the lower Triassic and consists of light grey and pink limestones (10-60 m) in the lower part and grey lumpy argillite interbedded with siltstones and sandy limestones (420 m) in the upper part. Anisian ammonoids and brachiopods were collected from the middle of the section. These are: Sturia sansovini (Mojs.), Spiriferina fragilis Schloth., S. cf. manca Bitt., Tetractinella trigonella Schloth Koeveskallina koeveskalliensis Boeck. The Sang-Jar Formation (410 m) overlies conformably the Kahmard-i-Zard Formation. It consists of limestones, black in the lower portion and light grey and pink in the upper portion. The rocks are unfossiliferous and are classified as Anisian tentatively. In the Firozkoh Ridge, described by V.I. Dronov et al. (147, 427), Anisian sequence occurs at the water divides of the Bands Sangisurokh, Bande Khwaja Muzdan and Tenghe Sangi Safed ridges and also in the area between Sate Nawe and Rakhna villages.Described in the Khwaja Muzdan type locality, the Anisian rocks are classified as the Khwaja Muzdan Series (427) which consists of two units. The lower unit (100-130 m) is composed of thick-bedded and massive reef limestones and the upper (80-120 m) of alternating limestones, siltstone, sandstones and gravelstones. The total thickness of the series is 180-250 m It lies unconformably on the Spinzaw Series of Early Triassic age and is overlain conformably by the LadinianNorian Firozkoh Series. The tape section from the Bande Sangisurokh Ridge exhibits the following succession of beds (147). The Lower Triassic Spinzaw Volcanics are disconformably overlain by:
1. Limestone bedded, in places massive; it encloses at the base a 10 to 30-meter bed or marly lumpal limestone, as well as gravelstone, sandstone and siltstone and a 3 to 10-meter horizon of volcanomictic sandstone, gravelstone and intermediate tuff in the upper third of the section. The rocks enclose brachiopods of Anisian age and crinoids of AnisianLadinian age: the brachiopods include: Decurtella decurtata Gir., Punctospirella fragilis Schloth., Spiriferina cf. passarti Phill., Mentzelia mentzeli Dunk., Koeveskallina koeveskalliensis Boeck. K. cf. paleotypus Loretz. Tetractinenella trigonella Schloth, Coenothyris vulgaris Schloth. C. aff. cycloides Zenk., Costirhynchia mentzeli Buch the crinoids are: Encrinus cf. liliiformis Lam. Sandstone and gravelstone, bedded, occasionally cross-bedded, arkose with interbeds and lenses of small-and medium-pebble conglomerates, resting on bed 1 disconformably Sandstone, siltstone and sandy limestone with Anisian fauna. Brachiopods are: Punctospirella. fragilis Schloth, Mentzelia cf. mentzeli Dunk., Koeveskallina koeveskalliensia Boeck. Spiriferina cf. passarti Phill., Coenothyris ex gr. vulgaris the ammonoides are: Flexoptychites cf. uhligi (Mojs.) Siltstone and shale, foliated, interbedded with gravelstone and coarse-grained sandstone 100-130 m

2. 3.

40 m 30 m

4.

70 m

118

Bed 4 is overlain conformably by Ladinian-Norian beds. The thickness of the section described is 240-270 m. The bed 1 (100-130 m) represents the lower unit and beds 2-4 (140 m) the upper unit of the Khwaja Muzdan Series. East of the described exposure, in the Jare Spizaw and Darrahgah river basins, the lower unit (100 m) of the Khwaja Muzdan Series exhibits the same succession and appearance while the upper unit (80 m) is represented by alternating argillaceous lumpal limestones and marls interbedded with grey tuffs, tuff sandstones and tuff gravelstones derived from intermediate volcanics. Both units enclose abundant fauna of Anisian age. The lower unit includes brachiopods: Costirhynchia mentzeli Buch, Punctospirella fragilis Schloth., Mentzelia cf. metzeli Dunk., Tetractinella trigonella Schloth.; the upper unit carries brachiopods: Volirhynchia volitans Bitt., Decurtella decurrata Gir. Dinarispira avarica Bitt., Spirigerellina ? sturi Boeck., Punctospirella fragilis Schloth., Mentzelia mentzeli Dunk., Koeveskallina koeveskalliensis Boeck. Coenothyris cf. vulgaris Schloth; and ammonoids: Flexoptychites uhligi (Mojs.), Discoptychites ex gr. reductus (Mojs.), Beyrichites cf. reuttensis (Beyr.), Anagymnites sp. The extreme eastern outcrops of the Anisian beds in the Firozkoh Ridge are found within Rakhna area where they consist exclusively of grey and black polymictic and quartzose sandstones with interbeds and lenses of siltstone, small-pebble conglomerate and gravelstone. At the top, a 50-meter bed is found of chert and calcareous-clayey -cherty rocks intercalated with siltstone (147). The total thickness of the rocks is 460 m They seem to lie conformably, possibly with a stratigraphic gap on acidic volcanics of supposedly Early Triassic age and are overlain strongly unconformably by Cretaceous red beds. Organic remains are abundant though most of them have not been identified yet. The identified brachiopods include Spirifenina sp., Costirhynchia sp. The fossils are of Anisian appearance. In the Bande Turkestan Ridge assigned to the Anisian is the Tiznowa Series (427). It is differentiated into two units. The lower unit (200 m.) rests conformably on the lower Triassic and consists of inequibedded polymictic sandstones and siltstone. The upper unit (50 m) is conformable with the lower unit and consists of black shale and siltstone inter-bedded with green and green-grey thin-bedded chert carrying remains of Anisian pelecypods. The Ladinian-Norian The Ladinian-Norian stages are composed of both regularly and irregularly alternating black and green-grey inequigranular polymictic and oligomictic sandstones, shale and siltstone. In some localities, the sequence includes tuffaceous and volcanomictic rocks. In lithology, the succession of the beds, the type of bedding and fossil assemblage, the deposits included into this unit greatly resemble the Triassic rock sequences from the Mountain Crimea in the USSR referred to as the Taurian Series. The rocks lie conformably, in places with evidence of erosion, on the Anisian beds and are overlain unconformably by Cretaceous beds. The rocks are poorly studied, and therefore their differentiation varies from section to section. In the Firozkoh Ridge, the Ladinian-Norian sequence known as the Firozkoh Series (Footnote: In the Kohe Dawindar Ridge, this stratigraphic interval is reported to consist of two formations (347), the Halasum Formation of effusive and terrigenous rocks, 1000 m thick, and the Tutak Formation of volcanogenic rocks, 1,000 m thick. The rocks are unfossiliferous. Their Late Triassic age is tentative. They are likely to be either of Paleogene or Early Triassic age.) (427) is subdivided into two rock units whose total thickness is 2,000 m. The lower unit (500 m) is composed of irregularly alternating shale, siltstone and sandstone beds. The upper unit (1,500 m) consists of regularly alternating sandstones and siltstones. At the top of the lower unit there are beds and lenses of volcanogenic and calcareous clayey cherty rocks, marl and limestone with abundant fauna fossils. Fossils of Carnian age were collected from the rocks occurring in the Shela-i-Zakake-Ulia and Shela-i-Khwaja Palor river basins and at the water divide of the Bande Khwaja Muzdan Ridge. The fossils are brachiopods: Costirhynchia orientalis Pet., Mentzetia ampla Bitt., Koninckina leonhardi Wisam., Tetractinella dyactis Bitt., Rhaetina cf. alexandrina Frech, Neoretzia aff. fastosa Bitt. ammonoids: Tropites aff. perinsignis Mojs., Lovites sp., Protrachyceras cf. aspasia Mojs., Sirenites cf. senticosus (Dittm.), and crinoids: Traumatocrinus candex (Dittm), Balanocrinus subcrenatus (Munst.), Isocrinus tyrolensis (Laube). The above fossils and the stratigraphic position suggest that the lower beds of the lower unit are Ladinian, the upper beds are Carnian and the whole upper unit is Carnian-Norian. 119

In the Bande Turkestan Ridge, the Ladinian-Norian deposits are distinguished as Bande Turkestan Series. They make up the western water-divide part of the ridge and are predominant in the region. In the Ziarate-iMorjon-Bed area, the sequence is subdivided into two units (107, 161); the lower unit (678) consisting of volcanogenic sandstones, and the upper unit (450 m) composed of shales. Ladinian pelecypods represented by Daonella prima Kipar, were collected from the lower portion of the lower unit and Carnian pelecypods of Halobia austrica., H. cf. zitteli Lindstr., from the top of the upper unit. Eastwards, in the middle courses of the Darrah-i-Suf River, a 20-50 metre thick sandstone and marl beds in the middle of the Ladinian-Norian sequence enclose abundant Carnian fauna of brachiopods: Costirhynchia cf. orientalis Pet., Mentzelia cf. ampla Bitt., Koninckina leonhardi Wissm., Tetractinella dyactis Bitt. ammonoids, Discophyllites ebneri (Mojs.), Tropites subbulatus (Hauer), T. cf. telleri Mojs., T. cf. discebullatus Mojs., Anatropites cf. spinosus Mojs., Discotropites cf. saindlingensis (Hauer), Hypocladiscites subtornatus (Mojs.), Cladiscites cf. striatissimus (Mojs.), Pinacoceras cf. rex Mojs, and crinoids: Traumatocrinus candex. In the area adjacent to the Bande-Turkestan Mountains, the Ladinian-Norian beds expose (Dittm.) from under the platform sedimentary cover spread within the Mirsa Wolang and Zarohoy uplifts (107, 161, 388). Within the Mirza Wolang Uplift, the Ladinian-Norian sequence is subdivided into four units: the shale and sandstone unit (290 m), the lower shale unit (470 m), the sandstone unit (430 m) and the upper shale unit (205. m). The second from the bottom shale unit bears Carnian ammonoids represented by Sirenites sentirosus Ditm., Trachyceras (?) sp., and the fourth unit encloses Carsian -Early Norian Halobia cf. pamirensis Kipar. pelecypods. Within the Zarchoy Uplift the sequence is not subdivided. It consists of monotonous dark grey argillite and shale with rare limestone interbeds. The rocks carry Carnian ammonoids and pelecypods: Anolietes (?) cf. isoldae Mojs., Halobia cf. fallax Mojs.

The Afghanistan - North Pamir Region and the Surkhab Zone Middle-Upper Triassic rocks are not widespread in this region. They were reported by C.L. Griesbach (165, 167), H. Hayden (178), R. Furon (119, 121, 123), S. Popol and S. Tromp (339), D. Weippert (436), G.N. Khatiskazi et al. (217), K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350), V.P. Kolchanov et al. (220, 348), V.I. Bratash et al. (161), V.I. Slavin (388, 393), A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153), I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154), Yu.S. Perfilyev et al. (162). Since the time of investigations carried out by H. Hayden (178), the Middle-Upper Triassic has been known in this area as the Doab Series. The series is composed of flysch-like alternating polymictic sandstones, siltstone and argillites intercalated with beds, bands and lenses of conglomerate and volcanics. The thickness of the series is 1,100 m. It rests unconformably on various Palaeozoic horizons and is overlain conformably by sedimentary-volcanogenic formations ascribed tentatively Rhaetian age. The succession of beds in the type locality of Doabi Mehzarin is as follows (217).
1. 2. Conglomerate with siltstone and sandstone interbeds enclosing pelecypod remains. Pebbles are represented predominantly by limestone and sandstone Argillite black with siderite nodules and lenses and interbeds of siltstone, sandstone and acid ash tuff 242 m 165 m

The rocks of this bed abound in fossils differently identified. R. Furon and L. Rosset who were the first to collect and describe fauna from these rocks report the following Anisian ammonoids and Ladinian pelecypods (292): ammonoids are Ceratites afghsnicus Fur., C. afghanicus var. zaheri Fur., C. afghanicus var. rosseti Fur., Monophyllites cf. sphaerophyllus Hauer, pelecypods are Daonella cf. moussoni Mer. Latter different paleontologists identified remains of Early Triassic, Anisian, Ladinian and Carnian ammonoides and pelecypods from the collections of A.K. Dertev, O.V. Cherkesov and others (161, 217) who claimed that the fossils came from the same interval. On this basis A.K. Dertev (217) classified this bed as Carnian believing the Lower and Middle Triassic fossils to be redeposited. In 1973 A.S. Dagis claimed to have established the in-situ distribution of Ladinian ammonoids and pelecypods of the Progonoceratites and 120

Daonella genera throughout the discussed unit. He did not find any reliably identifiable remains of Early Triassic-Anisian fauna occurring together with Ladinian fossils. In this case the bed is of Ladinian age. According to A.S. Dagis, the verified list of fauna from the bed includes ammonoids: Progonoceratites afghanicus (Fur.), Sturia sp., Monophyllites sp. myarians, Daonella indica Bitt., D. cf. lommeli Wiss., Entolium discites Schloth., Chlamys reticulata Schloth. brachiopods: Mentzelia ampla Bitt., Koeveskallina ex gr. koeveskalliensis Boeck, Anisactinella sp., Coenothyris cf. cycloides Zenk. Overlying the bed conformably are:
3. Sandstone, grey, inequigranular, polymictic interbedded with siltstone and argillites enclosing siderite nodules; there are rare gravelstones and conglomerates whose pebbles are granite and volcanic rocks. The rocks bear fossils of Carnian age represented by Cladiscites aff. tolli Dien and others Siltstone with interbeds of fine-grained polimictic sandstone and argillite enclosing siderite nodules and remains of Norian pelecypods: Monotis aff. salinaria Bron., M. aff. daonellaeformis Kipar Diabase with black argillite intercalations Sandstone, inequigranular, polymictic with gravelstone interbeds and a 40-meter diabase cover at the top 240 m

4.

162 m

5. 6.

70 m 200 m

The total thickness of the Doab Series in this section is 1,079 m. The same succession of its beds is found everywhere in the Surkhab River drainage basin. Eastwards, representative exposures of the series are round in the Banu area and the Khenjan River drainage basin; it consists there of the same flysch-like alternating sandstone, siltstone and argillites whose total thickness is about 1,000 m. In the Khenjan River drainage basin the lower portion of the considered sequence was recognized as an independent Khenjan Formation consisting of three members (109, 110) with abundant remains of Ladinian pelecypods and ammonoids. The lower member (75 m) consists of coarse-grained polymictic sandstone interbedded with argillite and bearing remains of Bakervellia (Neobakevellia) costata (Schloth.), Pleuronectites laevisatus Schloth., Entolium discites (Schloth.), Myophoria intermedia Schaur., M. vulgaris (Schizodus), Elegentia elegans (Dunk.), Neoschizodus laevigatus (Alb.); the middle member (60 m) consists of fine-grained sandstone with Daonella guttula Farsen, D. semicardioformis Farsan, D. aff. angulata Riebar; the upper member of the formation (350 m) is composed of argillite with siderite nodules and remains of Hungarites mojsisovichi (Roth). Mesocladiscites involutus Farsan. Procladiscites sp., Daonella indica Bitt., D. moason (Mer.), D. esinensis (Salom.). Farther eastwards, in the Darrah-i-Hawdzi River drainage basin, the succession of the Middle -Upper Triassic beds is as follows (148):
1. 2. Conglomerate, red, consisting of various pebbles. Many pebbles consist of the underlying volcanics and terrigenous rocks of Early Carboniferous age Sandstone interbedded with argillite and siltstone enclosing Early Carnian pelecypods and brachiopods: Lilangina nobilis Dien., Entolium sp., "Terebratula" cf. semiplecta Mnst. Alternation of sandstones, siltstone, gravelstones and small-and medium-pebble conglomerates 90 m 170 m

3.

820 m

The thickness of the section is 1,080 m. The Duoba Series has obscure relationships with intermediate and acidic volcanites from the left-hand bank of the Surkbob River and other areas which were referred to as the Irmalek and Shukradara formations by K.Ya. Mikhailov and V.V. Kulakov (225, 350).

121

The Irmalek Formation, 2,200 meters thick, starts the volcanite sequence and consists of andesite porphyries. The Shukradara Formation, 2,500 m thick, lies conformably on the Irmalek Formation. It consists of quartz porphyries enclosing beds and lenses of limestone, sandstone, argillite and gravelstone. Ladinian-Carnian brachiopods, represented by Lepismatina sp., Mentzelia ex. gr. Ampla Bitt., Afghanispira michailovi Dagys, Aulacothyris sp., Coenothyris (?) sp., Enxinella (?) sp., have been collected from the lower portion of the Shukradara Formation. The thickness of the two formations is 4,700 meters. The underlying rocks have not been established. Above, with a seeming unconformity, follow the Duoba black sandstones and siltstones. In case the above-said relationship is true, the Irmalek and Shukradara formations can be classified as a volcanic facies of the Duoba Series lower part. Yet some of the investigators are of the opinion that most of the volcanites discussed represent subvolcanic bodies (154). This problem necessitates further investigations.

The Khinduraj-Khazar Folded Region In this region rocks of Middle-Late Triassic age occur 40 km east of Jalalabad. These are limestones and dolomites whose age is Ladinian, Carnian and possibly early Norian. The thickness is 470-580 m. They lie conformably on Lower Triassic-Anisian strata. No overlying deposits are found. The section at the Rogeh village is as follows (198):
1. 2. 3. Limestones, at base (50-70 m) stratified with poorly preserved pelecypod and coral remains, on top (120-150 m) dolomitized and massive Limestone, dolomitized with chert nodules and remains of Norian Protocyclolites cf. triadicus Freeh corals Limestone, dolomitized, 50 meters above the base containing Norian brachiopods of Amphiclina cf. intermedia Bitt., Amphiclinodonta sp., Kononckina sp., Thecospiropsis sp., Lepismatina sp., Anlacothyropsis cf. patricia Bitt 170-220 m 50-60 m 250-300 m

The fossils collected from the section are exclusively of Norian possibly Early Norian age. Findings of Carnian-Norian pelecypods conodonts and Rhaetian corals were reported (438). These are: Megalodon ? sp, Dicerocardium ? sp., Tardogondolella abneptis (Huckr.) Retiophyllia cf. clathrata (Emmr). The presence of Ladinian deposits was not proved by fauna findings. On the basis of the stratigraphic position, Ladinian age may be assigned to bed 1, whose true thickness is 170-220 m. Suleiman-Kirthar Region. In this region Middle-Upper Triassic rocks occur in the Kabul Stable Mass and in the northwest of the Katawaz Zone, where they are represented by limestones and dolomites.

Kabul Stable Mass The Middle-Upper Triassic rocks from this area are referred to as the Saparae and Ghozak formations (281), which represent the upper portion of the Chingil Series (178). The Saparae Formation (300-400 m) rests conformably on lower-Middle Triassic cephalopod-bearing limestones. It consists of medium-and thick bedded limestones and dolomites containing interbeds and lenses of shale and volcanic rocks. No fossils were found in the formation. It is considered to be of LadinianCarnian age on the basis of its stratigraphic position. The Ghozak Formation (400-500 m.) consisting of limestones and dolomites lies conformably on the Saparae Formation. It is overlain conformably by the Norian-Rhaetian Kataghay Series (287). The fossils of the Ghozak Formation are abundant but poorly preserved. The list of fauna includes late Triassic, Jurassic and even Cretaceous fossils (117, 178, 280, 287). The Late Triassic fossils are Megalodon sp. (Neomegalodon sp.), Dicerocardium sp., Indopecten ex gr. cligletti Krumb. the Jurassic fossils are Procerithium sp., Nerinsa tuberculosa Defrance, Montlivaultia sp., Belemnopsis sp., Cylindrotenthis sp.; the Cretaceous remains are represented by Globularia (?) sp., Promathildia (Clathrobaculus) cf. ziczac Desh., Hemipheustes cf. persicus Cott. et Delb. This list of fossils suggests that the Ghozak Formation is of Late Triassic-Cretaceous age but its stratigraphic position below the Norian-Rhaetian Kataghay Series contradicts this assignment. Thus the Ghozak Formation should not be 122

regarded younger than Norian, and the above-mentioned identifications of Jurassic and Cretaceous fossils should be considered as erroneous as they are poorly preserved.

North-west part of the Katawas Trough In this region which comprises the Altamur Ridge and the Azraw area, Middle-Upper Triassic rocks rest conformably on Lower Triassic-Anisian strata. These rocks are grey, thick-bedded limestones and dolomites, 100-200 m thick. In the Azraw area the lower beds enclose ammonoids: Protrachyceras aff. reitzi Boeck., Johannites afghanicus Coll. The upper beds do not carry identifiable fossils and are classified as MiddleUpper Triassic tentatively.

Upper Triassic
Below follows the description of Carnian-Norian, Norian-Rhaetian, Rhaetian and undifferentiated Upper Triassic sequences occurring in various regions of Afghanistan.

Carnian - Norian The undifferentiated Carnian-Norian sequence is recognized in the Helmand-Argandab Uplift. It consists of organic limestones and dolomites. The beds lie conformably on the rocks dated tentatively as Middle Triassic. They are overlain by RhaetianLiassic beds with a visible conformity and with a possible stratigraphic gap. Relevant information on the beds is available in the works by A. Lapparent et al. (249), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 217, 274). Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144), V.I. Dronov et al. (152), Yu.S. Perfilyev et al. (162), D.A. Starshinin et al. (155) and others. As evidenced by the data collected by these authors, the lithology and succession of Carnian - Norian beds differ from zone to zone. In the Argandab Zone, the Carnian-Norian beds are composed of white, occasionally creamy, thick-bedded dolomitic limestone known as the Alamgar Formation (144, 274, 409), 400 to 500 meters in thickness. It includes a 75-meter member of elastic limestone in the middle part. Poorly preserved Megalontidae remains are found throughout the formation. In the Tirin Zone, the Carnian-Norian beds consist of dark grey thick-bedded and massive reef limestones known previously as the Hazarajat Formation and later referred to as the Spin Formation (142, 206, 217, 274), 200 to 250 meters thick. Limestone beds are abundant with remains of thick-valve pelecypods identified as Megalodon ex. gr. laszkoi Hoern., M. ex. gr. haueri Hoern, , M. ex. gr. Gryphoides Gmb. In the Helmand Zone, the Carnian-Norian beds consist of thick-bedded dolomite and dolomitized limestone with Megalodon sp., Dicerocardium ex. gr. yani Stoppani (249). The beds vary from 50 to 200 meters in thickness. It is remarkable that all the above-mentioned Megalodontidae forms are indicative of the Norian age of the enclosing rocks. The Carnian age is tentatively assigned to the lower portion of the section on the basis of a great thickness of the beds, although the entire succession may be of Norian age.

Norian - Rhaetian Undifferentiated Norian-Rhaetian sequence is distinguished in Middle Afghanistan and in the NurestanPamir and Central Afghanistan Median masses. It consists, in both areas, of terrigenous, flysch-type rocks.

Middle Afghanistan In this region Norian-Rhaetian deposits are of marine and continental facies. 123

Deposits of marine origin Deposits of marine origin occur in the Haftkala, Khwaja Morad, Nalbandan, Abul, Turkman and Warw Zones. In the Khwaja Morad, Nalbandan and Turkman zones, dark-coloured sandstones, shales and siltstones compose a sequence 1,000-3,000 m thick, resting conformably on Indian-Carnian strata and overlain strongly unconformably by Lower-Middle Jurassic beds. Fossils are scarce and are usually found in the lower onethird portion of the section. Identifiable fossil remains were collected from Khwaja Morad and Nalbandan zones (143, 152). The list includes the following Norian fossils: Halobia salinarum Bronn, H. distincta Mojs., H. cf. plicosa Mojs., H. cf. superbescens Kittl, H. cf. maximiliani Kittl. and others. Abundant but poorly preserved Holobiidae were collected in the Turkman Zone (158). The Rhaetian beds are unfossiliferous and inferred in the sequence on the basis of its great thickness. In the USSR South-East Pamirs an equivalent of the series in the Istyk Series (73, 79, 85). Haftkala Zone In the Haftkala Zone, the Norian-Rhaetian sequence consists of variegated sandstones and siltstone interbedded in the lower portion with marls and limestones. Bauxite lenses up to 1.5 m thick are found at the base of the sequence. The sequence is 100 m thick, in places somewhat thinner. The sequence rests on the underlying beds disconformably but without an angular unconformity. The rocks overlying the sequence are not found. The rocks bear abundant fauna represented by pelecypods: Indopecten glabra Daugl., I. ex. gr. clignetti (Baehm), Cardite sp., Pinna sp., Protocardia sp., Costatoria sp., Entolium sp., Cassionella (?) sp.; brachiopods: Rhaetina sp.; corals, Astraeomorpha erassisepra Reuss, Cyathocoenia schabharitli Winkl., Retiophyllia ex. gr. clatrata Emmr. All the listed pelecypods are Norian and brachiopods and corals are Norian-Rhaetian. As evidenced by the facies and fauna, the formations concerned exhibit a complete analogy to the rocks of the Bor-Tepa Formation from the Axial Zone in the South-East Pamir (73). Abul Zone In the Abul Zone, the Norian-Rhaetian deposits compose a sequence of dark-coloured alternating polymictic sandstones, shales and siltstone including lenses and blocks of reef limestone and layers of basic and intermediate volcanites. The sequence is named the Abul Series after the type locality. The series is 2,000 to 3,000 meters thick. Its relationship with the surrounding rock units is tectonic. The organic remains found in limestone beds have been identified as gastropods, brachiopods, corals, algae and pelecypods. Norian pelecypods represented by Monotis cf. salinaria (Schloth.) and Megalodon sp., have been found among the latter. Rhaetian beds are supposed in the series as no Rhaetian fossils were encountered there. Warw Zone In the Warw Zone, the Norian-Rhaetian deposits are black shales and phyllite-like slates interbedded with polymictic sandstone, siltstone and conglomerate. The sequence is 1,000 meters thick. It lies conformably on Indian-Carnian beds. The overlying rocks are missing. Apart from unidentifiable ammonoids, no other fossils have been found. The sequence was assigned Norian-Rhaetian age on the basis of its stratigraphic position. In the USSR, a counterpart of the unit are black shales and phyllites from the mouth of the Wanch Valley in the Central Pamir. Deposits of continental origin Deposits of continental origin occur throughout the Rod-i-Kafgan Zone, thrust sheets of Hajigak and in the Sewa Zone. They compose a sequence of rhythmically alternating polymictic sandstones, coaly-clay shales and siltstones, including, in places, beds and lenses of conglomerate. The lower contact of the sequence is of tectonic origin everywhere. The sequence is overlain conformably though with some evidence of erosion by variagated Lower-Middle Jurassic beds. The sequence is 3,000-4,000 m thick. Organic remains are abundant. They are represented by Norian-Rhaetian terrestrial flora; Equisetites arenaceus Jaeg., Glathropteris menisciodes Brongn., Phlebopteria cf. muenteri (Schenk), Hirm. et Hoerth., Nilssonia brevis Brongn., N. ex gr. polymorpha Schenk, Otozamites aff. abreviatus Feistm., Pterophyllum rarinerva Pryn., P. ex gr. aequale (Brongn.) Nath., Cycadites lenuilobus Pryn., Macrotaeniopteris virgulata (Zeill.), Pryn., Yuccites angustifolius Pryn. In the USSR, a complete stratigraphic equivalent of the discussed continental sequence is the Turbelsk and Szhankaindian series of the Central Pamir (73). 124

Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass Similarly as in Middle Afghanistan, the Norian-Rhaetian strata in this area are composed of marine and continental deposits. Deposits of marine origin Deposits of marine origin occurring the Wakhan Zone and, probably, in the Nurestan Fault Block. Wakhan Zone In the Wakhan Zone, a sequence of marine dark-coloured polymictic sandstones, shales and siltstone, 1,520 to 1,620 m thick, rests conformably on the Upper Permian-Carnian beds (198, 200). The rocks are unfossiliferous and have been assigned Norian-Rhaetian age on the basis of their correlation with the counterpart Istyk Series of the South-East Pamir (73, 79, 85). Nurestan Fault Block In the Nurestan Fault Block, Norian-Rhaetian age was assigned to the Alingar Series which is exposed in thrust sheets and fault wedges encountered in Precambrian crystalline rocks or in roof pedants of granitoid massifs (145, 146). The series consists of uniformly metamorphosed dark-coloured fine-grained quartzite and quartzite-like sandstone interbedded with quartz-sericite, quartz-sericite-biotite, chlorite-actinolite and other schists occasionally interbedded with marmorized limestone. The thickness of the series is 1,000-1,500 m. No fossils were collected from the rocks. The Norian-Rhaetian age was assigned to it tentatively. Deposits of continental origin Deposits of continental origin outcrop in thrust sheets and fault wedges along the Zebak and Targable Anjoman Rivers (151). They compose a dark-coloured sequence of interbedding polymictic sandstones, carbonaceous shales and siltstones with beds and lenses of inequipebbled conglomerate. The series seems to be 730-770 metres thick. Organic remains are abundant being represented by Norian-Rhaetian terrestrial flora: Equisetites sp., Nilssonia brevis Bronn, Pterophyllum propinguum Goepp. and others. On the USSR territory, the flora-bearing shales of the Namangut-Ishmakshim area are a direct extension of the sequence (73).

Rhaetian As a separate stratigraphic unit the Rhaetian is mapped only in the north of the country. Since the rocks were found to be unfossiliferous, they are dated as Rhaetian with uncertainty. Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region In this region Rhaetian rocks are distinguished tentatively in the Surkhab Zone, where they are represented by intermediate and acid volcanics with beds and lenses of terrigenous rocks. The thickness of the rocks is 350-800 m. They rest conformably on Ladinian-Norian strata and unconformably on older formations. In the western part of the Surkhab Zone the tentative Rhaetian rocks outcrop southeast of Doabi-Mehzarin village. They are represented here by pyroxene-plagioclase andesite porphyries enclosing 105 metres of sandstone and siltstone in the lower one-third portion of the section (148). The thickness of the rocks is 550 m. To the East of the Doabi-Mehzarin village, the tentative Rhaetian rocks are exposed along the right bank of the Burkhab River and in the Andarab River drainage basin, where they are represented by andesite porphyry, its tuffs and tuff breccias with beds and lenses of carbonaceous shale and sandstone enclosing terrestrial flora of Podozamites sp. (148). The thickness of the rocks is 700 m.

125

Table 6 basins.
oxide SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5

Chemical composition of the Rhaetian volcanics exposed in the Khenjan and Andarab drainage
1 56.45 0.84 17.85 0.84 6.14 0.13 4.82 5.98 2.86 1.15 0.14 2.72 99.92 2 74.40 0.18 13.31 0.54 1.65 0.00 0.27 1.98 2.88 2.53 0.02 2.47 99.73 3 53.04 0.72 14.75 2.61 4.75 0.14 8.24 5.89 2.61 1.15 0.14 5.18 99.82 4 68.65 0.36 13.78 0.00 5.0 0.07 1.74 1.99 2.70 4.60 0.36 1.17 100.42

Loss on ignition Total

Column 1 in the table is porphyry from the Khenjan River drainage basin and columns 2-4 are porphyries from the Andarab River drainage basin. In the interfluve of the Farakhar and Namakab rivers the tentative Rhaetian beds are composed of quartz porphyry and its pyroclastic varieties. Subordinate rocks are andesite porphyry, diabase and interbeds and lenses of argillite and sandstone. The thickness of the rocks is 800 m. Organic remains represented by poorly preserved terrestrial flora are rare. The findings of plant remains from the Doabi-Mehzarin are described in literature (123) Baiera simmondsi Shirl. B. muensteri Presl. Both species are regarded as Rhaetian. This finding served as the basis for dating these rocks known as the Doab Upper Series (417). It should be mentioned, however, that I.N. Srebrodolskaya does not classify the above mentioned species as strictly Rhaetian, since they occur throughout the whole Lower Jurassic sequence. In the USSR, facies and possibly age counterparts of the sequence described are the rocks of Kyzylsuy and Zuruzamin formations distinguished in the Darwaz-Zaalay Zone (73, 199). North Afghanistan Platform In this region Rhaetian rocks are distinguished tentatively in the east of the Maymana Fault Block and within the Pule Khumri Area. The Eastern part of the Maymana Fault Block The Rhaetian rocks are similar there to those of the Surkhab Zone. These are intermediate and acid volcanics with a small amount of terrigenous rocks. Volcanic varieties are andesite porphyry, rhyolite-dacite, hornblendic dacite and others. The thickness of the rocks varies between 345 and 1,450 m. In the extreme western part of the region outcrops of the rocks are found in the Balkhob River drainage basin. As reported by A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148), the alternating beds, 100 to 150 m. thick, of dark-coloured fine-terrigenous rocks and intermediate and acid volcanics lie strongly unconformably on Ordovician strata. The total thickness of the rocks is 1,000 m.

126

In the left-hand tributaries of the Surkhab River, rock units of Rhaetian age are reported from the AmirAmand, Wadu and Tormos river drainage basins. According to K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350), they form the following rock sequence.
1. 2. 3. 4. Quartz porphyry lavas and tuffs Variegated argillites, siltstones, tuff sandstones and tuffites with Trias-Jurassic terrestrial flora; Yuccites sp., Podozamites sp., Dictyophyllum sp. Andesite porphyry lavas, lava breccias and tuff-lava Quartz porphyry and dacite lavas, agglomeration lavas and tuff-lavas with rare tuffaceous sandstone intercalations and occasional diabase beds 80-100 m 200-250 m 600-700 m 400 m

The total thickness of beds 1 through 4 in this section is 1, 280-1, 450 m. Beds 1-3 (880-1,050 m) are referred to as the Eshpushta Formation and bed 4 as the Tormush Formation (350); Pule Khumri Area In the Pule Khumri Area the Rhaetian predominantly terrigenous rocks are referred to as the Pule Khumri Formation (217), 345 meters in thickness. In the Sangach River drainage basin the formation exhibits the following succession of beds (350):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Conglomerate, green-brown, inequipebbbed Alternation of gravestones, sandstones and siltstone Quartz porphyry tuff Interbedding of cherry red tuff and red-brown sandstone Gravelstone interbedded with siltstone Alternation of gravelstones, sandstones and siltstones Tuffaceous sandstone and siltstone with Triassic-Jurassic terrestrial flora; Equisetites sp., Thaumatopteris sp. 6.5 m 161 m 27 m 25 m 53.7 m 69.7 m 2.5 m

The rocks are overlain disconformably by Lower-Middle Jurassic beds. In the section described the Pule Khumri Formation is 345.4 m thick. It has the same thickness in other outcrops.

Upper Triassic, undifferentiated

The Late Triassic age was tentatively assigned to the Kataghay Series that occurs along the eastern framing of the Kabul Stable Mass (280, 281, 287). The rocks of the series rest conformably on the Chingil Series and replace partially its upper beds (178). The series is composed of dark-coloured terrigenous-volcanogenic rocks intercalated by beds and lenses of light-coloured marmorized limestones. The thickness of the series is 2,500-2, 800 m. It is subdivided into two formations, Mana and Petaw. The Mana Formation The Mana Formation (323, 384) starts the Kataghay Series. It is made up of black and tobacco-greenish-grey phyllite-like slates with interbeds and lenses of marmorized limestone and greenstone-altered basic volcanics. The thickness of the formation is 1,500-1,800 m. Three members can be observed in its section. The lower member, 400 m thick, and the upper member, 450-800 m thick, consist of alternating phyllite-like slates and marmorized limestones. The middle member, 600 m thick, is composed of phyllite-like slates. Throughout the sequence interbeds and lenses occur of green-stone-altered basic volcanics. Fossils are scarce and poorly preserved. These are predominantly crinoids usually found in limestones. In 1973-1974, V.B. Averyanov, O.V. Cherkesov, V.I. Dronov, A.Kh. Kafarsky and others collected Norian corals from carbonate-volcanogenic tuffs occurring in effusive rock and phyllite-like slates in several localities near Mahipar. They were identified as Paradistychophyllum noricum (Frech), Retiophyllia cf. 127

feneutrata (Reuss). This finding served as the basis for assigning Norian age to the Kataghay Series which [was] previously considered to be of Cretaceous-Paleogene (280, 281, 287) or Early Cretaceous (145) age. The Petaw Formation The Petaw Formation (145) rest conformably or with evidence of erosion on the Mana Formation. It consists of greenstone-altered volcanics of intermediate or basic composition with a small amount of carbonate rocks. The thickness of the formation is 1,000 m. The rocks of the formation were differentiated into two members (323, 386). The lower member (600 m) consists of amygdaloidal basalt lavas, andesite-basalt and andesite with interbeds and lenses of marmorized limestone. The upper member (400 m) is composed of similar rocks with a larger amount of marmorized limestone occurring as lenses and beds in the volcanic rocks. The formation is unfossiliferous. It was tentatively assigned Norian age on the basis of a close spatial and genetic association with the underlying Mana Formation. The dating of the Kataghay Series is the most difficult problem pertaining the geology of the Kabul Stable Mass. As mentioned above, the series was first dated as Cretaceous-Paleogene (280, 281, 287). Later it was proposed to date it as Early Cretaceous (143). The evidence presented here seems to indicate Norian age of the series. If the latter dating is correct, a problem arises of the relationship between the Kataghay and Chingil series, since the latter was proved to be also Norian at the top. This means that either Chingil should be considered to be Lower Norian at the top and Kataghay to be Upper Norian, or partial facies integrading should be admitted. The latter supposition seems to be more likely. Moreover, it appears that the Kataghay Series does not only overlie but wedges between the upper and lower beds of the Chingil Series. In particular, the above mentioned shale and volcanite interlayers and lenses enclosed in the Saparae Formation are likely to be the constituents of the Kataghay Series.

Triassic, undifferentiated
The undifferentiated Triassic Sequence was distinguished in the Suleiman-Kirthar Area. It is traceable in the northwestern part of the Katawaz Zone and within the Khost-Matun Uplift. As reported by I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (371), the sequence consists of black argillaceous limestones and calcareous shales with rare beds of polymictic sandstone. The thickness of the rocks was roughly estimated to be 2,000-2,500 m. Fossils are scarce. These were found only in one locality, north-east of Shkin village, in a bed of darkcoloured argillaceous limestones. The fossil remains were identified as Late Triassic brachiopods represented by Hagabirhynchia ex. gr. bambanagensis (Bitt.), Spiriferina aff. subgriesbachi Krumb., Tecospira sp., Amphiclinodonta sp.

Triassic-Jurassic, undifferentiated
This unit consists of monotonous terrigenous rocks of Rhaetian-Liassic and Late Triassic-Middle Jurassic ages

Rhaetian - Lias Rocks of Rhaetian-Lias age were distinguished as a separate unit in the South Afghanistan Median Mass. Their age, however, does not seem to be strictly Rhaetian-Lias. The lower parts of the sequence may include also the upper portion of the Norian stage. Helmand-Argandab Uplift Rhaetian-Liassic rocks occur throughout this structure. They are fine terrigenous rocks with limestone interbeds and lenses. The thickness of the rocks varies between 80 and 500 m. They rest conformably or with evidence of erosion on the limestones and dolomites of Norian age and are everywhere overlain conformably by Middle Jurassic limestones.

128

Argandab Zone In this area the discussed deposits are referred to as the Argasu Formation (142, 144, 206, 274, 409). The section reported from the area near Argasu village consists of the following beds (144).
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Irregular interbedding of siltstone, quartzo-feldspathic sandstone, marl and limestone Limestone, cross-bedded, flaggy, sandy Irregular interbedding of siltstone and coquinoid limestone Alternation (5-40 m) of lilac fine-grained sandstone, green-grey siltstone and cream marl Limestone, grey, thin-bedded, organic Sandstone, brown-grey, massive quartzose Marl, dark, grey, stratified Sandstone, medium-grained quartzose Dark grey marl Sandstone Organic-detrital limestone Sandstone, grey, massive Limestone, flaggy, sandy Alternating sandy limestone, Siltstone and calcareous sandstone abounding in unidentifiable pelecypod remains 39 m 40 m 25 m 195 m 10 m 7m 25 m 15 m 32 m 7m 50 m 8m 10 m 40 m

The rocks are capped conformably by limestones of Middle-Late Jurassic age. The total thickness of the Argasu Formation is 503 m in this section: in the south-west the thickness gradually decreases to 80 m. No identifiable fossils were found in the rocks. The Rhaetian-Lias age was assigned to them on the basis of their stratigraphic position. Tirin Zone The Rhaetian-Lias deposits from this area were reported by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 207, 409) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). The rock succession is well exhibited in the exposed section near the village of Hazaw. The reef limestones of Carnian-Norian age are overlain there by green schists and siltstone interbedded with brown sandstone followed by a horizon of lilac sandstone and siltstone which are copped by sandstones and siltstone alternating with dark grey and yellowish limestones. The upper part of the section (60-80 m) is composed of siltstone interbedded with thin limestone layers. At the base of this part there is inequipebbled conglomerate. The thickness of the Rhaetian-Lias deposits in the Tirin Zone reaches 600 m; most of the rocks are of Rhaetian age. This was proved by the findings of pelecypod remains from the middle of the section (207). These are: Rhaetavicula contorta (Portl.), Gervilia cf. ornata Moore, Cardita sp., C. cf. cloacina (Quenst.), Modiola cf. minuta (Goldf.). The upper 60-80 m of the section are assigned Liassic age. The following fossils are reported from the Lias portion of the section exposed in the area of the village of Oruzgan: Uptonia sp. (ex gr. jamesoni Jang et Bird) ommonites, Pecten sp. pelecypods and Lingulina tenera octocosta Brand., Marginulina spinata Terquem. foraminifera. Helmand Zone The Rhaetian-Lias beds are thin and mostly carbonate everywhere in this area. They were described by D.A. Starshinin et al. (155). The section from the Karezak stream near the village of Ghizaw is as follows. The eroded surface of Norian limestones is overlain by:

129

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Conglomerate and gravelstone Limestone with remains of unidentifiable pelecypods Limestone with shale interbeds Limestone, dark grey, argillaceous Alternation of dark and light grey argillaceous limestones, calcareous sandstones and shales

6m 1.5 m 7-8 m 7-8 m 92-97 m

The rocks in this section are 113-120 m thick. No identifiable fossils were found. Farah Rod Trough Rocks of Rhaetian-Lias age were distinguished in the Khash Rod Zone, in the Darya-i-Qarajangal River drainage basin. They are known as the Qarajangal Series after the name of the river. They were described by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142) and by V.I. Dronov et al. (152). The rocks compose a monotonous series of alternating dark-coloured polymictic sandstones, shales and siltstone. The thickness of the series is 2,000 m. The underlying rocks are not exposed. The series is overlain conformably by Middle Jurassic limestone beds of the Shonakai Ridge. No identifiable fossil remains were found. It was ascribed Rhaetian-Lias age on the basis of its position in the sequence. Its lower horizons may be of Norian age.

Upper Triassic-Middle Jurassic

Rocks of this age occur in Central Badakhshan, in the Nakhcir Par Zone. They were reported by V.M. Moraliov et al. (351), G.G. Semionov et al. (141), I.V. Arkhipov et al. (11), I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154) and Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (151). These are interbedding polymictic sandstones, carbonaceous shales and siltstones. The thickness of the rocks is 4,000-5,000 m. They rest conformably on the marmorized limestone beds of Late Permian-Carnian age and are overlain by Upper Cretaceous limestone beds with an angular unconformity. Fossil remains are abundant being represented predominantly by terrestrial flora. The analysed collections were derived from the lower and middle parts of the section. The fossils of Norian-Lias age are (154): Clathropteris meniscioides Brongn., Pterophyllum propinguum Goepp., Nilssonia brevis Brongn., Yyrcites sp. aff. Y. latifolius Pryn., Y. sp. aff., Y. angustifolus Pryn., Otozamites nalivikini Pryn. The deposits found at the top include, along with terrestrial flora, marine fauna of Early-Middle Jurassic age. The Vamar Formation from the Central Pamir USSR (73) is a direct extension of the discussed sequence.

Jurassic
Jurassic rocks are found in most of the regions of Afghanistan. They are of marine origin almost everywhere. The exception is the North Afghanistan Platform and the adjacent territory of the Afghanistan - North Pamir Folded Region. The Lower -Middle Jurassic beds are composed here of continental deposits. The Jurassic sequence was subdivided into Lower-Middle, Middle-Upper, Upper Jurassic, and Jurassic undifferentiated units.

Lower-Middle Jurassic
This unit was distinguished in the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region, within the North Afghanistan Platform, in Middle Afghanistan, in the Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass and in the Afghanistan -East Iran Folded Region.

Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region and North Afghanistan Platform In these regions the lower-Middle Jurassic sequence consists of fine and coarse terrigenous rocks, occasionally of exclusively terrestrial origin. Locally the sequence includes beds and lenses of coal and volcanics. The sequence rests unconformably on the Triassic and all the older strata and is overlain conformably by Upper Jurassic beds. The maximum thickness of the rocks is 2,168 m and the minimum thickness is 80 m. The natural outcrops are known from the east and west of the territory in question. 130

The eastern part of the platform and Afghanistan-North, Pamir Folded Region This part of North Afghanistan is the region where the Lower-Middle Jurassic formations are most widespread. All the known outcrops are found here in four groups: Darrah-i-Sah, Sayghan-Eshpushta, Pule Khumri and Narin-Cal-Namakab. The former two groups of outcrops belong to the eastern part of the Maymana Fault Block, the third group is found in the south of the Afghan-Tajik Depression and the fourth belongs to the Surkhab Zone. Their immediate extension on the USSR territory are the Lower-Middle Jurassic rocks of the Darwaza and Zaslay ridges (73). In view of the fact that the Lower-Middle Jurassic formations of these areas are coal-bearing, they have been attracting attention of geologists since old times. The first to describe them was C.L. Griesbach (165-167). These deposits and those of Triassic beds were described by him as the so called "series with plant remains". He classified the assemblage of plant remains from the "series" as, Gondwanian. Later H.H. Hayden (178) described the beds in greater detail having separated the so-called Sayghan Series from the undifferentiated Triassic-Jurassic sequence. The plant remains collected by C.L. Griesbach and H. Hayden were described by A. Seward (378). He believed that the plants exhibited a greater affinity with those of the Angar paleofloristic province rather than with the Gondwana. Due to the presence of Equisetites farganensis most plants could be dated as Middle Jurassic, though some Lower Jurassic forms were also detected among the collected forms. Later, a great number of published papers and manuscripts were devoted to the description of the Sayghan Series and the plant remains it contains. These works are written by R. Furon (119, 121, 123), K. Brueckl (37), R. Sitholay (385), B.A. Petrushevsky (330), S. Boureau et al. (33), S. Popol and S. Tromp (339), K. Jackob et al. (184), G. Mennessier (292), C. Rinse (181), D. Weippert (436), H. Gabert (129), L. Bends (18), G.N. Hatiskatsi et al. (217), B.N. Androsov et al. (345), K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350), V.I. Bratash et al. (161), Y.S. Perfilyev et al. (162) and others. The most detailed work on the stratigraphy of these deposits is the report by K.Ya. Mikhailov and others (350) and the monograph by V.I. Bratash and others (161). With some degree of uncertainty the authors of the above mentioned works differentiated the Lower-Middle Jurassic sequence into Lower and Middle units

Lower Jurassic
The Lower Jurassic beds compose the base of the Sayghan Series. They consist mainly of Upper Liassic rocks. Older beds are known from the zones characterized by earlier sedimentation. The thickness of the Lower Jurassic strata varies between 83 and 1,000 m.

Darrah-i-Suf group of outcrops In the Darrah-i-Suf group of outcrops the Lower Jurassic beds are referred to as the Regbolak Formation. The formation was distinguished by D.N. Androsov et al. (345) in the area of the Sabbashak coal deposit and was dated as Lower-Middle Jurassic. Later, the upper 83 m of the sequence were included into the overlying formations and the age of the Regbolak Formation was limited to lower Jurassic. These are the limits in which K.Ta. Mikhailov (350) and V.I. Bratash (142) described the formation. Good outcrops of the Regbolak Formation are observed in the area between the villages of Sabbashak and Chil-Dohtoran. The type section of the formation is found at the Regbolak creek. The formation consists of fine-and medium-grained sandstones, siltstones, argillites and carbonaceous clay with coal bands and lenses. The thickness of the formation is 284-430 m. To characterize the Regbolak Formation, below follows the description of the lower portion of its type section which occurs on the eroded surface of Middle-Upper Triassic sandstones (350):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Clay with fine-grained sandstone intercalations Coal, dull, banded Clay, dark grey, silty Siltstone, grey with thin clay streaks Coal, banded 1.3 m 0.08 m 3.3 m 2.5 m 0.4 m

131

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

Alternation of siltstone and clays Clay with sooty coal streaks Sandstone, dark grey, silty Clay, dark grey with sooty coal streaks Coal, banded Clay, dark grey Sandstone with siltstone and clay intercalations Alternation of siltstone, sandstone and clay Sandstone grading to siltstone and argillite with streak (0.15 m) of sooty coal Clay with sooty coal streaks Sandstone, grey, fine-grained Clay, dark grey Siltstone with lenses of fine-grained sandstone Sandstone, grey, medium-grained, cross-bedded Siltstone, grey, thin-bedded Coal, banded, with a kaolinite bed Alternation of siltstone and silty clay; at the bottom a 3.5-meter bed of mediumgrained sandstone Coal, semi-dull Interbedding of siltstone, sandstone, clay Coal interbedded with carbonaceous clay Clay, grey Siltstone with clay intercalations

3.1 m 1.5 m 0.2 m 0.3 m 0.08 m 0.1 m 9.1 m 6.0 m 8.2 m 0.4 m 0.8 m 0.5 m 1.0 m 1.1 m 0.6 m 0.6 m 13.5 m 0.3 m 6.3 m 0.5 m 0.4 m 2.3 m

Above follows similar alternation of rocks. The total thickness of the Regbolak formation in this section is 430 m The percentage of rock types in the section is as follows: sandstone, 64%; siltstone, 20%; clay, 14%; coal, 2%. All the varieties of rocks enclose detritus of plant remains. Siltstones and clays occasionally have concretions and lenticular inclusions of clayey siderite. The formation described in the area of the Dahane Tor coal deposit has the same succession of beds where it is 288 m thick. Some part of the sequence included now into the Regbolak Formation was previously referred to as the Dahane Tor coal-bearing formation (16). This formation encloses two coal beds of a workable thickness. The following plant remains were collected beneath this formation (16): Neocalamites fanensis Sixt., Coniopteris hymenophylloides (Brongn.), C. latifolia Brick, Cladophlebis denticulata Brongn., Kugartenia sp. Nilssonia mediana (Leck.), Fox-Strand, Ginkgo sp., Phoenicopsis sp. Podozamites lanceolatus L. et H., Elatides sp. Brachyphyllum cf. mamillare Brongn. According to T.A. Silkstel and N.M. Loseva, the above assemblage of flora is found in Tajikistan at the base and top of the Middle Jurassic. The plant remains of Coniopteris latifolia Brick, Podozamites sp. and Taxocladus sp., were collected 50 m above the coal formation. Near the village of Lela the Regbolak Formation (284 m) consists of alternating brownish-green polymictic sandstones, siltstone and grey compact clays. A 2.25-meter coal bed lies 112 m below the top of the formation, inside a bed of grey compact clay. The general colour of the rocks is brown-green-grey, distinct from the dark grey colour of the overlying Middle Jurassic rocks.

132

Sayghan-Eshpushta group of outcrops In the Sayghan-Eshpushta group of outcrops good exposures of lower Jurassic rocks occur in the Eshpushta and Kabmari River basins. The rocks rest there unconformably (up to 35) on Middle-Upper Triassic beds. They compose a sequence of inter-bedding sandstones, siltstone and compact clays. Sandstone beds include lenses of gravelstones and small-pebble conglomerate. The lower beds are gypsiferous, and the middle and upper beds include thin lenses of coal. The thickness of the rocks is 83-296 m. The succession of Lower Jurassic beds as reported from the area of the Eshpushta coal deposit is as follows (350):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Lenticular beds of siltstone and compact clay Small-aid medium-pebble conglomerates Interbedding clay, siltstone and sandstone Sandstone with conglomerate lenses and remains of Cladophlebis sp. Interbedding of silty clay, siltstone and fine-grained sandstone with lenses of gravelstone and conglomerate. The rocks enclose plant remains: Cladophlebis argutula (Heer) Font, Elatides curvifolius (Dunk.) Fine-grained sandstone replaced upwards by silty clay Interbedding of sandy and silty clays, siltstone and sandstone; at the top lenses of lustrous coal occur Alternation of siltstone, silty clay with lenses of lustrous coal and fine-grained sandstone Fine-and medium-grained sandstone enclosing lenses of gravelstone and conglomerate with quartz (5-8%), metamorphic rocks (60%), diabase (30%) and granite (5-2%) pebbles Alternation of fine-grained sandstones, siltstone and dark-coloured clay with coal lenses Conglomerate Alternation of sandstone, siltstone and clay 6.2 m 9.0 m 22.5 m 13.5 m 27.0 m

6. 7. 8. 9.

12.3 m 48.3 m 19.0 m 35.0 m

10. 11. 12.

60.7 m 18.9 m 23.4 m

In the above sequence, beds 1-6 (90.5 m) compose the lower part of the Lower Jurassic; beds 7, 8 and 9 (102.3 m) make up the middle part; and beds 10, 11 and 12 (103 m) compose the upper part of the Lower Jurassic. The Lower Jurassic rocks are easily recognizable because of their lighter colour as compared with that of the overlying strata. The total thickness of the rocks is 295.8 m. Coal content is very insignificant. To the south-west, towards the village of Doabi Mehzarin, the thickness of the Lower Jurassic beds reduces and the rocks become coarser. The section from the left-hand side of the Kahmard River valley (near the mouth of the river) is as follows (350):
1. 2. Sandstone, unconsolidated, intercalated with clay streaks Sandstone, variegated, unconsolidated, micaceous, occasionally argillaceous, with interbeds of gravelstone and conglomerate. In the middle and at the base of the section remains occur of Middle-Late Lisa plants: Taeniopteris asiatica Brick., Phlebopteris ex gr. torosa Sixt., Ph. (Laccopteris) polypodioides Brongn., Nilssonia ex. gr. orientalis Heer Clay with sandstone and siltstone interbeds, at the top, 0.2 to 0.8-meter intercalations occur of carbonaceous clay enclosing 3 to 7-centimeter lenses of lustrous coal 0-2 m 58-66 m

3.

25 m

The total thickness of the Lower Jurassic rocks in this section is 83-93 m.

133

Pule Khumri area In the Pule Khumri area the Lower Jurassic sequence rests disconformably on Rhaetian beds. It consists of arkose and polymictic sandstones enclosing gravels and small pebbles, flaggy siltstone and micaceous compact clays. The thickness of the rocks is 800-1,000 m. In the area of the Dodkash coal deposits the lower Jurassic sequence is subdivided into five members. The lower member The lower member of the sequence, 158 m thick, consists of grey, occasionally pink siltstone and quartzofeldspathic sandstones with lenses and beds of gravelstone. The following spores and pollen were identified. Spores: Licopodium sp., Selaginella ravatensis (Nik.) Kuz., Ophioglossum sp., Angiopteris sp., Osmundopsis kugartensis Sixt., Schizaea aff. pennulopsis (Nik) Kuz., Anemia markaensis (Nik.) Kuz., Matonia aff. punctata Fad., M. pectinatopsis (Nik.) Kuz., Phlebopteris polypodloides Brongn., Hausmannia Leeiana Sze, Dictiophyllum sp. pollen: Bennettites scarbellumus (Nik.) Kuz., Cordaitina sp., Arancaria sp. Paleconiferus assacatus Bolkh., Protoconiferus funarins (Naum.), Coniferae sp., Florinites sp. T. N. Kuznetsova believes that this assemblage is similar to that of the Lower Lias coal-bearing formations from the Fergana Ridge (USSR). The basal beds were found to contain pollen of the Aggerella genus (A . aff. corolloris Mal., A. Bullulinae formis Mal.) known from the Lower Jurassic rocks of the Ural-Emba Region of the USSR. Relics are also detectable of the Triassic flora represented by Crassulina aff. gigantea typica Mal., Protopodocarpus. The second member The second member (145 m) consists of greyish-pink inequigranular quartzitic and feldspar-quartzite sandstones with calcareous ferruginous nodules and plant detritus. The third member The third member (305 m) consists of alternating clay, feldspar-quartzite, fine-grained, Sandstones and siltstone with plant detritus. The following spore and pollen assemblage was identified. Spores: Sphagnum sp., Seleginella sp., Marattiopsis muensteri Goepp., Osmunda sp., Klukia sp., Schizaea aff. pennulopsis (Nik.) Kuz., Dicksonia sp., Coniopteris sp., Matonia sp., Phlebopteris polypodioides Brongn., Cheiropleuria compacta Bolkh. Ch. aff. congregata Bolkh. pollen : Cautonia sp., Bennetites sp., Ginkgotypica (Mal.) Bolkh: G. parva (Naum.) Bolkh., Podozamites sp., Araucaria sp., Prodocarpaceae, Paleoconiferus assacatus, Bolkh., Pinaceae, Cuprassacites minor (Mal.) Bolkh. T. N. Kusnetsova finds this assemblage to be similar to that from the Lias formations in the Central Asia. The fourth member The fourth member (136-196 m) consists of inequigranular sandstones and gravelstones including beds and lenses of siltstone, small-pebble conglomerate and silty-argillaceous rocks. The plant remains are Phlebopteris polypodioides Brongn. The spore and pollen complex is similar to that from the first and third members but it contains more ferns of the Dicksoniaceae family. There are also new representatives of the Selaginellacese and Polypodiaceae families (Cheiropleuria congregata Bolkh., Ch. compacta Bolkh.). The Podozsmitaceae and Podocarpaceae families are represented by more diversified forms. The pollen of the Pinaceae family looks younger. Abundant pollen of the Cupressaceae family and a high percentage of the Matoniaceae spores are present. The spores of Schizaea aff. pennula Sw. and pollen of ancient conifers represented by Paleoconiferous asaccatus Bolkh., Protoconiferous finarius (Naum.) Bolk. and Coniferus sp. are rather common. T.N. Kuznetsova believes that this assemblage is a transitional one from Lower to Middle Jurassic. The fifth member The fifth member (94-202 m) is composed of variegated argillaceous siltstone beds intercalated with light grey fine- to medium-grained feldspar-quartzite and polymictic sandstones. Siltstone beds enclose lenses and seams of brown coal. The plant remains are Taeniopteris and Pterophyllum sp. The total thickness of the five members is 838-1,000 m. In the Narin-Cal-Namakab group of outcrops the Lower Jurassic sequence is distinguished for the presence of intermediate and acid volcanics. Its thickness varies from 318 to 420 m. The section described from the area of the village of Narin is as follows (350). The Rhaetian beds are overlain disconformably by: 134

1. 2. 3.

Plagioporphyry lavas Clay with sandstone interbeds enclosing some tuff material Sandstone, greenish-grey, fine-and medium-grained with lenses of gravelstone and small-pebble conglomerate. The lower third of the section encloses a 4-meter bed of siltstone and black carbonaceous argillite Alternation of clay, siltstone and sandstone with three coal layers (0.35 m, 0.35 m, 0.45 m)

130 m 99 m 79 m

4.

10 m

The section is capped by conglomerates and sandstones of Middle Jurassic age. The thickness of the above mentioned beds is 318 m.

Chal-Namakab area In the Chal-Namakab area the Lower Jurassic rocks are widespread: 10 to 80 per cent of the rocks are acid and intermediate volcanics lying with no perceptible gap on Rhaetian volcanic rocks. The Lower Jurassic volcanics are interbedded with siltstone, sandstones and compact silty and carbonaceous clays with lenses and seams of coal. The amount of terrigenous material increases upwards. The boundary between the lower and Middle Jurassic is drawn tentatively inside the interval devoid of volcanics. The lower boundary was determined by the finding of Upper Lias plants represented by Neocalmites carrerei (Zeill.) Halle, at the base of the section near the Chal Pass. The rock succession is well exhibited in an outcrop at the Darrah-i-Colon coal deposit (350):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Sandstone, quartzo-feldspathic with tuffaceous material Clay with lenses of coal, sandstone and siltstone Acid lava breccia Sandstone interbedded with tuff, at the bottom (11 m), and siltstone interbedded with sandstone, at the top (27 m) Greenish-grey quartz porphyry tuff-lava Siltstone interbedded with carbonaceous clay and coal Sandstone, tuffaceous at the bottom (14 m), siltstone at the top (12.5 m) Sandstones, fine- to medium-grained with tuff material and lenses of gravelstones Interbedding of siltstone and clay enclosing two coal seams (1.08 m, 0.96 m) Siltstone interbedded with sandstones and clays at the bottom (29 m), 18.7 m of sandstone at the top Siltstone interbedded with tuffaceous sandstone Clay with siltstone and coal intercalations Sandstone, grey, tuffaceous at the bottom (8.8 m), 11 m of siltstone with carbonaceous clay partings at the top Greenish grey quartz porphyry tuff lava Siltstone interbedded with clay and tuffaceous sandstone Grey-green massive tuff 20 m 22 m 10 m 38 m 8m 27 m 26.5 m 18.5 m 25 m 47.7 m 96.2 m 10.3 m 19.8 m 10 m 33 m 8m

The total thickness of beds 1-16 in this section is 420 m. The percentage of rocks in the section is as follows : sandstones, 27.5%; siltstone, 40%; clays, 18%; volcanics, 14%; coals, 0.5%. This proportion is not constant varying from place to place. For instance, 9-10 km east of the Darrah-i-Colon coal deposit, in the Zamburak 135

River valley, the Lower Jurassic (325 m) is 80% volcanic consisting mainly of quartz porphyry lavas, agglomeration lavas, tuff-lavas and tuffaceous sandstones, whereas 5 km south of the village of Zamburak, at the Bazarak deposit, the Lower Jurassic is almost devoid of volcanics. The rocks are represented mainly by grey compact clay interbedded with siltstone, light arkose sandstones and 0.44 - 1.92 m thick coal beds. The plant remains identified from the rocks are Equisetites sp., Neocalamites carrerei (Zeill.) Halle Coniopteris sp., Nilssonia sp. According to T.A. Sikatel and N.M. Loseva the plant assemblage is not older than Late Lias.

Middle Jurassic
The Middle Jurassic Strata (the upper beds of the Bathonian being excluded) compose the bulk of the Sayghan Series. The most promising commercial coal occurrences are Lela, Shabbashak, Darrah-i-Gharyak, Sare Asya, Eshpushta, Narian and others. This part of the section yields most of the plant remains characterizing the Sayghan Series. The Middle Jurassic consists everywhere of terrigenous rocks, the amounts of sandstone, siltstone, clay, conglomerate, gravelstone and coal varying from region to region. The smallest thickness is 458 m, the greatest thickness is 1,748 m. The rocks rest on the Lower Jurassic either with conspicuous or obscure evidence of erosion, or conformably in some places. Inside the Middle Jurassic sequence there is a regionally recognizable erosional surface which divides the unit into two parts. The lower part is classified tentatively as Aalenian-Bajocian and the upper as Bajocian-Bathonian, according to their position and the fossil remains (161).

Aalenian-Bajocian Darrahe-i-Suf group of outcrops In the Darrahe-i-Suf group of outcrops the Aalenian-Bajocian rocks, referred to as the Shabbashak Formation (K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350) and as the Dahane Tor Formation (V.I. Bratash (161) rest conformably or disconformably on the Lower Jurassic beds. The thickness of the rocks is 456-962 m. The most complete section was described at the Dahane Tor, coal deposit (350). The eroded surface of lower Jurassic beds is overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Sandstone, cross-bedded, medium-and coarse-grained, with interbeds and lenses of siltstone, argillite, gravelstone and conglomerate Alternation of sandstones, siltstone and grey compact silty clays Interbedding of fine-grained sandstones and siltstone Sandstone, cross-bedded, inequigranular Interbedding of inequigranular sandstones, siltstone and carbonaceous clay Sandstones, massive and cross-bedded, fine-grained, with lenses of gravelstones which contain rare pebbles of quartz and chert Clay interbedded with siltstone and sandstone; a 0.23-meter coal seam at the base Alternation of fine-to medium-grained sandstones, siltstone and silty clay Clay interbedded with siltstone and sandstone Alternation of silty clay, micaceous silt-stone and medium-grained sandstone Clay with casts of Middle Jurassic fresh-water bivalves: Pseudocardinia cf. jeniseica Mart., P. cf. nuculaeformis Tschern., P. cf. elongatiformis Tschern. Alternation of fine-grained micaceous sandstone, siltstone and clays 63 m 54.5 m 23 m 34.7 m 54.1 m 65 m 76 m 125 m 35.2 m 41.7 m 8.8 m 43.8 m

136

A sequence tentatively dated as Bajocian-Bathonian occurs above these beds. The thickness of the above beds is 627.8 m. Beds 1-5 (232.3 m) correspond to the lower part of the Shabbashak Formation, recognized by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350) and to the gravelstone-sandstone member of the Dahane Tor Formation described by V.I. Bratash (161). These beds are distinguished by a high percentage of sandstones, gravelstones and conglomerates, which make up 60% of the sequence. The amount of siltstones is 29% and that of clays 11%. Coals are practically absent. Beds 6-12 correspond to the upper part of the Shabbashak Formation and, hence, to the middle member of the Dahane Tor Formation. The proportion of various rock types in the section is as follows: sandstones, 44%; siltstones, 24%; clays 32%. The lower and middle beds of the unit occurring below the clay horizon with Pseudocardinias enclose remains of Middle Jurassic plants, such as Phlebopteris sp., Coniopteris sp., Cladophlebis argulata (Hear) Font., Cladophlebis sp., Nilssonia aff. orientalis Heer, Ginkgodium nathortii Yok., Podozsmites sp. The Aelenian-Bajocian strata, 456 m thick, occurring at the Shabbashak deposit are characterized by a high coal content which amounts to 6% of the section. 35 coal seams were located there, the thickest of them reaching 3 m. Gravelstone and conglomerate are nearly absent. Sandstone, siltstone and clay make up 27%, 34% and 35%, respectively. The Aalenian-Bajocian sequence at the Sare Asya deposit has a similar section with the following proportion of rocks: sandstones, 42.5%; siltstone, 24%, clays, 25.5%; coals, 9%. The total thickness of the beds there is 488 m. The largest (962 m) thickness of the Aalenian-Bajocian sequence, was recorded at the Lola deposit, where half of the section consists of clays and half of sandstones and siltstone. Coals making up 2% of the section are confined to its top. The lower 618 m of the AalenianBajocian sequence at the Lela deposit were distinguished by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350) as the Lela member. In the Sayghan-Eshpushta group of outcrops the Aalenian-Bajocian sequence rests disconformably on the Lower Jurassic. Like in the Darrahe-i-Suf outcrops, it is composed of similarly alternating siltstone, clays, sandstones, gravelstones and conglomerates. Coal seams and lenses (0.1 26 m) are occasionally found in the lower portion of the section. The thickness of the beds is 660-820 m. The best section of the sequence was observed in the Eshpushta River valley, where the succession of beds is as follows (350):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Small-and medium-pebble conglomerates Interbedding of sandstones and silty clays with lenses of sooty coal. Coal seams, 0.26 to 1.37 m thick, occur in the middle and upper portion of the unit Siltstone, micaceous, interbedded with fine-grained sandstone Interbedding of siltstone, clay and fine-grained sandstone with a 2.12-meter coal seam at the base Small-and medium-pebble conglomerates Alternation of fine-grained sandstones, micaceous siltstone and clay with coal lenses (up to 7 cm). 7 m below the top a coal seam occurs Medium-pebble conglomerate with sandstone interbeds Silty clay Medium-pebble conglomerate Interbedding of clay and siltstone Small- and medium-pebble conglomerates Micaceous siltstone Inequipebble conglomerate Siltstone interbedded with fine-grained sandstone Silty clay Small and medium-pebble conglomerate Clay with lustrous coal lenses (up to 4 cm.) interbedded with fine-grained sandstone and siltstone and capped by argillaceous limestone 13.8 m 18.4 m 28.9 m 13.6 m 7m 34.7 m 22 m 8.4 m 3.3 m 33 m 8m 10 m 17.5 m 27.3 m 20 m 19 m 46 m

137

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

Small and medium-pebble conglomerates Alternation of clay, siltstone and sandstone Small and medium-pebble conglomerates Micaceous siltstone interbedded with silty clays and inequigranular quartz sandstones Medium-to coarse-pebble conglomerates Medium-and coarse-pebble conglomerates with sandstone interbeds Interbedding of mica-carbonaceous clay, siltstone and polymictic sandstone

6m 101 m 10 m 21.5 m 34 m 30 m 127 m

K.Ya. Mikhailov and others (350) distinguish three members in the section. The lower member comprises beds 1-15 (266 m). It is distinguished by a darker green-grey colour and a low percentage of coals. The proportion of rock varieties is as follows: conglomerates, 20%; sandstones, 15%; siltstones, 33%; clays, 31%; coal, 0.8%. The middle member includes beds 16-19 (172 m). It is characterized by a great amount of clay and absence of coal. The proportion of rocks types is: conglomerate, 13%; sandstone, 20%; siltstone, 20%; clay, 47%. The upper member consists of beds 20-24 (219 m). This member is distinguished by the predominance of coarse-grained rocks. The proportion of its rock types is as follows: conglomerates, 31%, sandstones, 23%; siltstone, 23%; clays, 23%. The total thickness of the Aalenian-Bajocian beds in this section is 660.5 m. It increases to 820 m towards the village of Doabi-Mehzarin. Plant remains of Equisetites giganteus Bur., E. sp., Coniopteris hymenophylloides (Brongn.) Sew., Coniopteris sp., Eboracia lobifolia (Phill.) Thom., Klukia weati Jac. et Schukla, Cladophiebis argutula (Heer) Font., C. haiburnensis L.et H., Nilssonia vittaeformis Pryn., Ctenis sp., Pagiophyllum curvifolium (Dunk.), Elatides sp. collected throughout the Aalenian-Bajocian sequence in the drainage basin of the Eshpushta River and near the village of Doabi-Mehzarin indicate Middle Jurassic age of the rocks. Pule Khumri area In the Pule Khumri area Aalenian-Bajocian rocks occur at the Dodkash and Karkar coal deposits. They rest on the underlying strata with distinct evidence of erosion. The sequence consists of interbedding sandstone, siltstone and compact clay, frequently carbonaceous, including plant detritus and coal lenses. The thickness of the rocks is 215 m. The section reported from the Dodkash coal, deposit is as follows (350):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sandstone, fine-grained, arkose Clay interbedded with sandstone Arkose sandstones, cross-bedded medium and coarse-grained, including gravels and small quartz and chert pebbles Interbedding of siltstone and clay Alternation of arkose fine-grained sandstone, siltstone and clay Silty clay with fragments of underlying rocks 42 m 42.5 m 34.3 m 32.5 m 13.2 m 50 m

The eroded surface of bed 6 is overlain by Bajocian-Bathonian conglomerate breccias. The thickness of beds 1-6 is 215 m. The rocks contain Taemopteris sp. and Pterophyllum sp. plant remains. Narin-Chal-Namakab group of outcrops In the Narin-Chal-Namakab group of outcrops the Aalenian-Bajocian beds lie conformably on Lower Jurassic strata. The succession of beds as recorded from the Harm coal deposit is as follows (350):
1. 2. Conglomerates, medium-and coarse-pebble with sandstone lenses and interbeds Interbedding of carbonaceous clay and fine-to medium-grained sandstones 27 m 20 m

138

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Conglomerate, similar to that in bed 1 Compact clay, frequently carbonaceous with siltstone interbeds and coal lenses (up to 5 cm thick) Sandstone, medium-grained with clay intercalations in the middle portion Clay, similar to that in bed 4 Sandstone, similar to that in bed 5 Clay interbedded with siltstone Sandstone with lenses of gravelstone and conglomerate Clay, carbonaceous, interbedded with micaceous siltstone. At the base and in the middle there are two coal seams (0.9-0.75 m and 4.4-1 m thick). The rocks contain the following plant remains : Coniopteris latifollia Brick, C. ex gr. fursenkoii Pryn., Cladophlebis sp., Sagenopteris phillipsi (Brongn.), Nilssonia ex gr. vattaeformis Pryn., Phoenicopsis sp., Podozamites sp. Sandstone, cross-bedded coarse-grained with gravelstone lenses Alternation of siltstone, sandstone and clay Sandstone, coarse-grained, grading to gravelstone which contains rare lenses of siltstone Interbedding of siltstone and argillite Sandstone, fine-grained Clay interbedding with siltstone and occasional beds of coarse-grained sandstone including a 0.1-meter coal seam in the middle Alternation of sandstone and clay Interbedding of clay and siltstone Sandstone, fine-grained

25 m 35 m 9m 20 m 20 m 20 m 50 m 245 m

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

30 m 20 m 15 m 10 m 6m 40 m 11 m 55 m 10 m

The upper portion of the section is truncated by a fault. The total thickness of the section is 678 m. The proportion of the rocks is as follows conglomerates, 10% ; sandstones, 25% ; siltstone, 25% clays, 40% ; coals, 1%. Chal-Namekab area The succession of the Aalenian-Bajocian beds in the Chal-Namekab area is almost similar to that in the above section. As in the other areas, the sequence consists of grey and black clays, frequently silty and carbonaceous, greengrey green brownish siltstone and inequigranular polymictic and arkose, often cross-bedded sandstone. The thickness of individual beds varies within 0.1 to 0.8 m, occasionally to 1-2 m, and that of individual strata of similar rock types within 5-10 to 50 m. Five coal layers 0.2 to 0.6 m thick have been found in carbonaceous clays and siltstone in the middle and upper portions of the section. Remains of the following plants were collected from the middle and upper portions of the Aalenian-Bajocian sequence in the Chal, Syahdara and Darrah-i-Colon areas : Equisetites ex gr. giganteus Bur., Neocalamites ex gr. issykkulensis Tur.-Ket., Animozamites poljanskii Imin., Podozamites lanceolatus L. et H.

Bajocian-Bathonian This sequence was referred to by K.Ya. Mikhailov (350) as the Bashek Formation in the Darrah-i-Suf group of outcrops and as the Callovian unit in the other outcrops. V.I. Bratash (161) described this sequence as the 139

Eshpushta Formation and in part as a marine Bathonian unit. The sequence rests disconformably on the Aalenian-Bajocian strata and in places with an angular unconformity. The succession of the beds in this sequence is almost the same as that in the Aalenian-Bajocian unit This sequence is also composed of either rhythmically or irregularly alternating sandstones, clays and siltstone which contain interbeds and lenses of gravelstone and conglomerate. The rocks enclose throughout the section detritus of carbonified plants, and at some intervals coal seams and lenses are detectable, some of them of a workable thickness (the Shabbashak and other deposits). The difference between the sections consists in the appearance of variegated and even red-coloured rocks in the Bajocian-Bathonian sequence. Darrah-i-Suf group of outcrops In the Darrah-i-Suf group of outcrops the Bajocian-Bathonian rocks are easily recognizable at the Shabbashak, Sare-Asya, Lola, Awhorak, Dehane Tor and other coal deposits. Their thickness is 163-490 m. The succession of their beds was described from the Dahane Tor coal deposit (350), where at the left-hand side of the Dahane Tor Valley, the Aalenian-Bajocian strata are overlain disconformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Conglomerate whose pebbles consist of quartz, quartzite-like sandstone, limestone and chert Clay with beds and lenses of micaceous siltstone and sandstone Sandstone interbedded with gravels and small-pebble conglomerate with pebbles consisting of quartz, chert and metamorphic rocks Interbedding of fine-grained sandstone, siltstone and silty-clay Sandstone, medium- to fine-grained, cross-bedded, containing lenses of gravels and small-pebble conglomerate Interbedding of siltstone, sandy clay and fine-grained sandstone Small-pebble conglomerate Sandstone, fine-grained, micaceous, slightly calcareous, with silty clay interbeds Clay, red-brown, sandy, calcareous Sandstone, at the base (6.7 m) yellow-grey, on the top (5.3 m) bluish, micaceous with lenses of gravelstone and small-pebble conglomerate Siltstone with nodules consisting of calcareous material Sandstone, fine-grained, calcareous, with gravels and small-size pebbles 13.3 m 45 m 29.2 m 16.9 m 38.9 m 17.3 m 11.5 m 45.8 m 2.9 m 12 m 4.8 m 4.0 m

The beds are succeeded unconformably by Upper Cretaceous limestones. The Bajocian -Bathonian beds in this section are 274 m thick; 14% of the rocks are conglomerates, 60% sandstones, 9% siltstones and 17% clays. A remarkable feature of these beds is absence of coal indications. At the Shabbashak deposit the beds are 490 m thick; they include 17 coal seams, 0.13 to 3.32 m thick, which account for 5% of the section. At the Sare Asya deposit the beds are 325 m thick with 6% of coals. At the Lela deposit the thickness of beds is 320 m with no coals, and at the Awhorak the beds are 163 m thick with no coals. The plant remains collected from the lower and middle portions of the section at the Shabbashak deposit are Dictyophyllum sp., Cladophlebis denticulata (Brongn.) Nath., Taeniopteris reversa Pryn., Ctenis sp. Sayghan-Eshpushta group of outcrops In the Sayghan-Eshpushta group of outcrops the Bajocian-Bathonian strata rest on the Aalenian-Bajocian with obscure evidence of erosion. They are composed of conglomerates, gravelstones, sandstones, siltstone and compact, occasionally carbonaceous clays with small lenses of coal. The section from the Eshpushta deposit is as follows (350):

140

1.

Conglomerates, greenish grey, small-and medium- pebble with interbeds and lenses of gravelstone, sandstone and siltstone; the pebbles consist of volcanics, quartzite-like sandstone and metamorphic rocks Clay, grey, foliated, in some layers carbonaceous with coal lenses and plant detritus, interbedded with green-grey siltstone and polymictic sandstone Conglomerate, similar to that in bed 1. Siltstone interbedded with fine-grained polymictic sandstone containing pebbles of quartz and hornfels. Occasional beds and lenses of compact, lumpy silty, sometimes carbonaceous clay with coal lenses are encountered. This is followed by red beds of Lower Cretaceous age

60 m

2. 3. 4.

30 m 209 m 114 m

The plant remains collected from bed 4 of this section and from the same level of the Doabi Mehzarin area are Coniopteris hymenophylloides (Brongn.) Sew., Klukia westi Jac. et Schukla, Eboracta lobifolia (Phill.) Thom., Cladophlebis argutula (Heer) Font, , Nilssonia vittaeformis Pryn., Ptilophyllum cutchense Morr., Taeniopteris sp., Pagiophyllum curvifolium (Dunk.). The Bajocian-Bathonian beds in. this section are 4.13 m thick. Pule Khumri Area In the Pule Khumri Area, at the Dodkash and Karkar coal deposits, the Bajocian-Bathonian sequence consists of three members referred to by K.Ya. Mikhailov (350) as the two lower units of the Callovian stage. The members are 243 m thick. The lower member (138 m) comprises conglomerate breccias and conglomerate consisting of unsorted and poorly rounded fragments and pebbles of quartz, micaceous slate and quartzite-like sandstone cemented by micaceous sandy-clayey material. In the middle and upper parts of the member the conglomerate encloses interbeds and lenses of gravelstone, sandstone and sandy-clayey rocks. The latter include lenses of sooty coal (up to 1-2 cm thick). The middle member (95 m) is composed of reddish-brown and greenish-grey micaceous sandy clays with gypsum inclusions and micaceous sandstone and gravelstone interbeds at the base and mica-calcareous siltstone in the upper part containing remains of Cuculae sp., Modiolus cf. gibbosus Sow. bivalves. The upper member (10 m) consists of variegated compact micaceous clay with interbeds of small and medium-pebble conglomerates and boulders (0.4 m) of the underlying rocks. At the top there are three continuous seams (0.15, 0.1, 0.1 m) of sooty coal merging at depth into one bed (3 m) of an intricate structure (the workable bed at the Dodkash and Karkar coal deposits). Evidence of erosion is detectable between this member and the underlying rocks. Narian-Chal-Namakab group of outcrops In the Narian-Chal-Namakab group of outcrops the Bajocian-Bathonian strata lie disconformably on the Triassic and Aalenian-Bajocian beds. K.Ya. Mikhailov ascribed them tentatively to, Callovian age (350). The strata are 1,070 m thick. The section from the Roshaq deposit is as follows (350)
1. 2. 3. 4. Conglomerate, inequipebbled, with interbeds and lenses of gravelstone and coarse-grained sandstone Interbedding of compact sandy clay, siltstone and fine-grained polymictic sandstone; some clay beds are rich in carbonaceous matter and enclose coal lenses (0.05-0.3 m) Conglomerate, similar to that in bed 1 Alternation of beds of compact silty, occasionally carbonaceous clays, siltstone and fine-grained polymictic sandstone; carbonaceous clay beds enclose lustrous coal seams, primarily at the bottom, and siderite and limonite nodules Conglomerates, small-and medium-pebble, with lenses of gravelstone, sandstone, siltstone and compact clay Interbedding of compact silty carbonaceous clays, micaceous siltstone and fine-to medium-grained polymictic sandstones; carbonaceous clay includes occasional lenses of lustrous coal 65 m 40 m 115 m 200 m

5. 6.

50 m 180 m

141

7. 8. 9.

Conglomerates, thick-bedded, small- and medium-pebbled Alternation of polymictic micaceous siltstones and compact clays interbedded by fine-grained sandstones with pebbles and lenses of small- and medium-pebbled conglomerates Alternation of siltstone and compact silty clay

160 m 180 m 80 m

The strata are suceeded conformably by marine Bathonian-Callovian beds. K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350) describe beds 1-3 as basal member I ( 220 m), beds 4-6, as grey member II (430 m), beds 7-8, as green member III ( 340 m) and beds 9, as variegated member IV (80 m). Coal occurrences of Sayed, Sangileshim, Roshaq, Namakab, Koshakton, Chal-II and others are associated with beds 2 and 4. The total thickness of the Lower-Middle Jurassic sequence in the Darrah-i-Suf group of outcrops is 903-1882 m, in the Sayghan-Eshpushta group of outcrops 1,166-1,529 m, in the Pule Khumri group of outcrops 1,2581,458 m and in the Narin-Chal-Namakab group of outcrops it is 1,825-2,101 m thick. The western part of the platform In this area Lower Middle Jurassic strata outcrop from beneath the cover of Cretaceous and Paleogene sequences along the southern side of the Badhyzat Ridge south of the Sabzak Pass. They make up here a narrow (150-350 m) short (11 km) belt extending across the V Rod-i-Majet-i-Coby, Darah-i-Abdulkhana and Darsh-Chashma-i-Safed river basins. Similarly to the eastern part of the platform, the strata are composed of continental dark-coloured terrigenous deposits represented by irregular alternation (0.4-10 m) of siltstone, sandstones, clays and argillites including occasional lenses of coal. The percentage of the rock types is as follows: siltstones 57%, argillites 28%, sandstones 13% and coals 2%. The beds are 80-103 m thick. They rest unconformably on various beds of Carboniferous-Triassic sequence and are capped unconformably by Cretaceous beds. Organic remains are terrestrial plants: Otozamites bengalensis Old. et Morr., Radicites sp. They indicate, according to T. A Sikatel, Middle Jurassic age of the enclosing rocks. Middle Afghanistan In this region Lower-Middle Jurassic rocks are widespread. They are distributed irregularly occurring in various structural-facies zones, fault blocks, fault wedges, and thrust sheets. In the Nakhchir Par Zone they form the upper part of the undifferentiated Triassic-Jurassic sequence and were discussed above. In all the other areas they are easily distinguishable as a separate unit. They were described by A. Desio et al. (60, 62, 63), G.G. Semionov et al. (141), V.I. Dronov et al. (94, 143, 152), I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154), Yu.S. Perfilyev et al. (162). The evidence available makes it possible to distinguish carbonate-terrigenous and terrigenous rock types in the lower-Middle Jurassic sequence of Central Afghanistan. Carbonate-terrigenous Carbonate-terrigenous rocks occur in the Nalbandan and Sange Dushah Zones (143, 152), where they are represented by marine varieties which rest strongly unconformably on Carboniferous-Triassic rocks and are overlain by younger sediments also unconformably. In the Nalbandan Zone, the Lower-Middle Jurassic sequence is exposed in the Tagab-Eshlan, Nalbandan, Shela-i-Syahsangak, Hasan-Sansalagay, Shechlawast, Shela-i-Ghawnazar, Talaw and other river drainage basins. The composite section of the sequence described in the outcrops available within the Nalbandan and Tagab Eslan river basins exhibits the following succession of beds (143, 152). The Carboniferous-Triassic beds are overlain unconformably by:
1. 2. Conglomerate, sandstone and siltstone Limestone, inequilayered, argillaceous 20-50 m thick enclosing the following pelecypods Pinna cf. hartmanniz Ziet., P. cf. semistriata Terq., Gresslya peregrina Phill., Entolium cf hehlii Orb+, E. sp. cingulatum Goldf., Varismussium sexcostata Quenst., Gervillia ex gr. acuminata Tarq., Chlamys cf. thiollierei Mart. +, Velata cf. staechei Nucobidze, Pholadomya cf. decorata Ziet., Pleuromya unioides Goldf., Isocardia substriata Goldf., Modiolus cf. psilonoti Quenst., Cardinia sp. (the species marked by crosses + are of Early Liassic age and the rest of the species are known throughout the whole Lias); corals of Early Liassic age are : Stylophyllopsis rugosus (Dunc. et Wright), S. mucronatus (Dunc.),

10-50 m

142

S. victorie (Dunc.) Phacelostylophyllum (?) cf. martini (From). The presence of the Early Liassic forms among the listed fossil remains suggests that the limestone of bed 2 is of Early Liassic age. 3. Shale and siltstone interbedded with sandstone, 100 -150 m in thickness. The following pelecypod remains were collected from the upper portion of the unit: Macrodon cf. elongatum Sow., Pinna cf. fissa Goldf. +, P. cf. sexcostata Terq. et Piette, Variamussium personatum Ziet. +, Mytiloides cf. murchensis Petr. +, Mactromya cf. littoralis Ag., M. cf. aqualis Ag., Pholadomys cf. voltzii Ag. +, Ph. cf. reticulata Ag., Ph. cf. fidicula Sow:, Ph. cf. corrugata Koch et Dunk., Ph. cf. carinata Goldf., Gresslya cf. abducta Phill., G. cf. porrecta Dum-., Pleuromya cf. goldfussi Roll. +, P. cf. unioides Boem., Tancredia cf. caryota Dum., +, Trigonia cf. similis Ag., Lucina cf. despecta Phill. (the species marked by crosses + are either of Middle-Late Liassic or of Late Liassic age; the remaining forms are found throughout the Lias, some of them occurring in the Bajocian). On the basis of the listed fauna and the position in the sequence the rocks of bed 3 are assumed to be of Middle Liassic age. Limestone, bedded, argillaceous, grading to marl and calcareous shale. This is a transitional bed between the underlying and overlying beds. It is 15 m thick. The following fauna remains were founds pelecypods of Pinna cf. thomarensis Choff., P. cf. opalina Quenst., P. cf. dumortieri Boll. P. cf. buchi Koch et Dunk., P. cf. hartmanni Ziet., Macrodon cf. elongatum Sow., Anomya cf. striatula Opp., Avicula cf. obliqua Buv., Entolium cf. demissum Phill., Variamussium personatum Ziet., Amussiopsis paradoxa Mnst., Chlamys cf. meriani Greep., Modiolus (Inoperna ) soverbianua Orb., Plagiostoma cf. ferruginea Ben., Ostrea cf. erina, Orb. Lucina cf. despecta Phill., Cypricardia cf. prelongata Terq. et Piette, C. cf. friangularis Mer., Trigonia (Lyridon) cf. similis Ag., Mytiloides cf. amygdaloides Goldf., M. of quenstedti Pcel., Astarte (Leckamptonia) cf. hobleyi Cox, Pleuromya goldfussi Roll. ++, P. unioides Roem.*, Pholadomya cf. fidicula Sow., Ph. cf. reticulata Ag., Ph. cf. decorata Ziet. ++, Ph. cf. compta Ag., Ph. cf. corrugata Koch et Dunk. ++, Ph. cf. voltzii Ag., Ph. cf. glabra Ag. +, Ph. cf. idea Orb. ++, Ph. idea typus Orb. Ph. idea var. cycloides Moesh., Ph. idea var fraazi Opp. (the species marked by two crosses ++ are known from the Lower-Middle Lias and Middle Lies, those marked by one cross + from the Upper Lisa and the remaining forms being from the Lias-Bajocian); brachiopods; Gibbirhynchia curviceps Quenst., Tetrarhynchia subconcinna (Dav.), T. tetrahedra (Sow.), Lobothyris punctata (Sow.), L. subpunctata (Dav.) +, L. archaeformis Tuluw. +, Cincta subnumismalis Dav. +, Plarochynchia aff. juvenis (Quenst.) (the species marked by crosses + are known from the Middle Lias and other forms from the lowerMiddle Lias (Lotharingian-Domerian). The comparison of the above listed pelecypod and brachiopod identifications reveals a discrepancy in the dating of the beds enclosing them. The former indicate the Late Liassic age and the latter the Early-Middle Liassic age. The difference is quite obvious. It is suggested that until a systematic analyses of the fauna is made the enclosing beds should be regarded as transitional from the Middle Lies to the Upper Lies as indicated by their position in the sequence. Limestone, bedded, argillaceous, 100-150 m thick, containing the following fossils: amimonites Pseudogrammoeras ex. gr. fallaciosum Bayle, Grammoceras ex. gr. toarcense Orb., Polyplectus cf. subplanatum Opp., Leioceras ex gr. Costosum Quenst., Dumortieria sp., Hammatoceras sp., Hildoceras sp. Pseudopolyplectus (?) sp.; belemnites: Mesoteuthis cf. stimula Dum. Among the listed forms Hildoceras is known from the Middle Toarcian only, Pseudo-polyplectus from the Toarcian and other genera and species occur predominantly in the Upper Toarcian, some of them extending into the basal beds of the Upper Aalenian. Brachiopods collected from the beds are: Tetrarhynchia cf. tetrahedra (Sow.)*, Lobothyris aff. punctata (Sow.)*, L. cf .sub-punctata (Day.), L. cf. edwardsi (Dav.), Keratothyris (?) paretoi (Par.)*, Salgirothyria cf. kurtsiensis Ant., "Zeilleria" perforata (Piette), Z.darwini Desl., Gibbirhychia curviceps (Quenst.)* (the species marked by crosses are known from the Middle Lias, the remaining forms being either from the lower Lias or from the Lower and Middle Lias. Pelecypods are: Plagiostoma cf. gigantea Desh., Mytiloides cf. quenstedti Poel. (Upper Lias). There is also a disagreement in the dating of the limestone by the brachiopods and other fossils. The brachiopods suggest older age of the rock. The age of the limestone is assumed to be Toarcian-Aalenian until a systematic analysis of the fossils is made. Alternation of limestone and shale, 150 m in thickness. Limestone is bedded, shale is silty. Limestone beds enclose unidentifiable fossil remains. The rocks are assumed to be of Bajocian age on the basis of their position in the section.

100-150m

4.

15m

5.

150 m

6.

143

The total thickness of the Lower-Middle Jurassic strata from the Nalbandan Zone is 385-565 m as evidenced by the outcrops available. The equivalent rock unit in the USSR territory is the Jurassic sequence of the Gurumdin Zone in the South-East Pamir (73). A rather thick sequence of phyllite-like calcareous slates with interbeds and lenses of limestone and sandstone occurring at the water divide of the Tulak and Tagab-Elan Rivers is poorly studied. In some places this sequence contains greenstone-altered volcanics of intermediate and acid composition. Between the villages of Ain and Chashma-i-Daroz, Aalenian-Callovian pelecypods represented by Posidonis buchi Roem were collected from the calcareous slates. To the west, at the waterdivide part of the Bande Syahsangak Ridge sponges and corals of Jurassic appearance were found in limestone interbeds occurring in the slate. The position of the unit in the Lower-Middle Jurassic sequence of the Nalbandan Zone re-mains uncertain. It seems younger than bed 5 of the above described section. Sange Dushah Zone. In this zone Lower-Middle Jurassic rocks were found in one locality only: near the village of Dahane Shah. The succession of beds lying unconformably on the Upper Permian rocks is as follows (143, 152):
1. Sandstone, siltstone and basal conglomerate with pebbles of the underlying Permian rocks. Pelecypod remains collected in the rocks are: Astarte cf. opalina Quenst., A cf. lotharingica Ben., A. cf. voltzii Roem., Tancredia cf. donaciformis Lyce., Pseudolimea cf. duplicate Sow., Plagiostoma cf. ferrugineum Ben., Amberleya cf. densinodosa Hundl., Trigonia cf. similis Ag., Modiolus cf. lonsdalei M. et L., Pholadomya cf. foliacea Lyc., Liostrea cf. sandalina Goldf. The assemblage is Toarcian-Bajocian in age Limestone, coquinoid, detrital interbedded with sandstone and bearing pelecypod remains: Ammussiopsis paradoxa Goldf., Entolium demissum Phyll., Chlamys cf. ambigum Mnst., Camptonectes lens Sow. The Amussiopsis paradoxa is known only from the Toarcian while other forms are found throughout the Toarcian-Bajocian sequence Sandstone, inequigranular, interbedded with siltstone, Siltstone and shale, bright green, calcareous interbedded with sandstones and coquinoid limestone. The rocks contain Early Aalenien ammonites: Leicoceras gtzen-derensis Dorn., Tmetoceras cf. scissum Ben. and Toarcian-Bajocian pelecypods: Pseudolimea cf. duplicata Sow., Pleuromya cf. unioides Roem., P. goldfussi Roll., Astrate cf. minuta Phill., A. cf. opalina Quenst., Camptonectes cf. lens Sow., Pholadomya cf. fidicula Sow., Mytiloides cf. quenstedti Poel., M. amygdaloides Goldf., Lucina cf. balkhanensis Poel. Sandstone and siltstone, polymictic and quartzo-feldspathic, enclosing. Middle Jurassic Trigonia (Clavotrigonia) cf. formosa Lyc. pelecypods 11-25 m

2.

40 m

3. 4.

30 m 60 m

5.

160 m

The total thickness of the above section is 315 m. Ammonites found in bed 4 indicate Early Aalenian age. Accordingly, beds 1-3 must be of Toarcian and bed 5 of Late Aalenian age. Pelecypods found in these beds do not contradict to such a conclusion. Unlike in the Nalbandan Zone, where fauna remains point to the presence of all the Lias subdivisions, the Lower Jurassic from the Sange Dushah Zone is represented only by the Upper Lias. Consequently, the Lower-Middle Jurassic sequence is different in the two zones, being more complete in the Nalbandan Zone. The predominant rocks in the Range Dushah Zone are terrigenous sandstones and siltstones, and the limestones are detrital, whereas in the Nalbandan Zone shales, argillaceous limestones and marls prevail. Terrigenous Lower-Middle Jurassic rocks Terrigenous Lower-Middle Jurassic rocks occur in the Rod-i-Kafgan and Shewa zones (143, 152, 154). In both zones these are fine terrigenous rocks of continental and marine origin, variegated at the base and darkcoloured at the top. They rest conformably, yet with some evidence of erosion on Norian-Rhaetian continental beds and are overlain also conformably by marine limestones of Bathonian-Late Jurassic age. The rocks have been investigated in greater detail in the Shewa Zone, where they compose two conformable units. The lower unit (150-200 m) consists of red and green sandstones and siltstones with rare beds and lenses of small-pebble conglomerate and gravelstone. The upper unit (200-250 m) is composed of black siltstone and sandstone enclosing remains of terrestrial flora of Late Liassic-Middle Jurassic age: Coniopteris hymenophyssoides (Brongn.), Cladophlebis denticulata (Brongn.) Nath., Baiera sp. The total thickness of the rocks is 350-450 m. The Lower-Middle Jurassic sequence from the Rod-i-Kafgan Zone has a similar section which has net been studied in this place in details. The thickness of the rocks in this zone is 300-500 m. The 144

equivalent rock unit on the USSR territory is the Kokuybel Series exposed in the Yasgulem Ridge and at the water-divide area of the Tanymaz and Kokuybel rivers (73). Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass In this region rock units of Lower-Middle Jurassic age were mapped in the Wakhan Zone. As reported by A.Kh. Kafarsky and others (200), they consist of marine terrigenous-carbonate rocks lying unconformably on Carboniferous-Triassic beds. The rocks are 415 m thick. The section from the Darya-i-Andemin River basin was described as follows (200)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Siltstone and sandstone, the lower 20 m horizon consists of pale brown and the upper 25 m, of bright red varieties Limestones, massive and thick-bedded with remains of thick-valve pelecypods Sandy marl with branchiopod remains Limestone, black, argillaceous, interbedded with marls and enclosing remains of Upper Toarcian ammonites : Hammatoceras sp., Pachmatoceras sp. Sandstone with limestone interbeds Limestone, bedded, argillaceous 45 m 35 m 85 m 130 m 70 m 50 m

The total thickness of the section is 4.15 m. As follows from the above mentioned section and the evidence available from the adjacent territory of the South-East Pamir (79, 84-86), beds 1-4 (295 m) correspond to the whole of the Lower Jurassic plus the Aalenian of the Middle Jurassic, bed 5 (70 m) to the Lower Bajocian and bed 6 (50 m) to the Upper Bajocian. The Lower-Middle Jurassic from the Wakhan Zone is similar to that of the Nalbandan Zone. Their counterparts extended into the USSR territory are the Jurassic rock units of the Gurumdin Zone. Afghanistan-East Iran Region In this region rock units of Early - Middle Jurassic age were mapped within the Kismaran Uplift. As reported by V. I. Dronov et al. (152), the sequence is subdivided into the Kishamaran and Gish Series (254). The Kismaran Series, 3,000 m thick, is composed of interbedding dark-coloured polymictic sandstones, shales and siltstone with bands and lenses of limestone, marl, conglomerate and gravelstone. In the upper third part of the series, remains of Toarcian-Bajocian pelecypods were found. These are: Pleuromya cf. unioides Boem., Entolium cingulatum Goldf., E. rugosum Andr., Liostrea sp., Gresslya sp., Chlamys sp. The Gish Series (100-300 m) lies disconformably on the Kishmaran Series. It consists of variegated dacite, its tuff and tuff conglomerate. The rocks contain no fossils. The series was assigned Middle Jurassic age on the basis of its position in the section.

Middle-Upper Jurassic
The Middle-Upper Jurassic undifferentiated sequence has been mapped in the South Afghanistan Median Mass, in Middle Afghanistan and in the Afghanistan-East Iran Folded Region. The rocks are everywhere marine, predominantly carbonate.

South Afghanistan Median Mass In this region the Middle-Upper Jurassic rocks underlie the Helmand-Argandab Uplift and the Farah Rod Trough. Helmand-Argandab Uplift The Middle-Upper Jurassic rocks are exposed in the Argandab, Tirin and Helmand fault blocks. 145

The rock sequences in the blocks are different. Argandab Zone. Within this zone the Middle-Upper Jurassic sequence consists of two formations, Paynawa and Wargach, whose total thickness is 817 m. The rocks were described by Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 217, 292), V.I. Dronov et al. (152) and Yu.S. Perfilyev et al. (162). Paynawa Formation (100-560 m) rests conformably on the Argasu Formation of Rhaetian-Lias age. It consists of limestones. The section described from the area near the village of Paynawa is as follows (144):
1. 2. 3. 4. Limestone, bedded, oolitic Limestone, massive, oolitic at the base, enclosing Bajocian-Bathonian, Liostrea sp., Lopha cf. marchii Sow. pelecypods Limestone, inequibedded Limestone, oolitic, enclosing Bajocian-Bathonian pelecypods: Myopholas cf. oblongus Remp., Liostrea ex gr. insolitus Repm., Nucula sp., Camptonectes sp., Plagiostroma sp., Protocardia sp., Lucina sp. Siltstone, calcareous Limestone, bedded 50 m 130 m 310 m 25 m

5. 6.

15 m 30 m

The thickness of the Paynawa Formation in this section is 560 m. As evidenced by fauna identifications, most rocks are of Middle Jurassic age with the exception of beds 5 and 6 (45 m) which are likely to be of Late Jurassic age. Wargach Formation (258 m) overlies disconformably the Paynawa limestones. It consists of terrigenouscarbonate rocks with a bauxite bed at the base. The composite section described from the outcrops located 7 and 11 km to the north-east of the village of Shah Karez on the northern slope of the Wargach Ridge is as follows (144):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bauxite, dark green, pisolitic Alternation (2-5.5 m) of variegated calcareous and quartzo-feldspathic siltstone and sandstones Limestone, organic and detrital containing remains, of late Jurassic brachiopods Sandstone, calcareous (4 m) at the base overlain by siltstone (3 m) Limestone, interbedded at the base with quartzo-feldspathic fine-grained sandstone (22 m) 3m 22 m 9m 7m 217 m

Limestone 5 terminates the section of the Wargach Formation in this locality where the rocks are 258 m thick. Overlying beds have not been found anywhere. The Tirin Zone In this zone the Middle-Upper Jurassic beds are referred to as the Sangesar Formation which was described by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 409), and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). It consists predominantly of limestones with some sandstone beds at the base. The thickness of the rocks is 245-308 m. They rest conformably on the Rhaetian-Liassic beds and are overlain disconformably by Lower Cretaceous deposits The section from the Sangesar Ridge near the village of Tala is as follows (206):
1. 2. Limestone, bedded oolitic Alternation of flaggy calcareous sandstone and sandy limestone (at the mid-stream of the Ajrestan River this interval is composed almost totally of sandstone). The collected remains of Bajocian-Bathonian pelecypods are as follows: Plagiostoma cardiiforme Sow., Pseudolimea sp., Lopha cf. rugosa Goldf., Liostrea ex gr. sandalina Goldf., Modiolus sp., Aequipecten vagans Sow., Chlamys sp., Camptonectes sp., Anomia sp., Cuculaea sp., Parallelodon sp., Protocardia sp., Lucina sp. 5-8 m

146

3.

Limestone, bedded, detrital, occasionally oolitic. The fossils collected near the Kotale Jelud pass (the upper reaches of the Ajrestan River) from a thrust sheet composed of organic sandy limestone and marl (7-9 m) which seem to have derived from the base of this interval are Callovian pelecypods : Aequipecten cf. trifurcatus Andreeva, Eligmus cf. rollandi Douv., Chlamys., Pholadomya sp., and those collected directly from the limestone proper at the Sangesar Ridge are Late Oxfordian pelecypods: Aequipecten cf. subfibrosus Orb., Nucula sp., Chlamys ex. gr. pamirica Andreeva, Modiolus ex gr. tulipaens Lam.

120 -150 m

The thickness of beds 1-3 is 245-308 m. In the area of the village of Oruzgan A. Lapparent and others (343) distinguished beds with BathonianKimmeridgian fossils among the Jurassic limestones occurring above the Liassic. The Bathonian fossils are as follows: Nautiloculina oolitica Mohle, Epistomina sp., Trocholina sp., Clypeus sp., Nibolites sp. The Kimmeridgian fossils: are: Macrocephalites sp. and Oxfordian-Kimmeridgian fossils include: Progeronia sp., Lithacoceras cf. subachilles Weg. Helmand Zone Unlike in the Tirin Zone, rocks of Middle-Late Jurassic age occur in this area sporadically in the cores of deep synclines. Exposures are known from the Korezak creek, the left-hand bank of the Waras river and the Ghizaw Basin. As reported by D.A. Starshinin et al. (155), the rocks are organic detrital and oolitic limestones interbedded, in the upper part, with variegated calcareous sandstones. The thickness of the rocks is 90-215 m. They rest conformably on supposedly Rhaetian-Liassic beds and are overlain disconformably by red conglomerate of Cretaceous or Neogene age. No identifiable fossils were found, and the Middle-Late Jurassic age was assigned to the rocks tentatively. Farah Rod Trough In this area Middle-Upper Jurassic rocks were found in the Harut Rod Zone (the drainage basin of the Daryai-Qarajangal River). They make up the top of Shonakai Mountain and thus the whole sequence of the rocks is known as the Shonakai Series. The series has been described by S.S. Karapetov, et. al. (142) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). The series consists of grey, thick-bedded organic-detrital limestone at the base, 120 m, and calcareous sandstone at the top, 30 m. The total thickness is 150 m. The rocks lie conformably on the Rhaetian-Liassic beds of the Qarajangal Series. No overlying rocks were observed. The lower part bears abundant remains of Middle Jurassic pelecypods: Protocardia cf. striklandi Mor. et Lyec., Variamussium sp., Anisocardia cf. tenera Sow., Liostrea cf. sandalina Goldf., Acomytilus sp., Trigonia sp., Plagiostona sp., Astrate minima Phyll., Mytilus sp., Chlamys sp., Pinna sp., Macrodon sp. The top beds of the series include abundant gastropods, which have not been identified yet.

Middle Afghanistan Rock units of Middle-Upper Jurassic age are known in this region from the Kohe Qaftarkhan, Abul and Sewa Zones and in the Dekhron, Kohe Abrona, Kohe Zabat and other thrust nappes. They consist of Bajocian, Bathonian, Callovian and Oxfordian rocks. Kohe Qaftarkhan Zone In this area the Middle-Upper Jurassic rocks occur in the Kohe Qaftarkhan Ridge and neighbouring regions. They lie everywhere unconformably on older beds. The rocks are mainly limestones with thin marl beds. The thickness of the rocks is 382 to 453 metres. They were described by V.I. Dronov et al. (102, 152). The most detailed section of the rocks was described from the Kohe Qaftarkhan Ridge (152), where Cambrian and Proterozoic beds are overlain strongly unconformably by:

147

1.

Limestone, bedded, dolomitized, with conglomerate (0-1 m) at the base. The lower beds have abundant gastropods, pelecypods and corals. The gastropods are: Turbinopsis ex gr. bangierona Orb., Neritopsis sp., Amberleya sp., Cloughtomis sp., Endiaphloens sp., Upella sp., Ptygmatis sp., Polyptyxis sp., Endiatrachelus sp. the first of the listed forms is Bathonian, the remaining forms are of a broader vertical distribution. The pelecypods are represented by Cucullaca cf. cucullata Goldf., Aequipecten sp., Pleuromya cf. uniformis (Sow.), P. marginata Ag., P. cf. donacina Ag., Garvillia cf. Anceps (Desh.), G. cf. aviculoides Sow., Cunegervillia quoixi Frene, Lopha (Rastellum) gregaria (Sow.), L. (Lopha) costata (Sow.), Exogyra virgula Bul., Nanogira cf. nana (Sow.), Modiolus cf. imbricatus (Sow.), M. cf. lonsdalei Mor. et Lyc., Inoperna ex gr. sowerbyana (Orb.), Astarte minima Phill., A. cf. pulla Roem., Opis cf. deshayesii Mor. et Lyc., O. cf. similis (Sow.), Isocardia cf. transversa Mnst., Anisocardia aff. tenera (Sow.), Panope ovalica Sib., Pholadomya cf. fidicula (Sow.), Ph. decorata Ziet., Ph. reticulata Ag., Homomya obtusa Ag., Protocardia stricklandi. (Mor. et Tyc.), P. consobrina (Terq. et Jour.), , Plagiostoma cf. subcardiformis Greep., Ctenostreon cf. pectiniforme (Schloth.), all the forms are Bajocian -Bathonian Limestone, bedded, argillaceous, lumpy, abundant in sponges Marl bearing ammonites and pelecypods. The ammonites are: Praehecticoceras cf. haugi Popov et Hatz., Perisphinctidae (Late Bathonian). The pelecypods are: Posidonia buchi Roem., Entolium demissum Phill. Limestone, bedded, detrital, with Early Callovian fauna of ammonites: Macrocephylites sp., Perisphinctidae brachiopods: Loboidothyris subingluviosa (Moiss.), L. cf. kabardinensis (Moiss.), Ptyctothyris aff. gundaraensis (Moiss.), Sphaeroidothyris aff. trivonovi (Moiss.) Marl and argillaceous limestone with Callovian ammonites, sponges, pelecypods and brachiopods. The ammonites are: Perisphinctida, Opellidae the pelecypods are: Anisocardia laubei Roll., Chlamys cf. ambigua Goldf., Aequipecten fibrosodichotomus Kas., A. fibrosus (sow.), Entolium cf. demissum Phill., Camptonectes cf. lens Sow., Pleuromya cf. regularis Pcel., P. cf. varians Ag., Trigonia cf. pcelincevae (Saw.), Pholadomya cf. murchisoni Limestone, bedded, argillaceous, lumpy, with Early and Middle Callovian ammonites, sponges, pelecypods and brachiopods. The pelecypods are Eligmus rollandi Douv.; the brachiopods: Loboidothyris kabardinensis (Moiss.), L. aff. subingluviosa (Moiss.), Ptyctothyris aff. karabugasensis (Moiss.), P. subcanaliculata (Opp.), Kallirhynchia cf. concinna (Sow.) Limestone, bedded, with chart nodules

10-50 m

2. 3.

10 m 20-30 m

4.

2-3 m

5.

10 m

6.

30-50 m

7.

300 m

The thickness of the Middle-Upper Jurassic beds in this section is 382-453 m. Beds 1, 2 and 3 are dated as Bathonian, being possibly Bajocian at the base. Beds 3 to 7 are Callovian-Oxfordian. The Dehron, Kohe Abrona, Kohe Zabat and other thrust nappes The Middle-Upper Jurassic sediments form outliers of overthrust sheets in which different beds of the unit lie on various Paleogene or Neogene strata. The Middle-Upper Jurassic beds are overlain disconformably by Eocene -Oligocene volcanics. The unit was described by V.I. Dronov et al. (100, 102, 143, 152). The composite section of the unit is as follows (152):
1. 2. Siltstone and sandstones interbedded with organic limestone Calcareous shales and marls with organic limestone interbeds. The rocks contain pelecypods: Oxytoma cf. muensteri Bronn., Astarte cf. opalina Quenst., Entolium demissuia Phill. and brachiopods: Loboidothyris aff. tchegemensis (Moiss.), Ptyctothyris subcanaliculata (Opp.) Limestone, bedded, argillaceous, enclosing small fragments of Bathonian Clydoniceratidae ammonites and Entolium cf. demissum Phill, Plagiostoma cf. subrigidula Schlippe, Posidonia buchi Roem., Nucula cf. eudorae Orb. pelecypods Limestone at the base and calcareous shale and marl on the top. The rocks contain Callovian fauna of ammonites: Macrocephalites sp., Phlicticeras sp., Perisphinctidae pelecypods: Pseudolimea cf. duplicata Sow., Posidonia buchi Roem., brachiopods: Iranoviella cf. arcuata (Roll.) Limestone, bedded, argillaceous, containing Callovian fauna of ammonites: Macrocephalites cf. macrocephalus (Schloth.), Perisphinctes indicus Siem., Hecticoceras sp., Reineckeia sp. pelecypods: Posidonia buchi Roem, , Entolium sp., Astarte sp., brachiopods: Ptyctothyria cf. subcanaliculata (Opp.) 200 m 200 m

3.

100 m

4.

25 m

5.

100 m

148

6.

Limestone, bedded at the base, massive on the top

300 m

The thickness of the section is 925 m. Beds 1-3 (500 m) are Middle Jurassic, probably Bajocian-Bathonian or Bathonian. Beds 4-6 (425 m) are Callovian-Oxfordian. Abul Zone Within this zone the Middle-Upper Jurassic sequence is represented only by Callovian-Oxfordian beds outcropping in a fault wedge south of the Abul village. The northern part of the wedge is composed of dark, bedded limestone (30 m) with Callovian Aequipecten cf. fibrosus (Sow.), and the southern part, of light massive, reef limestone (200 m) carrying remains of Oxfordian corals represented by Complexastraca carinata Roniewiez, Stylina ex gr. subornata (Orb.), Pseudocoenia sp., Goniocora sp., Thecosmilia sp., Microsolena sp., Dermoseris sp. Shewa Zone In this zone the Middle-Upper Jurassic sequence rests conformably on Lower-Middle Jurassic terrigenous formations. It has been subdivided into two units (154). The lower unit (150-200 m) consists of dark, bedded argillaceous limestone and marl. The upper unit (300-400 m) is composed of light, bedded and massive limestones. The total thickness of the rocks is 450-600 m. Both units enclose fossil remains which are poorly preserved. The age of the sediments is defined by their position in the section. The equivalent rock unit on the USSR territory is the Damamat Series exposed on the Yazgulem Ridge and within the water-divide area of the Tanymash and Kokuybel rivers. Afghanistan East Iran Region In this region an independent Middle-Upper Jurassic rock unit is distinguished only in the Kishmaran Zone, where it consists of limestones and marls referred to as the Dushekh Series (254). The section described from the Kohe Ghish and Kohe Kishmaran is as follows (152). The volcanics of the Ghish Series are overlain disconformably by:
1. 2. Marl and calcareous-quartzose sandstone with unidentifiable foraminifera remains Bedded limestones and massive reef limestones with 10-20 m bed of sandy marl at the base. Bathonian-Oxfordian fossil remains collected from debris of various limestone horizons are represented by ammonites: Hecticoceras sp., Perisphinctidae (Callovian); pelecypods Entolium cf. demissum Phill., E. cingulatum Goldf., Asquipten ex gr. vagans Sow., Chlamys dewalquei Opp., Nanogyra nana Sow. (Bathonian-Callovian); brachiopods: Sphenorhynchia aff. plicatella (Sow.), Aulacothyris subimpessula Uhl., Loboidothyris aff. bourqueti (Et.), L. ex. gr. subformosa (Roll.) (the first form is Bajocian-Bathonian, the second Early Callovian and the remaining Oxfordian); corals: Latiastraea sp., Microphyllia sp., Ovalaztraea sp., Stylina sp. (Late Jurassic) Limestone, bedded, enclosing chert nodules 50 m 100 m

3.

100 m

The eroded surface of bed 3 is overlain by variegated terrigenous rocks supposedly of Cretaceous age. The thickness of the rocks in this section is 250 m.

Upper Jurassic
Sedimentary rocks of Late Jurassic age are found almost in all the regions of Afghanistan, though they were mapped as a separate unit within the platform, in the Afghanistan North Pamir Folded Region and the Central Afghanistan Median Mass. Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region and North Afghanistan Platform In these regions the Upper Jurassic sequence is considered to include the closely related Upper Bathonian beds. Outcrops of these deposits are known from the east and west of the territory under consideration. They were also penetrated by boroholes drilled through some deep-seated structures of the platform. The unit was described by R. Furon and L. Rosset (127), A. Desio et al. (66), G. N. Khatiskatsi et al. (217), K.Ya. 149

Mikhailov et al. (350), V.P. Kolchanov et al. (348), V.I. Bratash et al. (161), A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153), I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154), Yu.S. Perfilyev et al. (162). The east of the platform and Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region Outcrops of Upper Jurassic and the related Upper Bathonian beds are found in the Pule Khumri and NarinChal-Namakab areas. The former area is part of the Afghanistan-South Tajikistan Basin and the latter is part of the Surkhab Zone. The rock sequence is separable into the Upper Bathonian-Oxfordian, consisting of marine terrigenous-carbonate deposits and the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian, consisting of lagoonal continental chemogenic-terrigenous deposits. Upper Bathonian-Oxfordian Pule Khumri outcrops The unit is particularly pronounced in the, where it comprises the beds lying between the top of the upper (workable) coal bed of the Karkar and Dodkash deposits and the top of the thickest carbonate horizon of the Jurassic from these areas. A. Desio et al. (66) divided the unit from the Karkar deposit into nine horizons.
1.-2. 3. 4. 5. Clays, variegated, sandy at the top, enclosing a bed of brecciated and limonitized limestone with small gastropods Limestones, coquinoid and oolitic with Bathonian foraminifera: Trocholina conica (Schlumb.), T. aff. palastiensis Henson Limestone, oolitic, interbedded with sandy clays, enclosing Bathonian foraminifera: Trocholina conica (Schlumb.) Limestones, marly, partly oolitic and coquinioid, with clay partings, containing foraminifera; Vaginulina aff. ovata Espitalie et Sigal, Lenticulina cf. quenstedti Gmbel, Haplaphragmoides sp. pelocypods Camptonectes richei Dech., Plagiostoma cardiiformis (Sow.), P. subcardiifonais Greep., Pseudolimea duplicata (Sow.), Placunopsis socialis Mor. et Lyc., Ctenostreon rugosum (W. Smith), Exogyra nana (Sow.), Pholadomya hemicardia Roem., Ph. lirata (Sow.), Homomya inornata (Sow.) 17 m 0.5 m 16 m 16 m

Late Bathonian-Early Callovian fossils were collected from this horizon by L. Rosset in 1952 (127). The fossils are corals : Chomatoseries porpites (W. Smith), Montlivaltia cf. caryophylata Lam., M. cornutiformis crassa Greg., M. cottreaui (Coll.), M. cilullus Greg., M. cyclolitoides U. Edw. et Haime, M. decipiens (Goldf.), U. gregoryi Alloiteau, U. houregi Alloiteau, U. numismalis (Orb.); brachiopods: Sphenorhynchia aff. plicatella (Sow.); and pelecypods : Oxytoma cf. inaequivalve (Sow.), Meleagrinella echinata (W. Smith), Camptonectes annulatus (Sow.), C. rigidus (Sow.), Plagiostoma cardiiformis (Sow.), P. subcardiiformis Greep., Pseudolimea duplicata (Sow.), Exogyra crassa (W. Smith), E. nana (Sow.), Trigonia cf. pullus Sow., Lucina cf. rotondata (Room.), Pleuromya uniformis (Sow.), Coibula aff. daghoniensis Cox, Myopholas acuticosta (Sow.), Pholadomys hemicardia Room., Ph. cf lirata (Sow.)
6. 7. 8. 9. Limestone, dolomitized Clay, red, arenaceous Limestone, bedded, enclosing microfauna of Haplophragmoides (?) sp., Lenticulata (?) sp., Ophtalmidium sp. Limestone, massive, brecciated, dolomitized 6m 17 m 2m 18 m

The beds are succeeded conformably by Kimmeridgian -Tithonian red marls. Beds 1-9 are 94.5 metres thick. Dodkash coal deposit At the Dodkash coal deposit the Upper Bathonian-Oxfordian sequence is separable into four members (161, 350). The lower member (17 m) consists of compact clay grading to calcareous siltstone and sandstone. As reported by A.K. Dertev (217), the rocks enclose Bathonian-Callovian mollusks represented by ammonites: Procerites sp., Distichiceras cf. bispinatum Ziet.; pelecypods: Inoperna aff. perplicata Etall., Pholadomya 150

murchisoni Sow., Ph. suboxaltata Kas. In 1975, S.S. Lym collected Late Bathonian Oppelia aspidoides (Sow.) ammonites from the rocks of this member. The second member (6 m) consists of dirty-yellow bedded pseudo-oolitic organic limestone with BathonianCallovian pelecypods and corals. The pelecypods are: Pholadomya murchisoni Sow., Ph. exaltata Ag., Ph. deltoidea Sow., Ph. Rugosa Kas., Ph. subexaltata Kas., Ph. balchanensis Pcel, Protocapdia borissjaki Pcel., Camptonectes aff. giganteus Ark., Oxytoma inaequivalve (Sow.), Meleagrinella subechinata Lah. the corals are: Cyathophora dollfussi Koby, Montlivaltia caryophyllata Lam., M. numismalis (Orb.), M. inducta Alloiteau. The third member (47 m) consists of variegated calcareous clay interbedded with shell limestones containing Callovian pelecypods: Plagiostoma aff. kurganchensis Rep., Isognomon aff. caucasica Peel., Camptonectes laminatus Sow., C. cf. gissarensis Rep., C. aff. clathratus Roem., Plagiostoma calloviensis Cossm., Lopha gregaria Sow., Exogyra cf. nana (Sow.), Ostrea hemideltoidea Lah. The fourth member (20-44 m) consists of limestones intercalated with greenish calcareous siltstone at the base (2-2.5 m). The rocks carry Callovian-Oxfordian pelecypods: Mactromya aceste Ark., Pholadomya parcicosta Ag., Ph. cf. paucicosta Roem., Ph. aff. wottonensis Moesch., Camptonectes lens Sow., C. aff. virdunensis Buv., Oxytoma aff. inaequivalve (Sow.), Homomya choffati Boriss. Oxfordian ammonites represented by Perisphinctes aff. biplex Sow., were found in the debris. Above follow variegated clays of Kimmeridgian-Bathonian age. The total thickness of the members is 90 to 114 metres. Narin-Chal-Ramakab area Upper Bathonian-Oxfordian deposits are exposed in this area in three localities: at the water divide of the Zamburak and Namakab Rivers, in the Narin locality and in the Chal-Namakab interfluve. At the ZamburakNamakab water divide the deposits of Bathonian-Oxfordian are limestones, marly, massive in the lower 35 m portion and bedded at the upper 150 m portion. The lower limestone bears Late Bathonian - Early Callovian pelecypods and brachiopods: Pseudolimea duplicata (Sow.), Exogyra nana (Sow.), Burmirynchia dattoi Buckm., Kutchithyris aurita (Kitch). The Upper Bathonian-Oxfordian section described from the area of the village of Narin is as follows (350). The Lower-Middle Jurassic strata, are overlain disconformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Limestone, detrital, with quartz grains Clay, red, intercalated with green sandstones and siltstone and enclosing Pholadomya ovulum Ag., Exogyra nana (Sow.), Mytilus aff. perplicatus Etall pelecypods Sandstone, green, coarse-grained Interbedding of green siltstone and red clays Sandstone, green, calcareous Clay, deep red and bright green Limestones with Lopha aff. pulligera Goldf. Siltstone, grey, calcareous Limestone, organic detrital with Lopha aff. pulligera Goldf. 15 m 12 m 10 m 12 m 10 m 8m 10 m 10 m 35 m

These are overlain by gypsiferous Kimmeridgian -Tithonian rocks. The thickness of the above beds is 122 meters. In the Chal-Namskab interfluve the Upper Bathonian-Oxfordian was studied near Roshaq village (350), where variegated clays of Early Middle Jurassic age are overlain by:
1 Marl, enclosing Callovian-Oxfordian pelecypods: Exogyra nana (Sow.), Camptonectes (Camptochlamys) tachtensis Rep., Plagiostoma karakulense Andreeva, P. cubanense Pcel. and brachiopods: "Zeilleria" bucculenta Sow., Kingena cf. panjabica Sahni, 14.5 m

151

Aulacothyris guldaransia (Moiss.) 2. 3. 4. 5. Siltstone, calcareous, with marl partings Limestone, yellow, marly Siltstone, green-grey and red Limestone interbedded at the base with marls and carrying Callovian-Oxfordian pelecypods: Plagiostoma tumida Roem., Modiolus cf. imbricatus Sow., Camptonectes (Camptochlamys) kurganchensis Rep. and brachiopods Aulacothyris guldaraensis (Mains.), Kutchithyris jooraensis (Kitch) Siltstone, variegated Limestone enclosing Pholadomya evulum Ag. pelecypods Siltstone with a 2.5-meter limestone bed Limestone with Aulacothyris guldaraensia (Maims.) "Zeilleria" cf. bucculenta Sow. brachiopods Siltstone, red, with sandstone intercalations Limestone, grey, flaggy Gypsum, white Siltstone, grey and yellow, with Nerinea ex gr. gemmulata Pcel. gastropods Gypsum, white and grey, bedded Siltstone with sandstone and gypsum partings 15 m 7m 10 m 25 m

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

41 m 4m 30.5 m 25 m 23.5 m 6.5 m 3m 4m 1m 22 m

Beds 1-15 are 232 meters thick. As indicated by the presence of gypsum, beds 12-15 are likely to be of Kimmeridgian-Tithonian age. To this suggestion do not contradict the Nerinea ex. gr. gemmulata which is also known from the Kimmeridgian. beds. Kimmeridgian -Tithonian Unlike the previous unit, this part of the section is more variegated and more terrigenous, bearing in the upper portion chemogenic rocks which are rather abundant in some places. In the Pule Khumri area (Karkar coal deposit) the succession of beds is as follows (66). Bathonian-Oxfordian limestones are overlain conformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Marl, red, sandy Limestone with marl and clay partings Marl, red and light green Limestone, green, marly Marl, red and green, sandy Limestone, marly, enclosing gastropod remains Clays alternating with limestones Limestone, marly, intercalated with clays Clay, calcareous Interbedding of sandy limestones and clays Clay, calcareous, with anhydrite partings 14.5 m 25 m 10 m 3.5 m 18 m 2.5 m 20 m 8m 20 m 20 m 13 m

152

12. 13. 14.

Anhydrite, striated, intercalated with clay and marl Clay, varicoloured Limestone, thick-bedded

29.5 m 4.5 m 6m

These are overlain disconformably by red-coloured rocks of Cretaceous age. The above section of the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian beds is 194.5 meters thick. No fossil remains were found. The Kimmeridgian-Tithonian age was assigned to the rocks tentatively. Dodkash deposit In the area of Dodkash deposit the Callovian-Oxfordian limestones are overlain disconformably by the following Kimmeridgian-Tithonian beds (350):
1. 2. 3. 4. Clay with dolomite and sandstone partings and gypsum nodules in the top beds Dolomite, light grey, enclosing gypsum nodules Interbedding of brownish-red gypseous clays and bluish-grey siltstone Limestone, dolomitized, bearing Oxfordian-Kimmeridgian gastropods: Nerinea ex gr. gemmulata Pcel.; pelecypods, Aviculoperna (Isognomon) cf. caucasica Pcel., Parallelodon cf. schourovskii Rouill., Procardia cf. concinna Buch., Homomya aff. shoffati Borriss. V.I. Bratash et al. (161) reported the following OxfordianKimmeridgian fossils collected from the same part of the section gastropods: Nerinella chantrei Lor., Auroraella calliope Orb., A. lorteti Cossm. ; pelecypods; Camptonectes grenieri Cont., Pteroperna oxyptera Cont., Venelicardia subconstantini Pcel., V. cf. trunceta Cent., Coibis Formosa Cont., Ampullina florae Lor., Parallelodon cf. schourovskii Rouill., Pleuromya cf. peregrina Orb., P. ex gr. tellina Ag., Cyprina cf. kharaschoveneis Rouill Clay, gypseous Dolomite interbedded with clay which contains gypseous lenses and nodules Interbedding of varicoloured gypseous clays and siltstone with gypsum nodules and lenses Gypsum, varicoloured and white Clay, varicoloured, lumpy 19.5 m 4m 32 m 5.5 m

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

46 m 18 m 66.4 m 90.5 m 0-10 m

These are overlain disconformably by Cretaceous red-coloured deposits .The thickness of beds 1-9 is 242 metres. Narin-Chal-Namakab outcrops In the Narin-Chal-Namakab outcrops the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian section is generally similar to that in the Pule Khumri area, though it includes a greater amount of gypsum and anhydrite. The thickness is roughly estimated to be 60 m in the Narin area and 200 m in the Chal-Namakab. Fossil remains supposedly derived from the lower beds of the sequence are similar to those from the area of Dodkash deposit. It is supposed that the uppermost part of the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian section consists of salt-bearing beds exposed at the Namakab deposit to the north of the villages of Chal and Taqchakhana. The contacts of the beds with the surrounding formations are usually faulted, though there are outcrops where one can see gradual transition from terrigenous-gypsiferrous rocks to salt-bearing ones. This served as the basis for ascribing Kimmeridgian -Tithonian age to the unit described. Another indication favouring this assignment is the fact that in Soviet Tajikistan this stratigraphic interval also includes salt-bearing beds (73). Hohan The extreme north-eastern exposure of the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian beds in this region is an outcrop at the village of Hohan where the beds occur in several thrust sheets in a fault zone marking the extension of the North Pamir Fault in Afghanistan (153). The rocks are varicoloured clay and siltstone with interbeds and 153

lenses of gypsum and anhydrite. The exposed thickness of the rocks is 100-200 meters. They are unfossiliferous and dated as Kimmeridgian-Tithonian by analogy with the similar section from the ChalNamakab area. The total thickness of the Upper Bathonian-Tithonian deposits in the Pule Khumri area is 287 to 405.9 m and in the Narin-Chal-Namakab area it is 182 to 432 m. Unexposed areas of the North Afghanistan Platform (Footnote: Information on the unexposed areas has been contributed by V.I. Savchenko.) These are plains and foothills of North Afghanistan. The Upper Jurassic sequence with the related Upper Bathonian beds was divided tentatively into the Upper Bathonian-Oxfordian and Kimmeridgian-Tithonian units represented by the same facies of sediments as in the Pule Khumri and Narin-Chal-Namakab areas. Upper Bathonian-Oxfordian Upper Bathonian-Oxfordian sequence was penetrated by boreholes in the Juma (464 m), Yatim Tag (468 m), Bayangor (35-135 m), Khwaja Gogerdak (4.05 m), Alburs (350 m), Jarquduk (433 m), Khwaja Bulan (291 m), Gul-Tepa (196 m), Sar-i-Pul (271 m), Ali-Mogol, Khamyshly and other structures. The sequence is subdivided into two rock units. Lower unit Lower unit (92-115 m) consists of grey and green-grey inequigranular, predominantly fine-grained sandstones with carbonate cement interbedded with siltstone, clay, marl and limestone. The rocks from 2, 496-2,500 m interval of borehole N 3 drilled in the Khwaja Gogerdak area are characterized by a spore and pollen assemblage typical of late Middle Jurassic and beginning of the Upper Jurassic: Hysterichesphaeridium sp., Gleichenia sp., Cibotium junctum, Ceiropleuria congregate Bolkh., Ginkgo aff. parva (Naum.) Bolkh. Pollen assemblages of the late Middle and beginning of the Upper Jurassic were identified also in the rocks from borehole 42 at the Khwaja Gogerdak area (intervals 2, 462-2,472 m and 2,485-2,493 m) and from borehole 3 at the Khwaja Bulan area (interval 1,734- 1,739 m). The assemblage comprises mainly pollen fossils (90-97%) of Clossopollis sp. Other forms are either of a wide vertical distribution (Callialasporites dampieri (Balme) Dev., Perinopollenites elatoides Couper, Biretisporites potohiei Pocock, or occur predominantly in the Middle Jurassic. The latter forms are: Cyathidites minor Couper, Leiotriletes cristatus E. Sem. Upper unit Upper unit (44-378 m), dated as Callovian-Oxfordian (161), consists mainly of limestones partly dolomitized. The limestones are grey, on the top greenish, fine and cryptocrystalline occasionally oolitic, fractured. At the base the limestones are argillaceous, at places sandy, with clay and sandstone partings. Occasionally carbonaceous plant remains are found in thin streaks and inclusions. Throughout the section the rocks are fractured and cavernous, the caverns being filled in with recrystallized calcite and, less frequently, black bitumen. This portion of the Jurassic sequence is characterized by scant fossil remains. Only in borehole 3, in the Khwaja Gogerdak area, Upper Jurassic spore and pollen assemblage was found. This assemblage comprises mostly pollen remains of Classopollis sp., rare grains of Bennetites sp. and single grains of spores, Leitriletes. T.N. Kuznetsova believes that the spore and pollen assemblage from 2,394-2,395 m interval is of interest. It agrees well with the reference assemblage typical for the Callovian from the Gissar Ridge on the USSR territory; most of the pollen are Classopolites (90.7%). Among the spores Coniopteris, Cyatheaceal, Ophyeglassum sp., Anemia axilioden Bolkh were identified. In some localities the Callovian-Oxfordian limestones lie unconformably and with evidence of erosion immediately on Triassic beds (Alburs, Khwaja Gogerdak structures) or even on Paleozoic formation (Bayangor structure). Kimmeridgian -Tithonian Deposits that are tentatively assigned Kimmeridgian-Tithonian age have been penetrated by drill holes in Jarquduk, Khwaja Gogerdak, Yatim Tag, Ahss, Juma and other areas. They compose two conformable units: 154

a chemogenic salt-anhydrite-gypsum unit and a terrigenous sandy-argillaceous, red-coloured unit. In the USSR the former is known as the Gaurdak Formation and the latter as the Karabil Formation (73). Lower unit Lower Unit (504-551 m) consists of two parts of nearly equal thickness: gypsum and anhydrite beds at the base and salt-bearing beds on the top. The greatest thickness of the former is 253 m and that of the latter, 298 m Both parts were penetrated in the same section by drill holes in the Ahss and Juma structures, where their combined thickness is 551 m and 504 m respectively. In the Yatim Tag, Khwaja Gogerdak and Jarquduk areas drill holes have pierced through only gypsum and anhydrite beds. At the northern flank of the Khwaja Gogerdak fold drill hole No. 10 has penetrated a 40-meter bed of red-brown gypseous clay abundant in rock salt layers and inclusions. This bed occurs in the gypsum-anhydrite interval. In the Jarquduk area, drill holes Nos. 7, 9, 10, 11 and 14 have penetrated through a 10-15 m bed of chalk-like unconsolidated porous limestone at the top of the gypsum-anhydrite interval. Upper unit Upper unit (44-119 m) consists of varicoloured fine terrigenous deposits: silty clay with sandstone and siltstone partings at the base and siltstone, gravelstone and fine-grained sandstone with clay interbeds on the top. The thickness of the unit is 119 m in the Ahss, 76-115 m in the Yatim Tag, 5-81 m in the Khwaja Gogerdak and 0-44 m in the Jarquduk areas. The total thickness of the Upper Bathonian-Tithonian deposits in the unexposed areas concerned was found to be 731-1,116 m. Western part of the North Afghanistan Platform Deposits of Late Jurassic age are known in the extreme north-west of the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block. These are terrigenous rock types resting disconformably on Carboniferous-Triassic beds. These rock types are overlain unconformably by Lower Cretaceous deposits. Their thickness is 800 m. The section exposed at the southwestern side of the Syah Bobak Ridge, near the village of Kolotay is as follows (161):
1. 2. 3. Siltstone, green, argillaceous, enclosing remains of Callovian-Oxfordian pelecypods; Astarte (Coleastarte) ex gr. incerta Pcel., Entolium cf. ivanovi Pcel Clay, green-grey Sandstone, light green-grey with rare interbeds of clay and limestone. A limestone interbed 90 m above the base carried Callovian-Oxfordian pelecypods: Trigonia (T.) subpapilata Savel., T. (T.) rugosicostata Savel., Gervillia aviculoides Sow., Entolium demissum Phill., Lopha cf. gregaria Sow. Clay, green-grey Sandstone with clay and limestone interbeds 300 m 130 m 170 m

4. 5.

60 m 140 m

Bed 5 is overlain unconformably and with evidence of erosion by Lower Cretaceous deposits. The total thickness of the above section is 800 m. Beds 1-3 (600 m) are dated as Callovian-Oxfordian, while beds 4-5 (200 m) are unfossiliferous and therefore may be either Oxfordian or Kimmeridgian-Tithonian. To the east the discussed sequence is overlain by Sedimentary Cover of the North Afghanistan Platform, while in the western direction its outcrops broaden and continue, in the Iran part of the Kopet-Dag Ridge. Farah Rod Trough In this area Upper Jurassic deposits are singled out as the Shurbest Series which starts in the Harut Rod Zone a thick sequence of marine Upper Jurassic- Lower Cretaceous deposits (152). The series consists of grey, green-grey, and black bedded limestones and marls contaminated by terrigenous material and interbedded with calcareous shales, shales, siltstone and sandstones. The thickness of the rocks is roughly estimated to be 2,000-3,000 m Stratigraphic relations with the underlying beds are unknown. The rocks are overlain conformably by Berriasian-Valanginian terrigenous carbonate beds of the Petovzar Series. Brachiopod and pelecypod remains collected from the rocks are unidentifiable and the age of the rocks was inferred from their position in the sequence below fossiliferous Berriasian beds of the Petovzar Series. 155

Jurassic, undifferentiated
Undifferentiated Jurassic sequence is recognized in the Suleiman-Kirthar area, the Khost-Matun Ridge. The sequence includes also the so-called Tani beds (38, 198, 371). The sequence consists of dark-coloured shale with interbeds and lenses of sandstone and limestone. The sequence is 1,000-1,500 m thick. No identifiable fossils were encountered in the rocks and due to this fact they wore assigned tentatively Jurassic age. They overly Triassic beds without angular unconformity but with indications of erosion. The overlying beds were nowhere found. In the north-western part of the Katawaz Trough, the Lokhazor beds consisting of limestone, sandstone and shale are considered to be contemporaneous with the Tani beds but slightly different in facies (191). They are known still less than the Tani beds. No identifiable organic remains have been found in the rocks. They are assigned to the Jurassic with uncertainty. The rocks may be Permian-Triassic in some intervals.

Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous

This unit includes hardly distinguishable polyfacies marine volcanogenic-terrigenous and carbonateterrigenous rocks exposed in the South Afghanistan Median Mass and the Suleiman-Kirthar Folded Region (Figure 7).

South Afghanistan Median Mass In the South Afghanistan Median Mass, the undifferentiated Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sequence is exposed along the periphery of the Farah Rod Trough and within the Helmand-Argandab Uplift, where it consists of slightly metamorphosed fine terrigenous rocks with variable amount of acid and basic volcanics, chert, limestone and dolomite. The thickness of the rocks is 1,000-5,000 m. Stratigraphic relations with the underlying deposits are unknown. The rocks are overlain unconformably by Barremian-Aptian or younger beds. Organic remains are very scarce and usually poorly preserved. On the basis of the identified fossils and the position of the rocks in the sequence they are assumed to be of Tithonian-Hauterivian age. Farah Rod Trough In this area the undifferentiated Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sequence is most widespread underlying almost totally the Zuri and Khash Rod zones. The sections of the sequence in the two zones are somewhat different. Zuri Zone In this zone the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sequence is subdivided into two spatially isolated units, viz, the Pyrowali and Zuri series (143, 152). The relations between them are uncertain. Pyrowali Series (3,000-5,000 m thick) is found in the Kohe Bande Sehtegh, Kohe Gardana, Kohe-i-Ab Daru, Kohe Band-i-Bedak, Koh-i-Naspanj ridges and in the area of the Shayda. The series is subdivided into three units. The lower unit (1,500-2,000 m) consists of dark-coloured phyllite-like slate and siltstone with groups of beds and single beds of quartzitic and quartzo-feldspathic inequigranular sandstones and pelitomorphic limestone. There are occasional beds and lenses of gravelstone and small-pebble conglomerate. The rocks are highly schistose and chloritized, in places transformed to plicated argillaceous-carbonate-chlorite and argillaceouschloritic schists. The Middle Unit (500-2,000 m) consists of green-grey, white, red and lilac schistose quartz porphyry, dacite and quartz plagioporphyry. Apart from altered volcanics, this unit includes bands and single beds of dark phyllite-like slate, siltstone and some argillaceous-siliceous rocks and limestone. The Upper Unit (1,000 m) consists of monotonous black phyllite and siltstone with interbeds of quartzitic and quartzo-feldspathic sandstones. 156

The rocks of the series contain scant fossils. Only in one locality, at the south-western termination of the Kohe Sehtegh Ridge, at a 898-meter summit, some crinoid remains were found in striated limestone beds occurring in quartz-chlorite schist. They have not been identified yet. Spatially associated with the Pyrowali Series is a limestone, marble and dolomite sequence exposed in the Kohe Gardana Pyrowali, Kohe-i-Ab Daru and Koh-i-Naspanj ridges. The stratigraphic relation between them is unknown. The thickness of the sequence is 300-500 m. The rocks are unfossiliferous and are ascribed to this unit tentatively. Zuri Series (3,100 m thick) is exposed south of Qala-i-Mir Daod, west and east of the motor road linking Herat and Kandahar. The series consists of three conformable units. The lower Unit (2,000 m) is composed of black shale and siltstone inter-stratified with beds and lenses of limestone, chert, conglomerate, gravelstone, sandstone and volcanics. The predominant rocks are shale and siltstone (90-95%). Fossil remains were collected from the upper portion of the unit east of the village of Qula-i-Mir Daod, Where limestone beds occurring in shales contain corals, ammonites, pelecypods and gastropods. The corals are: Goniocora ex gr. pumila (Quenst.), Eugyra ex. gr. interrupta From., E. cf. cottwani From., Latusastreasa provinciales (Orb.), Stylina aff. elegans Eichw., S. porosa Eichw., Actinastraca sp., Meandrophyllia sp. Lower Hauterivian; the gastropods are: Itieria sp. Oxfordian-Valanginian. Ammonites found in the rocks are supposed by N.P. Luppov to resemble some of the Early Cretaceous genera ; they cannot be identified exactly due to poor preservation. Middle Unit (1,000 m) consists of greenstone-altered plagioporphyry, dacite, andesite and andesite-basalt porphyries and their tuff. Less common are rhyolite porphyry and its tuff. Upper Unit (100 m) is made up of black shale with 10 m of grey thick-bedded limestone enclosing coral remains. Khash Rod Zone Like in the Zuri Zone, the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sequence consists in this zone of two series (Nawzad and Alekoy). The relations between the series are not ascertained, though the Alekoy Series is believed to be younger than the Nawzad Series. Nawzad Series (1,000-1,500 m thick). In a type locality near the village of Nawzad the series consists of greenstone-altered anesite and diabase porphyries with interbeds and lenses of green-grey and black siltstone and phyllite-like slate, variegated flaggy chert and light-coloured thick-bedded and massive limestones bearing remains of Tithonian-Cenomanian Archimedia gastropods. Similar sediments occur northwestwards in a wedge-like belt in the area of the settlements of Farah, Khurmalaq, Sultane Bakwa, Gulestan, Khwaj Rauf and others. In the outcrops encountered these rocks always form lower horizons and compose the cores of anticlines. Alekoy Series (2,000-4,000 m) underlies most of the Khash Rod Zone. It consists of green-grey schistose calcareous and polymictic sandstones and siltstones with beds and lenses of limestone, marl, conglomerate, gravelstone and intermediate and basic volcanics. The relations between this series and the Nawzad Series are uncertain. No identifiable fossils were found. It is ascribed to Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous tentatively. Helmand-Argandab Uplift Undifferentiated Upper Jurassic - Lower Cretaceous sequence is recognized in the Kandahar Area (152). Like in the Farah Rod Trough, it consists there of terrigenous-volcanogenic rocks known as the Kanqala Series. The series was described by Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144). Two types of sections are distinguished: terrigenous-volcanogenic and volcanogenic. The former consists of irregularly interbedding quartzofeldspathic sandstones and siltstones with basic volcanics and limestone beds. The latter is composed predominantly of lavas of greenstone-altered basic volcanics inter-stratified by siliceous rocks. Both sections are capped by grey massive limestone. The thickness of the series is 922-1,050 m. The relations with the underlying rocks are unknown. The series is overlain unconformably by Barremian-Aptian beds. The first type section of the Kanqala Series was described from an area 8 km south of the Gafur Qola village, where the following beds are exposed (144): 157

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Sandstone, quartzo-feldspathic, interbedded with siltstone Spilite, green-grey, exhibiting a spheroidal parting Sandstone, quartzo-feldspathic, interbedded with siltstone, enclosing limestone lenses (up to 18 m) in the middle part Spilite, dark grey Sandstone, quartzo-feldspathic, interbedded with siltstone Keratophyre, lilac-grey, porphyraceous Sandstone, quartzo-feldspathic, interbedded with siltstone Diabase, green-grey Sandstone, quartzo-feldspathic, inter-bedded with siltstone and limestone Limestone, dark grey, massive

140 m 12 m 275 m 20 m 65 m 15 m 200 m 15 m 100 m 80 m

The thickness of the section is 922 m. The second, volcanogenic, type of the Kanqala Series was described from the south-western side of the Kanqala Ridge, where it consists of the following beds (144):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Hornblendic andesite lavas with tuff interlayers Chert with andesite tuff interlayers Hornblendic andesite lavas with tuff interlayers Chert, green and red, interbedded with tuff Andesite tuff Chert interbedded with andesite tuff Volcanic breccia of hornblendic andesite Diabase lava Albitophyre interbedded with hornblendic andesite tuff and lava Konga diabase, dark green, massive Albitophyre, light grey and green, quartzose Limestone, grey, massive 150 m 40 m 210 m 20 m 20 m 75 m 35 m 45 m 75 m 125 m 75 m 50 m

The thickness of the section is 1,050 m. The discussed types of the Kanqala rocks grade from one type to another along the strike. The vertical succession of the volcanic rocks is as follows: andesite volcanics are predominant at the base, basic lavas and cherts in the middle part and basic and acid lavas at the top. The total amount of the volcanics in the Kanqala Series is within 15-20%. Table 7
Oxide SiO2 TiO2 A12O3

Chemical composition of principal rock types of the Kanqala Series.

1 48.25 1.20 15.42 2 47.40 1.07 15.71 3 53.08 0.69 14.65 4 59.38 0.60 17.35 5 61.43 0.45 15.28 6 70.12 0.25 13.60 7 71.69 0.4.4 13.10 8 69.45 0.39 12.90

158

Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O H2O P2O5

3.35 7.42 0.18 6.50 10.28 2.72 0.60 0.29 0.13

2.34 7.34 0.25 7.25 9.69 1.93 1.00 0.11

1.00 6.66 0.34 2.21 7.76 4.00 2.50 0.19 0.14

1.40 4.68 0.14 3.06 5.82 3.00 1.50 0.23 0.16

1.40 1.19 0.07 0.91 5.82 7.20 0.60 0.24 0.08

1.62 3.48 0.08 1.10 0.40 5.80 0.96 0.20 0.15

3.46 1.00 0.10 1.17 1.49 3.53 2.14 0.17 0.10

2.33 2.12 0.14 2.60 1.33 4.20 1.50 -

loss on ignition Total

3.53 99.87

6.13 100.2

6.60 99.82

2.45 99.84

5.11 99.86

2.40 100.2

1.80 100.2

3.10 100.1

1 -spilite; 2 -diabase; 3 -albitized andesite; 4 -hornblendic porphyry; 5 -albitophyre; 6 -basoquartz keratophyre; 7 -quartz keratophyre; 8 -keratophyre. Rocks of the Kanqala Series are unfossiliferous and their age is uncertain. The series is overlain unconformably by Barremian beds hence its age is pre-Barremian. The lower stratigraphic boundary of the series is hard to determine so far even on the basis of its relationship with the older strata since the rocks underlying the series are unknown. Previously, it was dated as Lower Cretaceous on the assumption that volcanics from the Tarnak River drainage basin containing Barremian-Aptian ammonites are correlatable with the volcanics described in the series (144). Presently, these volcanites are known to be compositionally different and are believed to belong to a younger unit. So, the problem of the age of the Kanqala Series remains unsolved. It is not ruled out that the series represents volcanogenicterrigenous type of Triassic deposits like the Kataghay and Darwaza series. Based on the comparison with the Zuri Series, it is dated tentatively as Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous.

Suleiman-Kirthar Region Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sedimentary rocks are known in the northern part of the Katawaz Trough and in the Khost-Matun Uplift, yet their actual amount and extent, as well as their composition, succession, thickness and other features are still inadequately studied. Moreover, owing to the fact that the rocks contain very scant fossils and are geologically indistinguishable, they are nowhere reliably differentiated from the widespread and lithologically similar Permian-Triassic and Jurassic strata. In the areas east of the Altamur Ridge and south of the Spin Ghar Ridge, M. Kaeyer (191) distinguished the successive Rokyan and Horram beds in the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sequence of the Katawaz Trough. J. Bruggey (38) considered the Rokyan and Horram beds to be somewhat different in facies, yet more or less similar in age. The Horram beds occur in eastern areas and consist of grey and black distinctly bedded limestone and marl. The Rokyan beds are found in the west. These beds consist of limestone and marl similar to the above mentioned ones. The rocks alternate with shales. In addition, the authors mentioned cherts and volcanites of an ophiolite formation which have unrecognized relations with the Rokyan and Horram beds. The succession of the beds was not studied properly, and their thickness was roughly estimated to be 1,500 to 2,000 meters. The relationship between the Rokyan beds and the older formations (the Lokhazor beds of a tentative Jurassic age) seem to be conformable, while the relations to the Horram beds are variable. In the Arunkhel area, the Horram beds are reported to lie conformably on the Tani beds tentatively dated as Jurassic. North-West of Khost and south of Naray Kotal, different portions of the beds 159

having basal conglomerates with fragments and pebbles of metamorphic and altered ultrabasic rocks seem to occur transgressively on some metamorphic and igneous rock units. The Horram and Rokyan beds are overlain unconformably by Paleogene strata. The Rokyan and Horram beds have scarce organic remains which are represented by poorly preserved recrystallized foraminifers and algae placing the enclosing rocks into a broad age interval of Jurassic- Lower Cretaceous (191). These fossils are: Protpenoroblis striata Weynach., Trocholina sp., Paratrocholina sp., Clypeina sp., Actinoporella podolica (?) (Alth.), Muneria sp. J. Bruggey (58), however, reported Late Cretaceous Heterohelicidae and other foraminifera, identified by H. Hagn and H. Zigler and derived, as he claimed, from the Horram beds occurring near the Paywar, Shaydan, Arun Khel, Chamkani and other settlements. If no mistake was made in the identification, and the fossils were really collected from these beds, the topmost Horram beds are Upper Cretaceous. Later studies undertaken by I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (371) proved that the sediments included by M. Kaever (191) and J. Bruggey (38) into the Horram and Rokyan beds enclose remains of Permian and Triassic fauna in some localities. This suggests that the Horram and Rokyan beds represent a stratigraphically composite sequence rather than narrow units and deserve revision and differentiation into Permian, Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous beds.

Cretaceous
Cretaceous rocks are most widespread among the pre-Quaternary stratigraphic units of Afghanistan. They underlie many regions almost completely. They are classified into the Lower and Upper Cretaceous and Cretaceous undifferentiated (Sketch Map No. 7).

Lower Cretaceous
Lower Cretaceous sedimentary rocks occur in all the regions of Afghanistan. In the north of the country they are predominantly of continental origin much like the formations of the same age found in the southern regions of the USSR Middle Asia. In South Afghanistan they are mainly of marine origin and are similar to the contemporaneous formations occurring in the inner areas of the Mediterranean Fold Belt. The former are classified as undifferentiated deposits while the latter are tentatively divided into the Berriasian-Valanginian, Valanginian-Hauterivian, Barremian-Aptian, and Upper Aptian-Albian.

Berriasian-Valanginian Deposits of Berriasian-Valanginian age occur in the Farah Rod Trough and Helmand-Argandab Uplift. In the Farah Rod Trough, these are thick typically marine dark flysch-like formations and in the HelmandArgandab Uplift, relatively thin, possibly lagoonal-terrestrial, variegated beds. Farah Rod Trough In this area the Berriasian-Valanginian beds ref erred to as the Petawzar Series (101, 142, 153) are found in the Anardara and Harut Rod zones, where they compose a monotonous flysch-type sequence consisting of rhythmically or irregularly interbedding calcareous and polymictic sandstones, siltstone and argillites with interbeds and lenses of organic-detrital limestone and occasional interbeds and lenses of small-pebble conglomerate and gravelstone. This sequence is 2,000-3,000 m thick. It rests conformably on supposedly Upper Jurassic (Tithonian?) beds of the Shurbest Series and are overlain conformably by ValanginianHauterivian deposits of the Zardab Series. Fossil remains are abundant but poorly preserved. Identifiable remains of Berriasian pelecypods and brachiopods were collected only in two localities of topographic sheet 416-C (152). These are: Neithea simplex Mord V., Arcomytilus ex gr. couloni Marcou, Weberithyris moisseevi (Weber), Sallithyris gratianopolitensis Pict. Helmand-Argandab Uplift In this area Berriasian-Valanginian beds are found in the Tirin Fault Block, where they ore referred to as the Marhana Formation (206). The formation is divided into two members (152). The lower member consists of lilac-grey and dirty green medium-to fine-grained quartzo-feldspathic sandstones (170 m) followed by the 160

upper member (130 m) of lilac-grey gravelstone interbedded with sandstone and siltstone. The total thickness of the formation is 300 m. The rocks lie disconformably on the Middle-Upper Permian Sangesar Limestone and are overlain conformably by the Oruzgan Formation (206). The rocks of the formation are unfossiliferous and are dated as Berriasian-Valanginian tentatively, on the basis of their stratigraphic relationship with the fossiliferous Upper Jurassic beds of the Sangesar Formation.

Valanginian-Hauterivian Like the Berriasian-Valanginian, the Valanginian-Hauterivian sequence is exposed in the Farah Rod Trough and Helmand-Argandab Uplift. In the Farah Rod Trough, it consists of thick, dark-coloured marine flyschlike deposits and of comparatively thin, possibly lagoonal-terrestrial, variegated beds, in the HelmandArgandab Uplift. Farah Rod Trough In this area Valanginian-Hauterivian sedimentary rocks occur in the Anardara and Harut Rod zones, where they are known as the Zardab Series (143, 152). In the Taywara-Pasaband belt the lower beds of the series are referred to as the Panjshakh Formation and the upper as the Holmiran Formation (354). The Valanginian-Hauterivian sequence consists of flysch-like interbedding green-grey and grey sandstones, siltstone and argillites with limestone and marl beds and lenses. Sandstones, inequigranular, polymictic, quartzo -feldspathic, mostly calcareous, occur in beds varying in thickness from several centimeters to several dozens of meters. Siltstones form bands and single beds from several dozens of centimeters to several dozens of meters thick. Limestones, grey and brownish-grey, argillaceous and organic-detrital, occasionally oolitic, frequently sandy, grading to calcareous sandstones, occur in bands and single beds from dozens of centimeters to dozens of meters in thickness. Marls, usually grey and ruddy, contaminated by sandy-silty material, form beds and lenses from several meters to several dozens of meters thick. The total thickness of the Valanginian-Hauterivian sequence is 3,000 m. The rocks are abundant in fossils found mostly in the upper third of the section. In the outcrops near the village of Purchaman, at the northern side of the Kohe Khwaja Sarbur and Kohe Kabotari ridges and in other places the upper 500 m of the section carry remains of ammonites, pelecypods, brachiopods and urchins (152). The ammonites are: Neocomites sp. (N. aff. montanus Uhl.), Olsterella sp. the pelecypods are represented by: Panope cf. gurgites Brongn, Septifer lineatus Sow., Chlamys cf. goldfussi Desh., Ch. cf. robinaldinus Orb., Ch. interstriatus Leym., Ch. archiaci Orb., Neithea cf. daghestanica Renn., N. firuasensis Krimh., N. atava Roem., Plicatula carteroniana Orb., Astarte ex. gr. striatocostata Orb., Rhynchostreon cf. subsinuatum Leym. Exodyra ex gr. tuberculifera Koch. et Dunk., Lopha rectangularis Roem., Lima picteti Lor., L. neocomiensis Orb., L. royerianna Orb., L. ex gr. undata Desh., L. cf. paralella Sow., L. orbignyana Math., L. sanctaecrusis Pict. et Camp. Cardium cf. cottaldinum Orb., Grammatodon cf. securis Leym. var. minor Leym., Barbatia ex. gr. aptiensis Pict. et Camp. Pinna sulcifera Leym. P. robinaldina Orb., Modiolus aequalis Sow., Camptonectes cottaldinus Orb. C. arzirensis Lor. Prohinnites renevieri Coq., Spodylus royanus Orb., S. dutempleonus Orb. the brachiopods are: Tamarella tamarindus (Sow.), Sellithyris sella (Sow.), S. salevensis (Lor.), S. acuta (Quenst.), Cyclothyris julenia Owen, C. cf. renauxiana (Orb ). "Terebratula" moutaniana Orb., Cyrtothyris Xentugajensis (Moiss) the gastropods are: Tenagodos sp., Mitriomphalus ex. gr. alsus Orb. and the urchins are: Goniopygus peltatus (Ag.), Magnosia cf. pilos (Ag.), Hemipedina (?) sp., Toxaster ricordianus Cott., Rhabdocidaris sp. Most of the above forms are usually found in Neocomian-Aptian rocks, about half of them being found only in the Neocomian, some species indicating a more narrow age interval. In particular, ammonites collected from the sction near the village of Purchaman. 150-200 m below the top of the described sequence point to Late Valanginian-Early Hauterivian age of the enclosing rocks, according to N.P. Luppov. Thus the Zardab Formation as a whole is assumed to be of Valanginian-Hauterivian age. The Late Tithonian-Valanginian microfauna collected by the geologists of the German Geological Mission in the area to the north of the village of Pasaband is apparently from the base of the formation (437). It includes: Calpionella undelloides Colom, Calpionellites darderi (Colom), Calpionellopsis thalmanni (Colom), Stenosomellopsis hispanica 161

(Colom). The Hauterivian-Barremian foraminifera of Cuneolina composaurii Sart., C. laurentii Sort et Cresc. were collected 25 km south of the village of Pasaband from the top of the Zardob Series (437). Helmand-Argandab Uplift In this area Valanginian-Hauterivian beds are referred to as the Oruzgan Formation exposed in the Tirin Zone (206). The formation consists of monotonous dark grey and green-grey sandstones and siltstone. The thickness of the beds is 300 m. They rest conformably on the Marhana Formation of varicoloured rocks. The overlying beds were not encountered. Some fossils were found but all of poor preservation. The formation is supposed to be of Valanginian-Hauterivian age.

Barremian-Aptian Like the two previous units, the Barremian-Aptian beds were distinguished only in the Farah Rod Trough and Helmand-Argandab Uplift, where they consist of deposits of the Urgon facies which is represented there by two genetic types, carbonate and carbonate-terrigenous. Farah Rod Trough In this area, both types of Barremian-Aptian sedimentary rocks are present. They are wholly carbonate in the axial part of the trough, in the Harut Rod and Anordara zones, and carbonate-terrigenous at the periphery of the trough, as well as in the Zuri and Khash Rod zones. Harut Rod Zone In this area Barremian-Aptian sedimentary rocks are referred to as the Kalmashaw Series whose age was first assumed to be Aptian (143) and later found to be Early Barremian (152). However, the study of all the fossils collected from the series and the analysis of its geologic relations with the underlying and overlying beds enable one to date it as Barremian-Aptian, though devoid of the Upper Aptian topmost strata. The series consists of limestones including sandy-silty and marl interbeds at the base. The maximum thickness of the series is 1,000 m. It rests conformably on the Valanginian-Hauterivian (Zardab Series ) beds. Representative outcrops of the Kalmashaw Series are known from the Kohe Nowa, Kohe Kalmashaw, Kohe Panj Angosht, Shin Ghar, Kohe Khaja Satbur, Kohe Kaleran, Kohe Pire Jangi, Kohe Amarak, Kohe Mazar, Kohe Jangi Kala, Ghuka-i-Kolan and other ridges. The section compiled from these outcrops exhibits the following succession of beds (143, 152). The Valanginian-Hauterivian Zardab series is overlain conformably (on the northern slope of the Kohe Kalmashaw Ridge) by:
1. Limestones, grey, bedded and massive, lumpy, organic, partly reef, enclosing coral remains of the Holocystis genus. A 25-30-meter horizon of marls and lumpy argillaceous limestones with Neocomian Toxaster cf. neocomiensis Orb, urchins, and Lima ex gr. picteri Lor. pelecypods was distinguished in the middle of this interval at the southern slope of the Shin Char Ridge. An oyster bed with Exogyra sp. and Turkmenia sp. was found at the top of the bed at the southern side of the Shin Ghar Ridge. Mass accumulations of Monopleura, Tancasia rudist remains were observed in this bed at the northern side of the Kohe Khwaja Sarbur Ridge. The thickness of the bed varies from 80 m at the north side of the Kohe Kalmashaw to 300 m at the Kohe Khwaja Sarbur. Sandstones and siltstones, grey and green-grey, polymictic and calcareous, with limestone and marl interbeds, enclosing Early Barremian fossils represented by orbitolinids: Balkhania balkhanica Mamont., Orbitolina delicata Hens corals: Echydnophora picteti Koby; urchins: Heteraster sp., Pygurus sp., Codiopsis sp., Pygopyrina sp., brachiopods: Sellithtris cf. russilensis (Lor.). S. cf. salevensis (Lor.), Cyclothyris cf. gillieroni (Pict.), Cyrtothyris kentugajensis minor Lobatch.; pelecypods: Exogyra ex. gr. tuberculifera Koch. et Dunk., H. boussigaulti Orb., H. subsinuata Leym., Turkmenia balkhanensis Krimh., Neithea valangiensis Pict. et Camp., N. atava Roem., N. morrisi Pict. et Ren., Lima longa Roem., L. cottaldina Orb., Plicatula carteroniana Orb., Chlamys ex gr. robinaldina Orb, Ch. sanctaecrucis Pict. et raulinianus Orb., Spondylus complanatus Orb., S. ex gr. roemeri Desh. Lopha ex. gr. eos Coq, L. ex.gr. rectangularis Roem., Lithophaga oblonga Orb., Laternula astieriana Orb., Camptonectes cottaldinus Orb. In T.N. Bogdanova's opinion the bivalve assemblage is of a transitional Hauterivian-Barremian age, though the supposition of the Hauterivian age is contradicted here, like in the above beds by the abundance of 300 m

2.

162

orbitolinids that have been known so far to occur in such amounts only in Barremian and younger beds 3. Limestones, grey, thick-bedded, in places wholly orbitoidal, interbedded with sandy marls at the base, enclosing orbitolinids of Orbitolina cf. lenticularis (Blum.), Cyrothyris kentugajensis minor Lobatch brachiopods: Neithea morrisi Pict. et Ren., Turkmenia sp. pelecypods and Heteraster sp. urchins Reef limestones, white, bedded and massive, composed of lower Cretaceous rudistids of the Taucasia, Monopleura genera. An assemblage of Late Aptian rudistids represented by Horiopleura haydeni Douv., H. desio Ronch., Praeradiolites sp., was identified from these beds exposed in the Kohe Amarak and Kohe Mazar ridges Limestone, dark grey, argillaceous, interbedded with marls. Along the northern side of the Kohe Kalmashaw Ridge at the base of the limestone beds there occur calcareous gravelstone and small-pebble conglomerate followed by coquinoid limestone consisting of Turkmenia bivalves. The argillaceous limestone and marl interbeds bear Barremian-Aptian pelecypods Pholadomys cornueliana Orb., Neithea cf. quinquecostata Sow., Panope gurgites Brongh., P. plicata Sow., Modiolus ex. gr. reversus Sow., M. cf. aequalis Sow. Chlamys ex.gr. robinaldinus Orb., Lima cf. parallela Sow. Requenia cf. gryphoides Math. The rocks are also abundant in orbitolinids Sandstones, orange-coloured, bedded, in places cross-bedded, calcareous, grading to sandy limestone. All the beds are abundant in orbitlinids and pelecypods and in the area south of the village of Purchaman, in brachiopods and corals. The pelecypods are: Modiolus ex gr. aequalis Sow., Exogyra cx gr. tuberculifera Koch et Dunk., Chondrodonta sp., Turkmenia sp., Cyprina ex. gr. bernensis Leym. Pholadomya cornueliana Orb.; the brachiopods are: Sellithyris cf. salevensis (Lor.), Cyclothyris renauxiana (Orb.), C. gibbsiana (Sow.), C.(C.) gillieronii (Pict.), Trigonosemus (?) aff. arzierensis (Lor.), Praelongithyris praelongiforma Middl. the corals are: Actinastraca pseudominima (Koby) 300 m

4.

40 m

5.

20 m

6.

40 m

These are followed by conglomerate of Aptian-Albian age. The total thickness of the Kalmashaw Series in the above section is 760-1,000 m. The thickness of the series is almost the same everywhere. Anardara Zone Unlike in the Harut Rod Zone, a significant part of the Barremian-Aptian sequence consists of reefal limestones. Quartz sandstones, conglomerate and gravelstones occur at the base. The rocks rest conformably but with evidence of erosion on Valanginian-Hauterivian terrigenous deposits (the Anardara, Kohe Hazarate Sheykh, Mil Koh, Kohe Hoke Safed ridges). An erosional surface and angular unconformity are readily observed at the south-western part of the Pushte Sabz Ridge. The composite section of the Barremian-Aptian sequence in this zone has the following succession of beds (152). The Valanginian-Hauterivian strata are overlain disconformably by:
1. 2. 3. Sandstones, gravelstones and conglomerates, thick-bedded, in places cross-bedded, quartzitic Limestones, sandy, with quartz sandstone interbeds, enclosing Gorastreon minos Coq., Exogyra cf. turkmenica Lupp., E. cf. triangulata Mirkam., Lopha eos Coq. Limestone, argillaceous, grading to marl, enclosing Early Barremian ammonites: Astieridiscus cf. morleti Kilian brachiopods: Cyrtothyris Kentugajensis minor Lobatsch.; gastropods: Harpogodes cf. beaumonti Orb., H. ribeirci Choff.; pelecypods: Pinus robinaldina Orb., Chlamys goldfussi Desh. Exogyra tuberculifera Koch. et Dunk., Ceratostreon boussingaulti Orb., Lopha eos Coq., Anomys laevigata Sow., Opis neocomiensis Orb. vaz. oglanlensis Pcel. et Krimh., Pholadomya ex. gr. valangiensis Pict. et Camp., Camptonectes cottaldinus Orb., Lima cottaldina Orb., Lithophaga avellana (Orb.), Pterotrigonia caudata Ag., P. cf. eteridgei Lyc., P. cf. vectiana Lyc., Cyprimeria (Cyclorisma) cf. vectensis Forb., C. (C.) cf. parva Sow. Limestone, grey, thick-bedded Reef limestone, white Limestone, black and grey, bedded argillaceous, grading to marls. From this bed and from the top of the previous one abundant remains of Late Aptian rudistids were collected. These were identified as Eoradiolites cf. gilgitensis Douv., E. aff. davidsoni 100 m 50 m 50 m

4. 5. 6.

200 m 1,500 m 50 m

163

Hill., Sphaerulites cf. griesbachi Douv. gastropods, Diozoptyxis(?) sp. Gyrodes sp., Natica subconoidea Pcel. 7. Sandstone, variegated, calcareous, orbitoidal 50 m

These are followed with distinct evidence of erosion by Upper Aptian conglomerate. Beds 1-5 are reported from the Kohe Anardara and Kohe Safed ridges (the Chashma-i-Zamburak River valley), the top of bed 5 and bed 6, from the Mil Koh Ridge and bed 7, from the Kohe Qalata Ridge. The total thickness of the Barremian-Aptian in the Anardara Zone is 2,000 m. Zuri Zone As mentioned above, the Barremian-Aptian sequence consists in this zone of terrigenous rocks. The beds have been discovered only recently and hence are poorly studied so far. Their representative outcrops are found along the Karez-i-Chah Palosi River and thus have been given the name of the Palosi Series (157, 345). The series consists predominantly of fine terrigenous rocks with interbeds and lenses of gravelstone, conglomerate and limestone. The limestone is contaminated with terrigenous material, often clastic and partially reef. The thickness of the beds is 1,500 m. Their relations with the undifferentiated Upper JurassicLower Cretaceous strata are unknown. The succession of beds from the southern foothills of the Kohe Ghulanjy Ridge is as follows (152):
1. 2. 3. 4. Siltstones and shales, black and green-grey Limestone, dark grey, bedded, occasionally coquinoid Siltstone, dark-coloured, with limestone interbeds Limestone, detrital, conglomerate-like, grading to limestone conglomerate. The limestone, pebbles and cement are abundant in remains of rudistids, corals arid orbitolinids of Barremian-Aptian appearance Gravelstones, sandstones and conglomerates with siltstone interbeds and lenses Limestone, bedded, with quartz fragments and grains, enclosing orbitolinids Conglomerate, bedded, consolidated, inequipebble. Pebbles bear remains of orbitolinids, hydroids, crinoids and pelecypods Marl, sandy, with coral remains 100 m 100 m 500 m 100 m

5. 6. 7. 8.

500 m 40 m 30 m 100 m

The thickness of beds 1-8 is 1,470 m. The collection of corals, pelecypods and orbitoids obtained from the section has not been examined thoroughly so far, though the preliminary conclusion of experts is that the fauna is of Barremian-Aptian age. This conclusion served as the basis for dating the considered beds as Barremian-Aptian. Khash Rod Zone In this, like in the previous, zone the Barremian-Aptian deposits are represented by carbonate terrigenous facies. Their outcrops were identified by V.I. Dronov in 1969 in the Pushte Rod River basin and in the Novai-Kundalan area. In the former area the Barremian-Aptian beds are exposed near the villages of Aladol and Aspmurda where they form a flyschoid sequence consisting of polymictic sandstones and siltstone with beds and lenses of marl, gravelstone, conglomerate and detrital limestone. Remains of Barremian and Upper Barremian-Lower Aptian orbitolinids represented by Orbitolinopsis (?) sp., Melathrocerion sp., Dictioconus aff. arabicus Hens., Orbitolina cf. lenticularis (Blum.) were collected from marl beds and partings and from limestone pebbles of conglomerate in the upper third of the sequence. The exposed thickness of the beds is 500-800 m. The lower contact is not exposed. The beds are overlain transgressively by red-coloured conglomerate, sandstone and limestone of Late Aptian-Albian age (the Kayan Series). In the Nova-i-Kundalan area the Barremian-Aptian terrigenous deposits were encountered south-east of the Kohe-Hola-i-Sah Ridge, in the zone of the Alekoi Series occurrence. The rocks are polymictic and 164

calcareous sandstones, shales and siltstone enclosing remains of Barremian-Early Aptian Leptoceras sp. ammonites. There are also some beds and lenses of conglomerate. The thickness of the deposits and their relations with younger and older strata remain unknown. Helmand-Argandab Uplift In this area the Barremian-Aptian deposits are exposed along the south-eastern periphery of the uplift only. They are represented everywhere by a carbonate-terrigenous facies. They bear different names in different parts of the area: the Gulakhel, Anagay and Chagay formations. They were described by Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 217, 274) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). The formations consist of coarse and fine terrigenous rocks with beds and lenses of limestone. They rest disconformably on the underlying beds, the overlying rocks being absent. Gulakhel Formation Gulakhel Formation (450-855 m) is exposed along the south-eastern periphery of the Argandab Zone, to the north-west of the village of Mukur where it lies on the eroded surface of Triassic-Jurassic limestones; no overlying deposits are present. The section described from the outcrop 5 km south-west of the village of Gulakhel is as follows (144):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Conglomerate, varicoloured., small-pebble Sandstone, feldspar-quartzitic, interbedded with limestone and small-pebble conglomerate, enclosing gastropods Conglomerate, small-pebble Limestone, organic, interbedded with conglomerate Sandstones, feldspar-quartzitic and calcareous, with lenses of small-pebble conglomerate Sandstone, feldspar-quartzitic, with 10-15-meter beds of organic limestone: in the middle part thin lenticular beds of small-pebble conglomerates occur; 30 m above the base Early Cretaceous fossils were found. These are represented by Ceratostreon cf. boussingaulti Orb., Anomya cf. laevigata Sow pelecypods, Holaster (?) urchins and Upella tenuis Pcel. gastropods. In the middle part a Barremian ammonite of Barremites (Raspailiceras) ex gr. cobsida Orb. was found. 10 m below the top Early Cretaceous Nerinella ex. gr. dupiniana Orb. gastropods and Pterotrigonia ex. gr. vectiana Lyc., Cardium cf. raulihianum Orb. pelecypods were collected 65 m 235 m 75 m 50 m 145 m 285 m

Bed 6 ends the section of the Gulakhel Formation. The thickness of the formation is 855 m, in other places it reduces to 450 m. Apart from the fauna described in the section, other fossils were collected from other outcrops at different stratigraphic levels. 5 km east of the village of Gulakhel, 125 m above the base of the formation, Barremian foraminifera were collected: Balkhania balkhanica Mamont., Dictioconus arabicus Hens., Orbitolina cf. connicoformis Mamont. The Stylina regularis From., S. cf. esmuni Felix, Cyathophora ex. gr. minima Et., Pleurosmilia ex. gr. cradiniana Wells. corals collected from the same bed range in age from Tithonian to Cenomanian. Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous gastropods represented by Archimedia cf. oblonga Pcel., A. balkubensis Pcel., Salenia sp., Microschiza inflata (Orb.), Purpuroidea sp., were collected in the western part of the Bog-i-Ulhar-Sahed Ridge. Most of the listed fossils, particularly corals have a broad range of vertical distribution. For this reason dating of the enclosing rocks is based on the ammonites collected near the top of the formation and foraminifera obtained 125 m above its base. Both indicate the Barremian age of the enclosing rocks. Consequently, most of the Gulakhel Formation is Barremian and possibly Aptian at the very top. Anagay Formation Anagay Formation (351 m) is exposed in the Kandahar area north-east of the town of Kandahar. The Anagay Formation lies unconformably on various pre-Barremian beds and intrusions cutting them. The section near the village of Anagay is as follows (144). The Kanqala formation consisting of volcanic-terrigenous rocks is overlain disconformably by: 165

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Conglomerate with pebbles of Kanqala volcanics (80%), limestone, quartz and gabbroic rocks Limestone, massive, enclosing remains of Orbitolina sp. Sandstone, feldspar-quartzitic, calcareous, interbedded with organic limestones and bearing conglomerate lenses Limestone, sandy, with Cenomanian-Turonian pelecypods represented by Pterotrigonia cf. attenuata Lyc., Scabrotrigonia sp. Sandstone, brown, feldspar-quartzitic, interbedded with marl and conglomerate

18 m 75 m 175 m 8m 75 m

The thickness of beds 1-5 is 351 m. The facies of the beds are variable grading to one another along the strike, yet the section remains generally the same. In addition to the mentioned fossils, the lower beds of the formation wore found to carry Balkhania sp. foraminifera, Diozoptixis renauxi Orb. gastropods, Protocardia aff. sphaeroidea Forb pelecypods and Pleurosmilia cf. cradiniana Wells corals. The middle of the formation encloses Isognonon ricordianus Orb., Neithea quinquecostata Sow., N. stava Roem pelecypods. Scabrotrigonia scabra Lam. pelecypods were collected from the upper beds. Aptian microfaunas represented by Dasycladaceen, Spirocyclina choffati ?Mun.-Chalm., Orbitolina bulgarica (Desh.), O. discoidea Gras, Edomia reicheli Hens. Pseudostaffella gigantica Kaev. (438) is known from this formation, though it is uncertain from which part of the section. Most of the listed fossils are known from the Barremian and Barremian-Aptian age intervals. Only some of the forms indicate a younger age of some beds locally Albian-Cenomanian corals and pelecypods are found together with Barremian (Balkhania) foraminifera below beds enclosing Barremian-Aptian fossils. Bearing in mind the uncertainty of the biochrones of some species from Afghanistan, the Anagay Formation is only tentatively assumed to be Barremian-Aptian in age. Chagay Formation Chagay Formation (1,373 m) is exposed in the extreme south-eastern part of the Argandab Zone, in the BogGhar massif. Like the two former formations, it consists of variable facies, represented predominantly by terrigenous deposits 30% of which are conglomerates. The section of the formation from the south-eastern side of the Chagay Mountain exhibits the following succession of beds (144). Limestones of Carnian-Norian age are overlain disconformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Conglomerate, red-coloured, interbedded with feldspar-quartzitic sandstone Marl, light grey Conglomerates, deep red, small-pebble Limestone, bedded, organic, with gravelstone lenses and remains of Orbitolina sp. Conglomerate similar to that in bed Limestones, massive on the top, thin-bedded at the base Interbedding of sandstone, marl and conglomerate Conglomerate, inequipebble, with limestone interbeds Interbedding of marl, inequipebble conglomerate, calcareous limestone and organic limestone 500 m 8m 20 m 165 m 45 m 70 m 45 m 120 m 350 m

The thickness of beds 1-9 is 1,373 m. Fossils were found only in bed 4. They indicate a BarremianCenomanian age interval. Poorly preserved rudistids of the Apricardia genus were collected at the northern side of the Chagay Mountain, 125 m above the formation base. Six km east of the village of Tangay, 80 m above the base a limestone bed was found to enclose Felixigyra ex gr. duncani Prey. Cyathophora cf. tuschensis From., Hydrophora ex gr. multilamelosa Reuss. Clausatstraea ex. gr. neuvicensis Alloiteau corals. The coral assemblage is contradictory for it includes fossils of different ages. The first species is known from 166

the Barremian-Aptian, the second from the Upper Cretaceous, the third from the Turonian and the fourth from the Maastrichtian. Almost all of them are marked by ex gr. being newly identified species which cannot serve as the basis for exact age determination. Therefore they can be used for dating the enclosing rocks with great caution. 11 km south of the village of Shah Karez, about 625 m above the base of the formation, remains of rudistids of the Eoradiolites and Apricardia genera were found. In N.N. Bobkova's opinion the Apricardia rudistids resemble in appearance the Cenomanian forms from Central Asia. By analogy with the Gulakhel and Anagay formations, the Chagay Formation was assigned Barremian-Aptian age.

Upper Aptian-Albian Deposits of this age occur in the South Afghanistan Median Mass and in the Region of Alpine Folding.

South-Afghanistan Median Mass In this area, Upper Aptian-Albian deposits were found in all the zones of the Farah Rod Trough and in some zones of the Helmand-Argandab Uplift. The lithological composition of the sequence varies from zone to zone. Farah Rod Trough Outcrops of Upper Aptian-Albian deposits confined to the core parts of some synclines occur sporadically over the area. The Upper Aptian-Albian sequence consists in the lower part of red conglomerate which locally includes beds and lenses of intermediate to basic volcanics. The middle portion of the sequence consists of sandstone interbedded with limestone and marl. The upper portion of the section is made up of white and grey limestones. In the Harut Rod and Anardara zones, the sequence overlies the Barremian-Aptian beds with distinct evidence of erosion but without an angular unconformity. In the Zuri and Khash Rod zones, it rests on various beds of the pre-Upper Aptian and older beds with angular unconformity. Harut Rod Zone In this zone deposits of Late Aptian-Albian age are referred to as the Panj-Angosht Series (143, 152) which was earlier dated as Albian (143) and later, as Upper Barremian-Aptian (152). The study of the fossils collected in the deposits of the series and the analysis of the relations with the underlying strata make it possible to date the series as Upper Aptian ; the topmost beds may be Albian. The representative outcrops are known from the Kohe Nawa, Kohe Panj Angosht, Kohe Kalmashaw, Kohe Amarak, Kohe Mazar and other places. The series consists everywhere of three units. The composite section is as follows. In the Panj Angosht and Kohe Kalmashaw ridges, the Barremian-Aptian beds are overlain disconformably by:
1. Conglomerates, red-coloured, inequipebble and boulder. The pebbles and boulders are predominantly sandstones and limestones from the underlying beds enclosing remains of orbitolinids, rudistids and other forms Sandstones and siltstone, varicoloured, polymictic, calcareous, topped by a 20-meter bed of lumpy organic limestone. The rocks enclose remains of diversified fauna of pelecypods: Neithea morrisi Pict. et Ren., Lima ex gr. parallela Sow., L. orbignyana Math., Ezogyra tuberculifera Koch et Dunk., Astarte cf. gigantes Orb., Actostreon ex. gr. latissimum Lam., Modiolus aequalis aequalve brachiopods: Cyrtothyris kentugajensis minor Lobatach., C. pseudosella Lobatach., Cyolothyris gibbsiana (Sow.), Sellithyris salevensis (Lor.) gastropods: Neoptyxis ex gr. astrachanica (Rebin.), Trochoptygmatis cf. galatea Coq., Salenia sp.; foraminifera, Orbitolina sp. Limestone, white, interbedded with calcareous shale and marl. The Limestone carries abundant rudistids; the shales and marls enclose orbitolinids. The rudistids are: Horiopleura desioi Ronch., H. haydeny Douv., Eoradiolites gilgitensis Douv., E. aff. davidsoni Hill, Praeradiolites cf. ibizianus Astre, Sphaerulites sp. the orbitolinids are: Orbitolina cf. concava (Lam.) 0.5-100 m

2.

50-100 m

3.

200 m

The thickness of the Panj-Angosht Series in this section is 400 m. The rudistids collected from the limestones indicate Late Aptian age of the upper beds, and Orbitolina cf. concava is known outside of Afghanistan only 167

from Albian-Cenomanian beds, as concluded by E.V. Mamontova. Besides, there are indications in the literature (438) on the findings of Late Barremian-Aptian Orbitolina discoidea together with Orbitolina concava. This assemblage of Late Barremian-Aptian, Late Aptian and Albian-Cenomanian forms suggests Late Aptian-Albian age of the upper limestone strata of the Panj-Angosht Series. The fossils collected from the middle portion of the Panj-Angosht Series are predominantly BarremianAptian. They do not contradict the Late Aptian age of this interval with the exception of the Turkmenia genus that has been so far known from the Hauterivian-Barremian. The biochrone of this genera should be, obviously, extended. East of the outcrops described in the same ridge (the Warkash area) the Panj-Angosht Series was referred to by G.A. Orlov as the Warkash Unit (354), which was subdivided into two parts (358). The lower part (150-400 m) consists of red-coloured conglomerate and sandstone interbedded with oolitic and detrital limestones. The upper part (350 m) consists of bedded limestone. The strata were first assigned Late Lower Cretaceous to early Upper Cretaceous age and later were classified as Upper Cretaceous. No identifiable index fossils were found in the rocks. Identification of Hippurites and Biradiolites reported in the literature is of a preliminary nature and cannot be used as an evidence for dating the Unit. By analogy with the Panj-Angosht Series which is its absolute facies analogue, the age of the Warkash unit is assumed to be Late Aptian-Albian. Anardara Zone In this zone deposits of Late Aptian-Albian age form small outcrops in the cores of synclines. At the Kohe Qalata 1,170-meter summit the Aptian sandstones are overlain disconformably by the following beds (152):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Conglomerate, red, inequipebble Basalt porphyry Conglomerate, red, inequipebble, cross-bedded, with sandstone lenses. The conglomerate lies disconformably on the underlying beds and encloses pebbles of bed 2 porphyry Basalt porphyry, tuff, tuff conglomerate and volcanomictic sandstone of green colour Limestone, bedded, with chert nodules. A 15-20 m bed of thin-bedded argillaceous limestones and marls occurs at the base. The rocks are abundant in Late Aptian rudistids: Sphaerulites aff griesbachi, Douv., Eoradiolites ex gr. davidsoni Hill, Horiopleura sp. The rudistids occur together with orbitolinids. The following species were identified among the orbitolinids by paleontologists of the German Geological Mission: Orbitolina concava (Lam.), O. cocava gatarica Hens., O. discoidea Gres, O. conica Lam. They believe that this assemblage of orbitolinids is Cenomanian but the presence of such Barremian-Aptian orbitoids as O. discoidea and O. conica suggests that the age of this assemblage and hence the age of the enclosing rocks in Late Aptian. The topmost beds are possibly Albian. 20 m 20 m 10 m 40 m 150 m.

No overlying beds were encountered. The thickness of beds 1-5 in the above section is 240 m. Zuri Zone In this zone deposits of Late Aptian-Albian age occur at a 1,248 m summit situated south of the Kohe Ghulanjy (152). Like in the Farah Rod Trough, the sequence is separable into three parts. The lower part (100 m) is composed of red inequipebble conglomerate with pebbles represented predominantly by Cretaceous rocks, orbitolina- and rudistid bearing limestones, sandstones and siltstones. The middle part (20 m) consists of red calcareous sandstone and siltstone abundant in orbitolinids. Upper part of the section (20 m) is built up of white thick-bedded limestone enclosing abundant Late Aptian rudistids: Horiopleura cf. hayden Douv., Eoradiclites aff. davidsoni Hill, Sphaerulites cf. griesbachi Douv. The thickness of the deposits in this section is 140 m.

168

Khash Rod Zone In this zone the Upper Aptian-Albian sequence is referred to as the Kayan Series (142). In the Kayan type locality the rocks compose the Kohe Towa -Kohe Mazar mountain massif. This was located and studied by V.I. Dronov. In the maps compiled by the German Geological Mission (439) it is shown as a granitoid massif of indefinite age. At the northern side of the Kohe Mazar Ridge the terrigenous strata of Barremian-Aptian age are overlain disconformably by the following Upper Aptian-Albian beds (152):
1. Conglomerate and sandstone, red at the base, green-grey on the top 100 m

To the east, near the villages of Khokrez and Pushte Rod, associated with the conglomerate is a 50-100-meter unit of anygdaloidal andesite porphyry. The position of this unit in the section remains uncertain, though a possibility is not ruled out that the unit is a basal one being a contemporaneous analogue of the volcanics from the Anardara Zone.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Sandstone, green-grey, enclosing remains of Orbitolina concava (Lam.) Limestone bearing Orbitolina cf. concava (Lam.) Sandstone, green-grey, enclosing orbitolinids Limestone with coral fossils Sandstone, calcareous, with orbitolinids Limestone, sandy with hydroids and corals Sandstone, grey, calcareous, with orbitolinids Limestone, sandy, organic Sandstone, green-grey, calcareous Limestone, lumpy, with corals Sandstone, calcareous with orbitolinids Limestone with Aptian Eugyra pusila Koby corals Limestone, light-coloured, thick-bedded, with abundant rudistids 62 m 2m 11 m 6.5 m 1m 4m 1m 0.2 m 0.4 m 0.4 m 1.5 m 0.5 m 300 m

These are followed by disconformable Upper Cretaceous red beds of the Pushte Rod Series. The thickness of beds 1-14 in the above section is 495 m. Bed 1 (100 m) represents the lowermost basal part, beds 2-13 (95 m) the middle part, and bed 14 (300 m) makes up the upper part of the Kayan Series. The lower part is unfossiliferous while the upper is abundant in orbitolinids and rudistids. The orbitolinids and corals collected from the middle part suggest different ages of the enclosing rocks: the orbitolinids point to the Albian-Cenomanian, while the corals, though occurring above the orbitolinoid horizon, indicate Aptian age. Taking into account the identifications of the corals, the age of the Kayan Series as a whole is assumed to be Late Aptian-Albian. The succession of beds, lithology and age of the rocks suggest that the series is absolutely analogous to the Panj-Angosht Series from the Harut Rod Zone (143, 152). In the middle course of the Khash Rod River, in belt including the Kohe Khwaja Rauf, Kohe Sakkushta ridges and the Nawa-i-Kundalan and Rod-i-Qarajagal river basins the lower and middle parts of the Kayan Series were classified by G.A. Orlov as an independent Abparan Formation (358). The section of the formation described from the northern side of the Kohe Rauf Ridge is as follows:
1. 2. 3. Conglomerate, inequipebble; pebbles consist of Cretaceous limestone (60%) and sandstone (20%) and of lithoclastic tuff Conglomerate, inequipebble, interstratified with coarse-grained sandstone Sandstone, coarse-grained, polymictic 1,000 m 120 m 30 m

169

4. 5.

Conglomerate similar to that in bed 2 Sandstones, inequigranular, polymictic and calcareous with lenses of conglomerate and interlayers of sandy limestone and marl. The upper layers bear orbitolinids

25 m 512 m

The thickness of beds 1-5 is 1,687 m. Beds 1-4 (1,175 m) correspond to the lower conglomeratic part, and bed 5 (512 m), the middle sandstone part of the Kayan Series. The rocks contain Albian-Cenomanian foraminifera: Ammobaculites coprolitiformis Schw., Orbitolina cf. concava (Lam.), O. cf. texans aperta (Erman) (438). Bearing in mind than Orbitolina cf. concava is known from the Kayan Series, and taking into consideration the lithologic affinity, the Abparan Formation may be regarded as a facies and stratigraphic equivalent of the lower and middle parts of the Kayan Series. Helmand-Agrandab Uplift Deposits of Late Aptian-Albian age occur in the Bashlang and Waraz fault blocks where they compose the cores of narrow extensive graben-synclines. Like in the Farah Rod Trough, the Upper Aptian-Albian sequence consists of three parts: varicoloured basal conglomerate representing the lower part, grey and green sandstones with organic limestone (the middle part), and dark and light grey limestones, occasionally reefaceous composing the upper part. The rocks rest strongly unconformably on Precambrian gneiss or crystalline schist. No overlying beds were encountered in this area. In the Bashlang Ridge, the Upper Aptian-Albian beds occur in a narrow belt extended along the border of the Khash Rod Zone. Near the village of Bashlang the Proterozoic gneiss is overlain unconformably by the following beds (152)
1. 2. Conglomerate, brown, small-pebble, interstratified with quartz sandstone and gravelstone Sandstones, grey and brown, quartzo-feldspathic, calcareous, interbedded with gravelstone and limestone which contain remains of Early Cretaceous fauna represented by Diozoptyxis sp. gastropods, Cardium cf. alternatum Orb. pelecypods, and Summigaraea concentrica All., Polytremacis cf. urgonensis Koby corals Limestone, dark grey, bearing remains of Albian-Cenomanian rudistids of Eoradiolites luratus Conrad. From the same limestone, south of the described outcrop the following Aptian-Cenomanian micro and macrofossils were reported (438): Dictyoconus sp., Orbitolina discoidea Gras, O. concava (Lam.), Cuneolina pavonica parva Hens., Globotruncana cf. renzi Gandolfi foraminifera and Eoradiolites cf. triangularis Orb. rudistids 7m 200 m

3.

700 m

The thickness of beds 1-3 is 907 m. Like in many other Cretaceous sections of Central Afghanistan, the fossil remains manifest a wide range of ages making the exact dating difficult. The Late Aptian-Albian age was assigned to the strata tentatively on the basis of their affinity with the similar Panj-Angosht and Kayan series exposed in the Farah Rod Trough, where they bear a similar forminifera assemblage, in particular Orbitolina concave, O. discoides and others.

Afghanistan-East Iran Region Upper Aptian-Albian deposits occur within the Kishmaran Uplift. In the Choi Gardana River drainage area, they are known as the Shahobuddin Series (254). The series is strongly unconformable on the Lower-Middle Jurassic dark sandstone and shale (Kishmaran Series) and is overlain disconformably by Campanian light limestones (Nayek Series). The section of the Shahobuddin Series consists of the following beds (152)
1. 2. Sandstones and siltstone dark red, parallel-and cross-bedded Conglomerate, pale-red, inequipebble, having obscure relationship to redstone-altered andesite-basalt 1,000 m 100 m

170

3. 4.

Sandstone, dark red, calcareous, abundant in remains of Aptian orbitolinids and Dioplysis ex gr.luttickei Blank gastropods Limestone, light, lumpy, organic, almost wholly consisting or remains of Late Aptian orbitolinids rudistida and gastropods. The rudistids are identified as Horiopleura haydeni Douv., Monopleura aff. imbricata Math., Eoradillites sp., Sphaerulites griesbachi Douv., and gastropods are: Sculptures sp., Diozoptyxis sp.

20 m 30 m

The beds are 1,150 meters in thickness. Suleiman-Kirthar Area. Upper Aptian-Albian deposits are known in the north of the Katawaz Trough, in an area of Alikhel and Zundikhel villages, where they constitute an argillite sequence interbedded with chert and limestone (193, 289, 393). Aptian-Albian orbitolinids of Orbitolina cf. curdica Hens., O. cf. discoides Gras. and others were identified. The thickness of the rock sequence and its stratigraphic position in the Katawaz Trough are unknown.

Lower Cretaceous, undifferentiated

This unit includes terrestrial, lagoonal-terrestrial and nearshore marine, coarse-and fine -terrigenous rock types occurring within the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region and The North Afghanistan Platform.

Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region Undifferentiated Lower Cretaceous sequence outcrops in the Hazrat-Sultan Zone. As reported by I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154), the sequence can be subdivided into three parts. The lower 400 meters and the upper 200 meters of the sequence are composed of variegated siltstone and sandstones. The middle part (1,000 m) is made up of red conglomerate interbedded with sandstone and siltstone. The sequence lies unconformably on Middle Paleozoic strata the overlying rocks are missing. The extension of the sequence in the USSR are red beds of Middle Pamir (73, 272).

North Afghanistan Platform Lower Cretaceous sequence outcrops in the southern mountainous part of the platform from beneath younger rock units in the cores of anticlines and in deeply incised valleys. Besides, it was penetrated by drill holes at various depths at the northern foothills and plains of the platform. The sequence is subdivided tentatively into the Neocomian-Lower Aptian and Upper Aptian-Albian units (161). A direct extension of the sequence on the USSR territory are the counterpart lower Cretaceous beds of South Turkmenia and South-West Tajikistan.

Neocomian-Lower Aptian This unit comprises varicoloured, in the south of the platform continental and in the north mixed, continental and marine, deposits lying at the base of the Cretaceous. In the mountainous areas of the platform they are referred to as the Red Grit Series of "red-coloured coarse-grained sandstones" (165, 166, 178). The series consists of irregularly interbedding sandstones, siltstones, clays, conglomerates and gravestones. In the southern part of the platform the series consists essentially of conglomerates and gravestones, whereas in its northern part fine terrigenous rocks are predominant. These are represented by limestones, dolomites, gypsum and anhydrite and occur at different stratigraphic levels. The relations of the series concerned with the underlying and overlying deposits vary from place to place. In the south, the rocks lie unconformably on various pre-Cretaceous strata, and in the north they occur conformably, locally with evidence of erosion, on the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian beds. The relations of the series with the overlying deposits are also different. In the south it is overlain unconformably by various beds 171

of the Upper Aptian-Maastrichtian, while in the north, conformably or with some indications of erosion, by Upper Aptian beds. The thickness of the series varies from zero to 1,000 m. The eastern part of Maymana Fault Block and the Pule Khumri Area The most comprehensive information on the Neocomian-Lower Aptian deposits exposed in this region is available in the reports by G.N. Khatiskatsi et al. (217), K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350) and V.I. Bratash et al. (161). The Neocomian-Lower Aptian type section was described 5 km south-east of Pule Khumri (217), where Proterozoic crystalline schists are overlain unconformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Sandstone with conglomerate lenses Conglomerates, brown, small-to medium- pebble Dolomite, light brown, brecciated Conglomerate, brown, small-pebble Limestone, dolomitic Conglomerate, brown, small-pebble Clays, light brown and green 33 m 3.4 m 3.5 m 3m 8.5 m 2.2 m 16.4 m

These are followed by disconformable Upper Aptian-Albian limestones. The thickness of beds 1-7 is 70 m. In the area 1.5 km north of the Karkar mine (244) the eroded surface of Kimmeridgian-Tithonian beds is overlain by
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Sandstones, grey and brown, calcareous, with beds and lenses of conglomerate and gravelstone Clay, brown, silty, calcareous Sandstone, calcareous Clay, brown, silty Sandstone, light blue, inequigranular calcareous Conglomerate, brown, small-pebble Sandstone, bluish-grey, calcareous Conglomerates with lenses of calcareous sandstone Sandstone, varicoloured, polymictic, calcareous Conglomerate with lenses or polymictic sandstone Siltstone, brown, calcareous Conglomerate, bluish-grey, small-pebble Siltstone, brown 26 m 2.5 m 12 m 5.5 m 11.5 m 4.5 m 17 m 70 m 36.5 m 20 m 2.5 m 12.5 m 16 m

The eroded surface of bed 13 is overlain by Upper Aptian-Albian deposits. The thickness of beds 1-13 is 232.5 m. In the east of the Maymana Fault Block, the unit consists of the same rock types, its thickness varying from place to place: 1,026 m at the Eshpushta coal deposit, 120-170 m in the Sayghan River valley, 200-300 m in the area 5 km north of the Dahane Tor deposit, 167 m in the Chordeh River valley, 304 m in the locality 6 km south-west of tub previous place, 600 m at the right-hand bank of the Awhorak River, 148 m east of the village of Qalagay, 40 m north of the Syahdara River sources and 15-20 m 6 km south-west of the village of Doab. 172

No fossils were found in the outcropping rocks. The Neocomian-Early Aptian age was assigned to the discussed deposits on the basis of their position between the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian and fossiliferous Upper Aptian-Albian beds. Kohe Alburz-Shadyan and Karabatur-Kartaw Mountains. In this region the Neocomian-Lower Aptian beds are exposed in the cores of anticlines, where they form a sequence of irregularly alternating red-brown and varicoloured clays, siltstones and sandstones with rare interbeds and members of conglomerate and gravelstone. Gypsum and anhydrite were reported from the base and top of the section (217). The underlying rocks are not exposed. The beds are overlain conformably by the Upper Aptian-Albian beds. The thickness of the sequence in the Koh-i-Alburs-Shadyan Ridge is 424 m, that in the Qarabator-Kartaw Ridge is 657 m. The deposits contain Exogyra sp. (E. aff. turkmenica Lupp.), Liostrea sp., Panope sp. pelecypods. Unexposed areas of the platform [Footnote: Materials on the unexposed areas have been contributed by V.I. Savchenko.] Within the territory including the foothills and plains of North Afghanistan the Neocomian-Lower Aptian sequence was penetrated by boreholes at various depths. In the course of oil and gas exploration it was subdivided into stages and the electric logging data permit subdividing the sequence into horizons of different conductivity. The boundaries between the stages and horizons are not strictly fixed, being drawn tentatively on the basis of drilling data, hence in various areas these boundaries may occur at different stratigraphic levels.

Berriasian and Valanginian The Berriasian and Valanginian stages are represented by red sandstones, siltstone and clays with interlayers and lenses of conglomerate. The lower portion of the section consists predominantly of sandstones and conglomerate, while the upper portion is made up of clays and siltstones. From the north to the south and from the west to the east the amount of sandy-silty rocks in the section increases. Porosity varies from 2.59% (at Jarquduk) to 22.24% (at Angot). The rock types exhibit a wide range of permeability: in the Angot area (borehole 9) the permeability amounts to 242.9 millidarcy, in the Khwaja Bulan area the rocks are practically impermeable. The rocks contain scarce fossil remains. A spore and pollen assemblage was obtained from boreholes 1 and 8 at Khwaja-Gogerdak area. The most abundant is gymnosperm pollen of Ginkgo, 20%; Classopolis, 11%; Bennetites, 4%; Cicadeoidea, 3%; Cupressaceae, 30%; Podozamites, 4%; Ephedra, 3%; Psophosphaereagga relloides Hal., 13%. This assemblage is compatible with the reference assemblages of the Valanginian and Berriasian from the North Caucasus. The thickness of the rocks varies from 45-52 m in the Bayangor area to 90-111 m within the Angot area. In the Maymana Uplift and in the south of the Sangoharak-Dawlatabad Trough the Berriasian and Valanginian deposits are absent.

Hauterivian stage The Hauterivian stage is known as the major oil- and gas-bearing formation of North Afghanistan. Its relations with the underlying and overlying beds are conformable with the exception of the Maymana Uplift and the Hanaka area, where Hauterivian deposits rest unconformably on the pre-Cretaceous beds. Three rock units are distinguished in the section. The lower unit consists of red-coloured, fine-to medium-grained, feldspar-quartzose sandstones with pyrite inclusions and siltstone and clay partings. The middle unit is an alteration of red-coloured sandstones, clays and siltstones. The sandstones are fine-and medium-grained, calcareous and argillaceous, occasionally pyritized. Clays are micaceous, silty, locally sandy. The upper unit consists of brown and green-grey micaceous siltstones and clay. South-eastwards the rocks become coarser, and at the Angot, Sheram, Kariz, Sawzma-Qala, Arabbay and other anticlines the upper Hauterivian unit is not distinguishable into a separate sequence. A characteristic feature of the Hauterivian sequence is the variation in its lithology and other properties in the direction from the south to the north. The amount of coarse-grained sandstone is 3-5% almost everywhere except the Jarquduk, Ahss, Juma and Jangale-Kolon anticlines. In the southern part of the territory, the 173

sequence comprises 35-40% of medium-grained sandstone and 32-35% of fine-grained sandstone. Northwards the percentage of fine-grained sandstone increases reaching 60-63% at the Ahss and Juma anticlines. The amount of siltstones is 10-15% almost everywhere. The percentage of clays increases northwards from 25% at the Angot area to 45% at the Ahss and Juma anticlines. Open porosity of the rocks decreases in the same direction, In the south, at the Hanaka, Angot and Kariz anticlines, the average open porosity is 17.1-21.2%, while in the north, in Khwaja Gogerdak, Yatim-Tag and Jarquduk, it drops to 1416%. Further northwards, in Jangale-Kolon, porosity drops to 12.7%. Permeability, as a function of granularity and porosity, is 104 millidarcy in Angot, 86 in Khwaja-Gogerdak, 164 in Koh-i-Alburs and 57 millidarcy in Jarquduk. The thickness of the Hauterivian sequence varies from 109 m in Koh-i-Alburs to 187 m in Arabbay. Hauterivian deposits are absent in the Khwaja-Qol and Jekdalek areas. The deposits contain scarce fossils. In borehole 12 drilled at the Angot anticline, the beds of the middle unit enclose remains of Hauterivian foraminifera Hedbergella aff. hoterivica Subb., H. infracretacea Glassn. The spore and pollen assemblages identified from boreholes 2, 6, 8, 13 and 30 at the Khwaja-Gogerdak anticline are similar to the Hauterivian assemblages from the Soviet Central Asia. The dominant spores are those of the Schizae genus, the representatives of the Anemia and Pellettiera genera being subordinate. Most common pollen forms are those of Classopolis and Podozamites.

Barremian-Lower Aptian Barremian-Lower Aptian beds are more abundant here than Hauterivian. They rest conformably on the Hauterivian beds. In places where Hauterivian beds are missing, they lie unconformably on pre-Cretaceous beds (Jekdalek area.). The sequence is subdivided into two parts. The lower part consists of grey and pinkishwhite thick-bedded fractured limestones interbedded with red and green-grey calcareous clays with anhydrite lenses. Early Barremian microfossils were recovered from this part of the section in borehole 3 drilled at the Koh-i-Alburs area. These are: Giromorphina aff. allomopphinoides Reuss, Hedbergella infracretacea Glassn., H. globigerinellinoides Glassn. Discorbis baremicus Mjatl. The upper part consists of green-grey and red calcareous clays with anhydrite inclusions and grey calcareous siltstone interbeds. Porosity varies from 4.32% in Jarquduk to 20.36% in Khwaja Bulan and permeability from 10.3 millidarcy in Khwaja Bulan to zero in most of the anticlines. The thickness of the Barremian-Lower Aptian deposits is 120 m in Ahss, 44 m in Awdan, 31-68 m in AllMogol and 175 m in Mohammad Jandaghar area.

Upper Aptian-Albian Late Aptian-Albian deposits start the marine sequence of the North Afghanistan Platform. Most of the territory is underlain by green-grey, less frequently variegated, irregularly interbedding sandstones, clays and siltstone with members, single beds and lenses of limestone, dolomite gypsum and anhydrite. The thickness of the deposits ranges from 95 to 639 m. Various beds of the sequence rest either conformably or with a break, locally unconformably on Neocomian-Lower Aptian or older beds and are overlain conformably or with a break by Cenomanian strata. The sections vary from place to place. Qala-i-Naw Fault Block In the western and eastern parts of this area the Upper Aptian-Albian sequence outcrops from beneath the Upper Cretaceous cover. In the west part the outcrops are known from the near-water-divide portion of the Selsela Koh-i-Bande Baba and the Kohe-Badhyzat ridges (The Paropamiz System). They were described by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (347). In the Kohe Badhyzat Ridge (or the so-called Laman cirque) the Upper Aptian-Albian sequence consists of the following beds (347): 174

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Conglomerate with sandstone partings Limestone, detrital and oolitic Clay, grey with limestone partings Limestone, brown, organic, detrital Clay, black and green-grey, interbedded with sandstone Limestone, sandy Marl, green-grey

6m 25.5 m 22 m 3.5 m 25 m 3m 10 m

Bed 7 is overlain disconformably by Cenomanian deposits. The described sequence is 95 m thick. At the southern side of the Selsela Koh-i-Bande Baba Ridge, 5 km north-west of the Dalaktu village, the Upper Aptian-Albian sequence has the following section (347):
1. 2. 3. 4. Limestone, argillaceous, oolitic on the top Marl interbedded with oolitic and organoclastic limestone bearing Late Aptian-Albian Hypacanthoplites sp. ammonites and Pterotrigonia aff. aliformis Park. pelecypods Limestone, organoclastic with clay partings Limestone, argillaceous, with limestone conglomerate and clay interbeds. The bed encloses Colombiceras sp. ammonites and Astostreon ex gr. latissima Lam. Corbula gaultina Pict. et Camp., Pinna robinaldina Orb., Grammatodon cf. carinatus Sow. pelecypods 10 m 27 m 48 m 42 m

The beds are succeeded unconformably by Maastrichtian deposits. The thickness of beds 1-4 is 127 m. The Upper Aptian-Albian sequence described by V.I. Dronov and others from the upper reaches of the Darrah-i-Tut river valley, 18 km north-west of Dalaktu, has the following section. Lower Triassic red beds are overlain with angular unconformity by:
1. 2. 3. Sandstones, pale red and dirty brown Limestones, oolitic and organodetrital Sandstones and siltstones with limestone partings, enclosing (Pterotrigonia aff. Candata Ag.) pelecypods and orbitolinids 3m 20 m 100 m

The beds are succeeded unconformably by Maastrichtian sandstones. The thickness of beds 1-3 is 123 m. West of Sang-i-Lan village the Upper Aptian -Albian carbonate-sandy-argillaceous strata enclose remains of Late Aptian and Early Albian ammonites: Aconthoplites cf. trautacholdi Sim., Hypacanthoplites sp. (H. aff. milletianus Orb.), Leymeriella ex gr. tardefurcata Leym. In the eastern part of the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block, Late Aptian-Albian deposits outcrop at the middle courses of the Murghab River. They were described by V.I. Dronov et al. (147). The sequence consists of green-grey terrigenous rocks with limestone partings. At the mouth of the Darrahe Kurghin River, the Triassic volcanics topped by a thin conglomerate bed are overlain transgressively by the following Upper-Aptian beds:
1. 2. 3. 4. Limestone and calcareous sandstone Sandstone, green-grey, coarse-grained Limestone enclosing Lopha rectangularis Roem., Turkmenia sp. Sandstone and siltstone, grey-green, calcareous 5m 100 m 50 m 80 m

Bed 4 is overlain with an angular unconformity by Upper Cretaceous deposits. The Upper Aptian-Albian unit is 245 meters thick in this section. 175

Pule Khumri Area Pule Khumri Area. In this area the Upper Aptian-Albian sequence is distinguished south-east of Pule Khumri and at the Dodkash-Karkar coal deposits. It consists of irregularly alternating sandstones, siltstone, limestones and clays. Gypsum and marl occur at the top. Unlike the underlying almost totally red-coloured Neocomian- Lower Aptian beds, these are predominantly green-grey. In an area 5 km south-east of Pule Khumri Neocomian-Lower Aptian beds are overlain disconformably by:
1 2. 3. Limestone bearing Middle Albian Exogyra aff. localis Mord. Siltstone, calcareous Dolomite, massive 70 m 17 m 12 m

The total thickness of beds 1-3 is 99 m (217) The beds are succeeded conformably by Cenomanian deposits. In the area under discussion the Upper Aptian-Albian sequence starts with Middle Albian beds, this being Seemingly the result of the Late Aptian-Albian transgression which advanced from the north-west to the south-east. A slightly different section was reported from an area located 1.5 km north of the Karkar mine (275), where Neocomian-Lower Aptian strata are overlain disconformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sandstone, calcareous, grading along the strike to sandy limestone with Linotrigonia (Oistotrigonia) spinosa Park., Acanthoplites sp. Dolomite, thick-bedded, silty Limestone, organodetrital interbedded with calcareous sandstone bearing Exogyra aff. localis Mord. Dolomite, dark grey, sandy Clay, bluish-grey with gypsum intercalations and lenses 24 m 10 m 85.1 m 7m 40.5 m

The beds are succeeded conformably by Cenomanian deposits. The total thickness of beds 1-5 in the section is 166.6 m. The Alburz-Shadian and Karabatur-Kertaw Mountains In this region the Upper Aptian-Albian sequence is exposed in the cores of anticlines. It consists of varicoloured calcareous sandstones and argillites interbedded with organoclastic limestones. In places there are gypsum beds at the top. The sequence is 160-205 m thick. It rests conformably on the Neocomian- Lower Aptian and is overlain also conformably by the Cenomanian beds. The rocks enclose remains of Late AptianAlbian fauna represented by Amphidonta aff. conica Sow., Exogyra localis Mord pelecypods and Hypacanthoplites aff. karlukensis Lupp. ammonites. Unexposed areas of the North Ahfghanistan Platform As known from the experience of oil and gas exploration conducted in these areas, the Upper Aptian-Albian sequence is subdivided into the Upper Aptian and the Albian units.

Upper Aptian Upper Aptian deposits have been penetrated by almost all the wells. They rest disconformably on the Barremian-Lower Aptian or with an angular unconformity on the pre-Barremian strata in places where the Barremian-Lower Aptian deposits are missing (Khwaja Qol). The unit is subdivided into two parts. The lower part of the unit consists of anhydrite interbedded with varicoloured gypseous clays, siltstone, marls and limestones. The upper part consists of grey quartzo-feldspathic micaceous and slightly calcareous sandstones interbedded with micaceous, occasionally sandy clays, siltstones and oolitic fractured limestones. Fossils 176

were found in the upper part of the unit. Late Aptian ammonites of Hypacanthoplites ex gr. jacobi Coll., H. ex gr. sarasini Coll., were found in the core of borehole 1 (Angot) obtained from the depth of 748 and 760 m. In the same area Hypacanthoplites sp. (H. ex gr. tschorlakensis Glasunova was identified. But it remains uncertain from what depth and borehole they were collected. As concluded by N.P. Luppov, these forms are typical of the Hypacanthoplis jacobi zone, viz, the top of the Upper Aptian (or the top of the Clancean). An assemblage of Late Aptian foraminifera was recovered from borehole 9 (Khwaja-Gogerdak). The foraminifera are: Haplophragmoides nonionoides Reuss, H. cf. embaensis var. elegans Nikit., H. aff. fontinengiformis Nikit., Ammobaculites agglutinans Orb. An assemblage of Aptian foraminifera represented by Gavelinella infracomplanata Mjatl., f. agalarovae Vass., Hedbergella cretacea Orb. Guembelina globulosa (Ehrenb.), was obtained from borehole 3 (Jarquduk). Reservoir properties of the rocks making up the unit are variable. Porosity varies from 2.87% in Jarquduk to 30.65% in Angot, permeability from 764.3 millidarcy in Angot to nearly zero in Jarquduk. The thickness of the unit varies from 110 m to 165 m. The smallest thickness is 52 m in Awdan, 77-99 m at the Koh-i-Alburs and 70 m in Jekdalek.

Albian Albian deposits are found in all the wells. They are conformable with the underlying and overlying beds. The Albian sequence is separable into three parts. The lower part consists of grey and green-grey compact micaceous lumpy clay with rare interbeds of siltstone, marl, fine-grained clayey-calcareous sandstone and argillaceous limestone. Southwards the clay becomes more sandy. The rocks bear Early Albian foraminifera. These are Ammobaculites dentonensis Tapp., A. subcretaceous Cuchm. et Aleks., Gavelinella ex. gr. suturalis Mjatl. (Khwaja Gogerdak, borehole 4); Gaudriyna turkmenica Aleks., Hoegludina aff. carinata N. Byk., Anomalina agalarovae Vass. (Angot, borehole 10); Lenticulina diademata (Berth.), Anomalina tuberti Aleks. (Khamyshly, borehole 1). The thickness of the lower Albian part varies from 142 m in Awdan to 190197 m in Aha Juma and Jarquduk. The middle part of the Albian sequence consists of grey and green-grey organoclastic, in places argillaceous fractured limestones interbedded with clays, calcareous sandstones, marls and siltstones. In borehole 3 (Yatim Tag) and in boreholes I, 2, 4 and 6 (Khwaja-Gogerdak) the rocks carry Middle Albian foraminifera; Ammobaculites glabratus Orb., A. haplophragmoideformis Balachm., Lenticulina gaultina Berth., Discorbis pannue Kortch., Gumbelina aff. globulosa Ehrenb., Gavelinella aff. vesca N. Byk. G. biinvoluta Mjatl., Gaudryina filiformis Berth. The thickness of this part varies from 35-63 m in Angot to 80-95 m in KhwajaGogerdak. The upper part of the Albian sequence consists of dark grey and green compact and lumpy, fragmentary, occasionally calcareous clays with rare siltstone, sandstone and marl partings. In boreholes 2 and 5, KhwajaGogerdak, the rocks bear Late Albian foraminifera: Dentalina aff. lepida Reuss, Pleurostomella obtuse Berth., Trochommina inflata Kortch., Miliammina mjaljakae Dan. The thickness of the upper part of the Albian sequence varies from 8-13 m in Angot and Sheram to 30-40 m in Juma, Ahat, Yatim Tag and Khwaja-Gogerdak. The total thickness of the Albian sequence varies from 185 to 332 m reaching 474 m in Jangale-Kolon. Reservoir properties of the rocks were not studied. Turkmeno-Khorosan Region In this region the undifferentiated Lower Cretaceous sequence is distinguished in the Tapurtag Trough at the upper reaches of the Hari Rod River. The sequence is separable into three units. The lower unit (290 m) rests unconformably on various older beds. It consists of varicoloured conglomerates and gravelstones. The middle unit (100 m) consisting of dark and light grey rudistid-and orbitoline limestones lies conformably on the lower unit. The upper unit (1,200 m) is an irregular interbedding of black siltstones, grey calcareous sandstones and clastic organic limestone. The thickness of the three units is 1,590 m Early Cretaceous pelecypods represented by Lopha rectangularies Roem., Isognomon sp., were identified from the lower beds, and Early Albian Leymeriella ex gr. regularis Brug. ammonite, from the upper strata.

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Upper Cretaceous
Upper Cretaceous deposits are widespread in Afghanistan. These are marine and continental deposits of different origin. In the northern part of the country, these are wholly marine platform facies similar to Upper Cretaceous deposits from the Soviet Central Asia. In South Afghanistan, the Upper Cretaceous sequence consists of compositionally variable marine and terrestrial deposits of geosynclinal and orogenic origin similar to the contemporaneous deposits from the inner and southern parts of the Mediterranean Fold Belt. The sequence is subdivided into Campanian, Maastrichtian and undifferentiated Upper Cretaceous. Campanian and Maastrichtian deposits occur in Region of Alpine Folding, and undifferentiated Upper Cretaceous sequence is known throughout the remaining parts of the country.

Campanian The fossiliferous and lithologically well-defined Campanian stage is mapped within the Afghanistan-East Iran Region, in the Asparan Trough and Kishmaran Uplift (88, 152, 254); with lesser certainty it is recognized in the Suleiman-Kirthar Area and Katawaz Trough. Afghanistan-East Iran Region. Kishmaran Uplift Representative outcrops of the unit are known in Kohe Ghish Ridge. In the reports by C.L. Griesbach (167, 292), the unit is described as Hippurite Dushoh and Pakhra limestones. In the report by H. Bergman (19) the limestones were referred to as the Nayak-Shikhten beds, and K. Fogel (1971) described them as the Campanian-Maastrichtian beds from the Choi Gardana and Chakmak areas. The section reported from the western side of the Kohe Ghish (152) is as follows. The Jurassic strata of the Ghish Series are overlain unconformably by:
1. 2. Basal conglomerates, red, coarse-pebble Limestone, grey, thick-bedded with rudistids and gastropods represented by Praeradiolites sp., Durania sp., Vaccinites vredenburgi Khn, Pseudomelania ex. gr. reksiana Geinitz 2 -50 m 5 - 20 m

Apparently from these or possibly from the overlying beds of the Choi Gardans and Chakmak area K. Fogel (1971) collected the following rudistids; Vaccinites vredenburgi Khn, V. cornuvaccinum (Bronn), V. archiaci (Douv.), Radiolites cf. aquamosus Orb., R. cf. nouleti (Bayle), Praeradiolites cf. hoeninghausi (Moul.), Biradiolites cf. lumbricoides Douv., Durania flicki (Touc.), Lapeirousia crateriformis (Moul.), Osculigera cleggi Khn, Hippurites variabilis Mun. Chalm., H. nambresinensis Futt. Only Vaccinites archiaci and Hippuritea variabilis are Campanian forms, the others being found in the Santonian-Campanian, Santonian-Maastrichtian and Campanian-Maastrichtian beds.
3. Limestones, white and cream-coloured, in places reddish, bedded, containing pelecypods and ammonites. The pelecypods are: Chlamys ex. gr. dujardini Roem., and the ammonites are Hoplitoplaecenticeras sp. ind. (H. ex gr. coesfeldiense Schlut.) 100 m

Obviously from these beds H. Bergman (19) collected the Late Campanian-Maastrichtian foraminifera: Globotruncana stuarti (Lapp.), G. ganseeri Bolli, G. arca Cushm., G. lapparenti Brots. It seems that Neithea cf. quinoyecostata (Sow.), N. cf. regularis (Schloth.), Granocardium (Granocardium) cf. productum (Sow.), Globotruncana cf. marginata (Reuss), G. lapparenti Brotz., G. arca Cushm. pelecypods and foraminifera collected by K. Fogel derive from the same limestone beds occurring at the Chakmak area.
4. Sandstone, grey-green, calcareous, abundant in remains of Campanian urchins: Echinocorys ex. gr. turritus Lamb., Micrasteridae 50 m

178

The total thickness of beds 1-4 in this section is 157-220 m. The collected fossils place the rocks into the Lower Campanian - lowest Upper Campanian interval. Asparan Trough The Campanian sequence consists there of the Darbandi, Rustami and Pire Sabz series (254). Darbandi Series The Darbandi Series's upper beds outcrop in the cores of anticlines in Kohe Darbande Bad Ridge. The series consists of dirty-tobacco-green, variegated at the top, partially red andesites, andesite-basalts and their tuffs. The apparent thickness of the series is 180 meters. The underlying rocks being unknown, the series is overlain disconformably by the Rustami limestones. The series is unfossiliferous, and its age is uncertain. It is supposed to be Campanian on the basis of its structural affinity with the Hippurite-bearing limestones of the Rustami Series. At the same time, by the lithology and stratigraphic position the series resembles the Middle Jurassic Ghian Series from the Kishmaran Uplift. It is not ruled out that the series is a counterpart of the latter. The problem needs more study. Rustami Series The Rustami Series is a contemporaneous but facially somewhat different variety of the Nayak-Shikhten beds from the Kishmaran Uplift: Its outcrops are known in Kohe Darbande Bad, Kohe Narakhu, Kohe Madarahu, Kohe Garobi and Kohe Chah Shor ridges. The series is composed predominantly of limestone with interbeds and lenses of volcanites and terrigenous rocks. It lies disconformably on the Darbandi Series and is overlain, also with evidence of erosion but, with no angular unconformity, by terrigenous beds of the Pire Sabz Series. The lower part of the series section is described from the outcrops at the Kohe Darbande Bad Ridge. The andesite-basalt of the Darbandi Series is overlain disconformably by:
1. 2. 3. Limestone, inequibedded, with chert nodules Alternation of rudistid limestones and intermediate and basic -volcanics Tuff conglomerates of intermediate and basic composition; fragments and pebbles are calcareous and polymictic sandstone, rudistid limestone, chert, andesite and dolerite porphyries, diabase, amphibolized gabbro-diabase, granite-porphyry and gravelstone Limestone, argillaceous, bearing Maastrichtian rudistids and gastopods: Vaccinites vredenburgi Khn, Osculigera cf. cleggi Khn, Lapeirousia (?) sp., Pironaea persica Vredenb., Poliniceras sp. Limestone, light-coloured, thick-bedded Limestone, dark-coloured, thick-bedded, carrying Campanian-Maastrichtian foraminifera Orbitoides media (Arch.), Orbitocyclina minima Douv., Siderolites sp. Amphistegina sp., Anomelina sp. Sandstone, red-coloured, calcareous Limestone, light-coloured, bearing foraminifera and rudistids: Orbitoides media (Arch.), Orbitocyclina sp., Miliolidae, Anomalina sp., Durania sp. Alternation of dirty red calcareous sandstone and light thick-bedded limestone 130 m 84 m 100 m

4.

100 m

5. 6.

20 m 10 m

7. 8. 9.

30 m 20 m 57 m

The eroded surface of bed 9 is overlain by terrigenous flysch-like sediments of the Pire Sabz Series. The total thickness of the Rustamy Series in the described section is 552 m. Pire Sabz Series Pire Sabz Series (2,000-3,000 m) consists of terrigenous and carbonate rocks of grey and green-grey colour: some beds are varicoloured. There are also interbeds and lenses of acid and basic volcanics. On the whole, the series is a flysch-like sequence consisting of polymictic and calcareous sandstones, siltstone, limestones and marls with interbeds and lenses of various gravelstones and conglomerates, including volcanomictic 179

varieties. Some of the horizons resemble wild flysch. At the base and on the top of the series there are erosional surfaces. The lower beds are exposed in the system of limestone mountains of Kohe Garobi, Kohe Darbande Bad, Kohe Narakbu and Madarahu. They consist of calcareous sandstone grading to gravelstone and sandy limestone or marl whose total thickness is 50-70 m locally the series starts with a 0-20-meter horizon of basal conglomerate whose pebbles are all the varieties of the Rustamy Series rock types. The lower beds abound in the remains of Campanian-Maastrichtian foraminifera urchins, brachiopoda, gastropods and bivalves. In one place, at an elevation of 884 m, a fragment of Upper Campanian ammonite was found. The fossils were identified as foraminifera: Orbitoides media (Arch.), Orbitocyclina minima Douv.; urchins: Catopygus sp., Conulus sp., Hemiaster sp.; Campanile sp. gastropods, Bolgarithyris inopinata Titova brachiopods, Inoceremus sp. bivalves and Neancyloceras cf. phaleratum Griep. ammonite. Considering the ammonite finding, the lower beds of the Pire Sabz Series should be placed to lower Upper Campanian. The lower beds are succeeded conformably by a 1,500-2,500 m thick monotonous unit of regularly or irregularly alternating sandstones and siltstone enclosing interbeds and lenses of limestone, marl, conglomerate and volcanomictic rocks. Sandstone making up 60 or 70% of the unit is predominantly calcareous and quartzo-feldspathic, inequigranular, predominantly parallel-bedded, and in some layers crossbedded. siltstone, up to 10%, is similar to sandstone in composition though more carbonate. Limestone occurring in single beds or groups of beds, 0.5-10 m thick, is contaminated by terrigenous material, inequibedded, often clastic. Marl forms single beds and groups of beds several meters to 100 and more meters thick. Conglomerates are not frequent, yet at some levels they form rather thick beds and lenses. The thickest conglomerate bed (200 m) was found at the left-hand side of the Shela-i-Pirsabz valley. The conglomerate is a slightly cemented rock of dirty red colour. Its pebbles are limestone, including rudistid limestone, inequigranular sandstone, siltstone, andesite and andesite-basalt diorite porphyry, diorite and granodiorite, quartz, chert and other rock types. Apart from this type of conglomerate that usually occurs in extensive thick beds, there are conglomerates that occur in lenses, intermittent beds or inclusions of an intricate form inside sandy-silty rocks. Pebbles and fragments are almost of the same composition as the enclosing rocks. The foreign pebbles and fragments include the rocks of Rustamy Series, and particularly the rudistid limestone. Such conglomerates are widespread in the Rod-i-Chahe - Rustamy River basin. Pebbles are poorly rounded, unsorted, bundled, of different size. The cement is sandy-aleuritic similar to the enclosing rocks. There are occasional pebbles and fragments of foreign rocks included in sandy-aleuritic beds. The horizons in which such pebbles and inclusions are abundant resemble wild flysch. Volcanomictic rocks are represented by breccias, sandstones and gravelstones occurring in beds from several centimeters to several meters thick. The upper portion of the series is well exposed at the right-hand tributaries of the middle closure of the Shela-i-Pirsabz River, at elevations of 957 and 928 m. The sequence is separable into three units: thinbedded marl (70 m) at the base, andesite-basalt and tuff (130 m) in the middle, and marl (300 m) at the top. This sequence is overlain disconformably by andesite porphyry of supposedly Early Maastrichtian age. The rocks of the Pire Sabz Series are abundant in fossils. Those collected from the lower beds have been listed above. The entire overlying sequence encloses Orbitoides media (Arch.), Orbitocyclina minima Douv., Anomalina sp., Haplophragmoides sp., Amphistegina sp., Pseudoorbitoides sp., Globotruncana sp., Mummofallotia sp., Triloculina sp., Siderolites calcitrapoides Lam, and other foraininifera. The listed forms indicate the Campanian and Maastrichtian age, but considering the stratigraphic position of the series and the fact that an ammonite of the early Late Campanian age was found at the base, the age of the whole series is assumed to be Late Campanian. Suleiman-Kirthar Area. Katawaz Trough Campanian beds have been found so far only in one locality, in an imbricate zone of the Kasymkhel area (193). They compose a small anticline whose core portion is made up of light grey thick-bedded and massive limestone, 150 to 200 m thick. Dark grey brecciated limestone (50-100 m) is exposed in the limbs. The lower limestone beds contain Turonian-Campanian fossils identified as Globotruncana lapparenti Brotz (438). The rocks underlying these limestone beds are not exposed. The beds are overlapped by variegated sediments of Paleogene age.

180

Maastrichtian The fossiliferous and lithologically well-defined Maastrichtian stage is mapped in the Afghanistan-East Iran Region, in the Asparan Trough (88, 254). Less definite Maastrichtian beds are found in the Suleiman-Kirthar area, in the Katawaz Trough. Afghanistan-East Iran Region. Asparan Trough Within the trough the Maastrichtian deposits are associated with the Campanian. They form the Karro and Shirinak Series (84, 254.) whose total thickness varies from 1,020 to 1,350 meters. Karro Series Karro Series (500-800 m) rests disconformably on the Pire Sabz Series. It consists of andesite, andesitebasalt and basalt porphyries with occasional andesite-dacite and intermediate to basic tuff interbeds The chemical composition of the rocks is given in Table 8. Table 8
Oxide SiO2 TiO2 A12O3 FeO3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 Loss on ignition

Chemical composition of some volcanic rock types of the Karro Series.

1 56.53 0.98 14.40 5.75 1.89 0.35 3.91 6.30 4.92 1.34 0.38 2.80 2 51.65 1.26 16.42 4.43 3.71 0.28 5.25 7.36 4.72 0.96 0.23 3.28 3 53.74 1.23 16.60 2.76 5.25 0.23 4.50 6.80 4.72 1.40 0.20 2.31 4 52.32 1.24 13.99 2.82 4.22 0.13 8.76 6.71 3.50 2.14 0.23 3.44 5 50.58 1.30 14.10 6.05 3.46 0.23 4.39 6.71 4.18 3.92 0.17 5.20 6 55.15 1.65 15.80 2.53 4.74 0.10 3.4.6 7.70 3.50 1.42 0.41 3.04 7 55.89 1.50 14.01 3.07 3.64 0.21 2.83 7.60 4.00 4.50 0.35 1.93 8 55.74 1.20 15.68 3.16 3.40 0.25 2.50 6.43 8.72 3.60 0.32 0.75

1, 5 -andesite-basalt porphyry; 2 -basalt porphyry; 3, 4, 7, 8 - andesite porphyry; 6 - tuff of andesite porphyry. The rocks are unfossiliferous and are dated as Maastrichtian on the basis of their stratigraphic position. It is likely that the volcanites from Kohe Ghish and Choi Mazar ridges (the Kishmaran Uplift), which have been so far dated as Paleogene, are Maastrichtian in age. This supposition is made on the basis of the compositional analogy with the above mentioned volcanites and structural relationship to the fossiliferous Campanian beds. Shirinak Series Shirinak Series (520-550 m) rests disconformably on the above described volcanics. It consists of three units. The lower unit (20-50 m) consists of grey thick-bedded detrital-organic limestone bearing remains of Maastrichtian and Campanian-Maastrichtian foraminifera, brachiopoda, rudistids, urchins and gastropods. The foraminifera are identified as: Siderolites calcitrapoides Lam., Orbitoloidea modia (Arch.), Orbitocyclina minima Douv. Haplophragmoides sp., Anomalina sp., brachiopods, Neolithyrina obesa Sahni. the rudistids are: Pironea ex gr. corrugata Woodw. the urchins are represented by Spatagoides striataradiatus Leske and the gastropods are: Campanile cf. ganesha (Noetl.).The middle unit (100 m) is composed of green-grey 181

cleavaged marl abundant in Orbitoides remains. The upper unit (400 m) consists of grey and brown inequigranular limy-quartzose sandstones with interbeds of organic-detrital limestone enclosing Siderolites calcitrapoides Lam., Orbitoides media (Arch.), Nummofallotia sp., Amphistegina sp. foraminifera. Suleiman-Kirthar Area. Katawaz Trough Maastrichtian beds occur in an imbricate zone traceable along the road to Azra village, 32 km north of the Kasimkhel village. J. Bruggey (62) described a section at the base of which he discovered limestone beds carrying Late Cretaceous foraminifera of Triloculina sp., Heterohelicidae, Coryphostoma limonense (Cushm.), Bolivine sp. The latter two forms are indicative of Maastrichtian age of the enclosing limestone. Neither underlying, nor overlying deposits have been observed in normal stratigraphic relationships.

Upper Cretaceous, undifferentiated

These deposits are distinguished in the South Afghanistan Median Mass, in Middle Afghanistan, in the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region and in the North Afghanistan Platform.

South Afghanistan Median Mass In this area no fossiliferous Upper Cretaceous strata were found. There are some references in the literature on the findings of Cenomanian and Cenomanian-Turonian fossils in the orbitolina and rudistid-bearing limestones from the Farah Rod Trough and the Helmand-Argandab Uplift (292, 438, 439). However, these fossils are always listed together with Barremian-Aptian and Aptian-Albian forms. For this reason even the top of the rudistid-and orbitolina-bearing limestones cannot be dated Upper Cretaceous with certainty. The Pushte Rugh Series of red-coloured terrigenous, continental deposits occurring in the core of a syncline at the Kohe Towa and Kohe Mazar ridges (Khashrud Zone) was attributed tentatively to the Upper Cretaceous (152). The series is separable into two rock units whose total thickness is 700 m. The lower unit (200 m) lies disconformably on the Upper Aptian-Albian limestones. It is composed of red-coloured and variegated limestone conglomerate-breccias. The upper unit (500 m) rests conformably on the lower one. It consists of red-coloured sandstones and siltstone with conglomerate beds and lenses.

Middle Afghanistan In this region the Upper Cretaceous deposits are scarce. They are represented by marine predominantly carbonate rocks, 50-500 m thick. This sequence is extended into the Central Pamir (USSR). In the west of Middle Afghanistan the Upper Cretaceous deposits are exposed at the Kohe Band-i-Bedak, Koh-iNaspanj and Kohe Sanghar ridges. These are rudistid limestones enclosing rare beds and lenses of red sandstone, siltstone and gypsum (152). The thickness is 300-500 m: the contacts with the surrounding rocks are faulted. Most of the numerous fossils collected have not been identified as yet. The identified gastropods include the Turonian species Actaeonella (Sogdianella) ex gr. supernata Pcel. There are references to the findings of Coniacian foraminifera from these limestones (458). These are: Actinoporella cretacea Dain., Pseudocyclammina sp., Cuneolina pavonica Hens, Pseudolituonella reicheli Marie. Globotruncana globigerinoides Brotz., G. lapparenti coronata Boll., G. lapparenti lapparenti Brotz., G. lapparenti tricarinata (Quer.). Eastwards, between Magas and Berinj villages, there is another ridge of Upper Cretaceous limestone (152). The Upper Cretaceous section consists of two parts: 30 to 50 meters of red conglomerate, sandstones and siltstone at the base, and 150 to 300 meters of limestones with chert nodules at the top. The limestone beds are abundant in remains of Maastrichtian rudistids, represented by Biradiolites cf. boldjuanensis Bobk., Durania sp. Findings of Coniacian Globotruncana lapparenti Brotz. were reported (438). Further eastwards, in the Surh-Bum imbricated zone, Upper Cretaceous limestones 150 to 200 m thick build up several ridges at the Madar-Koh Mountain and in the area of the Asgarat Pass (142, 152). The limestones contain abundant fossils represented mostly by Maastrichtian Biradiolites cf. boldjusnensis Bobk. rudistids. 182

At the water-divide area of the Kohe Baba Ridge and at the upper reaches of the right-hand tributaries of the Turkman River, the Upper Cretaceous sequence consists of light-coloured limestone resting strongly unconformably on Upper Proterozoic Carboniferous-Triassic and Jurassic folded terrigenous beds (142, 152, 251). The sequence often starts with basal sandstone and conglomerate. The described sequence is 50-150 m thick. Rudistid remains occur throughout the sequence. In the Central Badakhshan, outcrops of Upper Cretaceous sequence are found in the Nakhchir Par Zone, at the western side of the Koh-i-Tishal-Darrah River. The sequence consists of terrigenous-carbonate rocks resting unconformably on Triassic-Jurassic deposits and overlain disconformably, yet with no angular unconformity by Maastrichtian-Paleocene volcanics. At the left-hand side of the Panj River valley, in the northern portion of the Kohe-i-Tishal-Dara Ridge, the sequence consists of the following beds:
1. 2. 3. 4. Basal conglomerate and sandstone Limestone, grey, thick-bedded marmorized Limestone, massive, marmorized, with Biradiolites cf. boldjuanensis Bobk. Limestone, conglomerate-like, marmorized 20 m 45 m 34 m 7m

The thickness of beds 1-4 is 106 m. The extension of the above sequence on the USSR territory are the Upper Cretaceous deposits of the Central Pamir (84). particularly the marmorized limestones, sandstones, and conglomerates found in the area of the village of Rushan (80).

Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region In this region Upper Cretaceous rock units are found only in the Surkhab Zone. At the water divide of the Andarab and Yarm rivers they build up a broad gentle syncline. The section described from the right-hand side of the Andarab River, the upper reaches of the Khushkdara River, (148) is as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Sandstone and siltstone, variegated, with beds and lenses of conglomerate Limestone, sandy, organic Sandstone, calcareous-quartzose, bearing Turonian pelecypods: Inoceramus cf. labiatus Schloth. var. lata Sow., Gryphaea vesiculosa turkestanensis Bobk Limestone with Fatina (Avis) costeli Coquand Sandstone, green-grey, calcareous Limestone, light grey, with rudistid remains Sandstone and siltstone, calcareous Limestone, light, medium-bedded 190 m 25 m 61 m 40 m 6m. 4m 42 m 200 m

The thickness of the Upper Cretaceous beds in this section is 568 m. In the USSR, the counterpart Upper Cretaceous Unit is exposed in the Darwaz Zone.

North Afghanistan Platform In this region the undifferentiated Upper Cretaceous sequence comprises part of the Sedimentary Cover lying beneath the Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones and enclosing the Cenomanian-Campanian beds which consist of sandy-argillaceous rocks, sandy marls and limestones. These rest either conformably on the Albian 183

deposits or unconformably on various older formations. The beds are overlain with evidence of erosion by Maastrichtian-Paleocene deposits. Everywhere the sequence is separable into two parts, the Cenomanian and Turonian and Coniacian-Campanian. In the USSR, the immediate extension and absolute counterpart of the sequence is the Cenomanian-Turonian rock unit of South Turkmenia and South-West Tajikistan.

Cenomanian -Turonian This is a carbonate-terrigenous rock unit which starts the Upper Cretaceous sequence of North Afghanistan. Qala-i-Naw Fault Block Cenomanian-Turonian beds are known from the Paropamiz Ridge. They consist of sandy marl, clay and limestone, 80-128 m thick. The beds rest disconformably on the Albian deposits and are overlain conformably by Coniacian beds. The section described from the Laman cirque (347) consists of two parts: 50 m of marl interbedded with sandy limestone at the base and 30.5 m of sandy-argillaceous limestone at the top. Both parts carry Turonian pelecypods: Inoceramus ex gr. labiatus Schloth., Rhynchostreon aff. columba Lam. at the base and Inoceramus ex gr. kleini Mull., I. cf. undulatus Mont., at the top. In the left-hand tributaries of the Khushk River, the Cenomanian-Turonian sequence, 128 m thick, consists of alternating clay and limestone beds. Turonian Mantelliceras mantelli Sow. ammonites were collected 20 m above the base. Eastern part of Maymana Fault Block and Pule Khumri Area In the eastern part of the Maymana Fault Block the Cenomanian-Turonian sequence, 78.6 to 237 m thick, consists of limestones, sandstones and clays (217, 350). It rests conformably on the Albian beds and unconformably on older rocks. The section reported from the Dahane Tor, coal deposit (217) is as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Limestone, oolitic Sandstone, fine-grained, carbonate Limestone, sandy, coquinoid, enclosing Late Cenomanian Praeradiolites kugitangensis Bobk., Ichtyosarcolites sp., Gyropleura sp. Clay, dark grey, gypseous Limestone with dolomite partings Sandstone, medium-grained with limestone partings Limestone, brownish-grey, bedded, clastic Clay intercalated with organic-detrital limestones Limestone, dolomitic, sandy Sandstone, grey, fine-grained, Slightly carbonated Clay, calcareous, with limestone partings 7m 8m 8m 0.8 m 2.8 m 7m 4m 16 m 10 m 5m 10 m

The thickness of beds 1-2 is 78.6 m. Beds 1-3 (23 m) are considered to be Cenomanian and beds 4-11 (55.6 m), Turonian. A similar section is reported from the Pashagol River drainage basin (350), where the Cenomanian-Turonian beds rest unconformably on the Ordovician slates and are overlain also unconformably by MaastrichtianPaleocene beds The thickness is 91 m 27 km westwards, at the left side of the Kaynar River, the Cenomanian-Turonian sequence, 123.5 m thick, consists of limestones and marls only. In both places Turonian Inoceramus labiatus Schloth., I. labiatus Schioth. var. lata Sow., were collected from the upper third of the section. 184

In the Pule Khumri Area, Cenomanian-Turonian beds outcrop in the surroundings of the Pule Khumri town and within the Dodkash-Karkar coal deposit. In both places the beds are alternating limestones, clays, sandstones, marls, siltstone and gravelstones. The thickness of the beds is 180-230 m. In an area 5 km southeast of Pule Khumri (217) the Albian beds are overlain conformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Siltstone, red, with dolomite partings Clay, grey, sandy Sandstone, dirty yellow, fine-grained, quartzose Limestone, light grey, organic, detrital Gravelstone consisting of quartz and slate fragments Limestone with Ichtyosarcolites aff. tricarinatus Parona Clay, green-grey, carbonate Limestone with Inoceramus labiatus Schioth. var. lata Sow. Limestone, organic-detrital 29.9 m 24.5 m 7.3 m 14 m 6.5 m 8m 11 m 30 m 49 m

The beds are succeeded conformably by Coniacian deposits. The thickness of beds 1-9 is 180.2 m. Beds 1-6 (90.2 m) are Cenomanian and beds 7-9 (90 m), Turonian. The Cenomanian-Turonian section reported from the Dodkash Karkar coal deposit is somewhat different (217):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Limestone, light grey, dolomitic Clay, variegated Limestone, sandy, foraminiferal Alternation of carbonate clay and siltstone Limestone with Late Cenomanian Ichtyosarcolites aff. jokungensis Bobk., I. cf. tricarinatus Parona Clay, green Limestone, sandy, bearing Turonian Inoceramus labiatus Schloth., I. labiatus Schloth. var. lata Sow., Rhynchostreon columbum Lam. var. chaperi Bayle, Gryphaea vesiculosa turkestanica Bobk. Limestone, organic-detrital, bearing Turonian Exogyra turkestanensis Born. 5.5 m 62 m 36 m 12 m 8m 10 m 39.5 m 64 m

The beds are overlain conformably by Coniacian clay. The thickness of beds 1-8 is 237 m, beds 1-5 (123.5 m) being Cenomanian and beds 6-8 (113.5 m) Turonian. Kuh-i-Alburs-Shadyan and Qarabator-Kartaw Mountains In this region deposits of Cenomanian-Turonian age are exposed in the cores of anticlines. Unlike in the preceding sections, here the deposits are thicker, more argillaceous and include gypsum beds at the base. The section described from the Qarabator-Kartaw 5-8 km east of the village of Qarabator, (217) is as The Albian beds are overlain conformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. Limestone, organic-detrital Clay with a 7.5-meter gypsum bed m Limestone, organic-detrital Alternation of carbonate clays, 5.9 to 12.3 m thick, and sandy foraminiferal limestones (49.2 m) bearing Inoceramus labiatus Schloth., Gryphaea vesiculosa turkestanica Bobk 5m 89.5 m 65 m 40.4 m

185

5. 6.

Limestone with Turonian Mammites nodosoides Schloth. var. chivensis Arkh. ammonites and Inoceramus labiatus Schloth., I. aff. strictaconcentricus Gumb. pelecypods Clay carrying Bolivina ex gr. plaiata Gar., Nonionella cretacea Cushm., Globigerina cretacea Orb., Valvulineria lenticula var. lenticula (Reuss), Bulimina reussi Morr., Grammostomum (?) Kuachennis Vass., Gyromorphina allomorphinoides (Retina), Anomalina moniliformis Reuss, Cibicides polyrraphus (Reuss), Marasoneua oxycona Reuss foraminlfera Limestone, sandy, bearing Inoceramus labiatus Schloth. Clay, carbonate, with Bulimina reussi Morr, , Ammobaculites foutinens Ters., Nonionella cretacea Cushm., Bolivina ex gr. plaiata Gar. foraminifera Limestone bearing Isocardia cf. babatagensis Bobk., Panope mondibula Sow., Gryphaca navia Gabb. Clay, carbonate, carrying Nonionella cretacea Cushm., Globigerina aff. agalarove Vass foraminifera Limestone, organic-detrital Clay, green, carbonate

14 m 40.9 m

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

3m. 27 m 10 m 22 m 8m 4.7 m

The beds are overlain conformably by Coniacian deposits The thickness of beds 1-12 is 329.5 m Beds 1-3 (159.5 m) are Cenomanian and beds 4-12 (170 m), Turonian. In the Koh-i-Allburs-Shadyan Mountains, the Cenomanian-Turonian sequence is built up of clay interbedded with limestones and marls. The representative section was described from the lower courses of the Samangan valley (217), where the Albian beds are overlain conformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Sandstone, grey and dirty yellow Clay bearing Cenomanian foraminifera; Anomalina berthelini Kell., Gaudryina bolivinopsiformis N. Byk., Trochammina Kugitangensis N. Byk., Haplophragmoides ex. gr. nonionicides Retina. Limestone with siltstone partings Limestone, grey-yellowish Clay, green-grey Marl with Inoceramus labiatus Schloth. Clay with Gumbelina globifera Reuss, Globigerina cretaces Orb., Rotundina ordinaria Subb. , Nonionella cretacea Cushm., Gyroidina nitida Reuss, Globotruncana appeninica Reuss var. bicarinata N. Byk. Gaudryina ex gr. baenigata Franke foraminifera Limestone with Metatrigonia turkestanensis Arck. Clay, green-grey Marl with Panope mandibula Sow. Clay with Anomalina vesca var. vesca (N. Byk.) 8.6 m 35.3 m 16.3 m 70 m 8.3 m 4.2 m 61 m

8. 9. 10. 11.

0.7 m 22.1 m 0.6 m 112 m

The eroded surface of bed 11 is overlain by Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones. The thickness of beds 1-11 is 339.1 m. Unexposed areas of the platform In these areas the Cenomanian-Turonian beds have been penetrated by drill holes. The sequence is subdivided into the Cenomanian and Turonian Units.

186

Cenomanian Cenomanian deposits are calcareous clays with siltstone partings. At the base of the sequence a 15-60 m bed of calcareous sandstone is found, and at the top there is a 25-30 m thick bed of organic-detrital oolitic sandy limestone intercalated with fine-grained calcareous sandstones, clays and marls. In the USSR, the counterpart of this bed is the Tagarinian horizon. In the Juma and Ahss areas the deposits become more clayey and at Jigdalek they are totally replaced by clays. The deposits are foraminiferal. The lower horizon, as recorded in borehole 3 at the Yatim-Tag and in borehole 1 at the Khwaja Gogerdak area, enclose Cenomanian foraminifera; Trochammina kugitangensis (N. Byk.), Ammobaculites agglutinaus (Orb.), Gaudryina bolivinopsiformis (N. Byk.), Nodosaria obscura Reuss, Nonionella cretacea Cushm. Late Cenomanian foraminifera identified as Gumbelitrina cenomans (Kell.), Rotaliatina asiatica (N. Byk.), Quinqueloculina antiqus Franke, Hedbergella caspia Vass., Neobulimina minima Tapp., Globigerina praeincauta Kortch. have been collected from the core of wells 6 and 8 drilled at the Khwaja Gogerdak area. An assemblage of Cenomanian foraminif era was recovered from borehole I, at the Sangoharak area (interval 1942-2085 m). The foraminifera have been identified as Haplophragmoides marcus Kortch, H. miser N. Byk., Trochammina kugitangensis (N. Byk.), Gaudryina asiatica N. Byk., G. kolivinopsiformis N. Byk., Quinqueloculina antiqua Franke. The thickness of the Cenomanian sequence is 50 to 290 m. Turonian Turonian sequence is subdivided into three lithlogically different units. At the base there is a 10-40 m unit of clay interbedded in the Jarquduk Yatim-Tag, Khanabad and other places with sandstones and siltstone. The rocks bear Cenomanian-Early Turonian foraminifera Gaudryina asiatica N. Byk., Ammobaculites ex. gr. agglutinaus (Orb.), Haplophragmoides babatangensis Kortch., Bykoviella ochinaria Kortch. The above-mentioned unit is overlain by marl, 20-25 m thick, abundant in Inoceramus. This is a marker bed distinguishable in both the unexposed areas of North Afghanistan and in the adjacent regions of the USSR. This marl bed is succeeded by 200-400 m unit of green clay whose lower two thirds is Turonian and on the top one third, Coniacian. Early Turonian foraminifera represented by Maresonella oxycona Reuss, Gaudyina laevigata Frenke, Anomalina berthelii Kell., Rugoglobigerina holzei Hag., Globigerina incauta Kortch., G. praeincauta Kortch. were collected from the base of the unit in borehole 1 (Yatim-Tag) and in borehole 5 (Khwaja Gogerdak). Late Turonian Collignoniceras cf. woolgari Mantell, C. cf. amudariensis Iljin ammonites wore found in the middle of the clay unit in borehole 1 (Angot) at a depth of 388 m and in borehole 3, at 411 m. Remains of Upper Turonian foraminifera, Anomalina bulgarensis Kortch., are likely to come from the same level.

Coniacian-Campanian Coniacian-Campanian deposits are calcareous clays and sandstones interbedded with limestones and marls. They rest conformably, in places with evidence of erosion, on Turonian deposits. Qual-i-Naw Fault Block In this area outcrops of the Coniacian-Campanian sequence are known from the Paropanaiz and Firozkoh ridges. At the Paropamiz Ridge they are widespread in the Laman cirque and in the left-hand tributaries of the Khushk River, where a sequence occurs of alternating argillaceous limestones, marls, calcareous clays and siltstone. The thickness is 175.8-310 m. The section described from the Laman cirque (347) is as follows:
1. 2. Limestone with Inoceramus cf. lusatiae Andert., I. cf. Schloenbachia Boehm., I. cf. weisei Andert., I. aff. wandereri Andert., I. cf. inconstans Woods Marl, light brown with limestone partings 5m 50 m

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3. 4.

Limestone bearing Inoceramus aff. seitzi Andert., I. lusatiae Andert., I. aff. schloenbachia Boehm. Marl enclosing at the base Spondylus striatus Goldf., Inoceramus haenleini Mull, I. aff. dariensis Dobr., and on the top, Gryphaea vesicularis Lam., Exogyra decussata Goldf., Trachyscaphites (?) sp. Marl, silty, carrying Campanian-Maastrichtian Gryphaea vesicularis Lam., G. vesicularis Lam. var. similis Push., Chlamys ex. gr. dujardini. Roem., Neithea cf. quinquecostata Sow. pelecypods and Septaroechia inflata Titova brachiopods.

15 m 200 m

5.

4.0 m

The thickness of beds 1-5 is 310 m. In the left-hand tributaries of the Khushk River, the Cenomanian-Turonian limestones are overlain conformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Marl, dark grey, slightly arenaceous Limestone, grey, slightly arenaceous Clay, dark grey, sandy Limestone with Pseudomenuites ambiguns amudariensis Iljin, Baculites sp. ammonites Clay, sandy with Inoceramus sp. and Baculites sp. Marl, sandy. The lower 28.5 meters bear Inoceramus sp., Spondylus spinosus (Sow.), S. cf. striatus Goldf., and the upper 44 meters enclose Inoceramus ex gr. balticus Boehm., Spondylus cf. striatus Goldf., S. spinosus (Sow.), Lopha cf. semiplana (Sow.) Clay, green-grey, sandy 7.5 m 18 m 7m 10 m 72.5 m

7.

53.8 m

The beds are succeeded unconformably by Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones. The thickness of beds 1-7 is 175.8 m. Beds 1-6 (122 m) are likely to be Coniacian-Campanian and bed 7 (53.8 m) Campanian or possibly Maastrichtian. Within the Firozkoh Ridge outcrops of Coniacian-Campanian deposits are known from the right-hand tributaries of the Hart Rod River, in the Jare Gigonak, Acha Chap, Nawpul and Manore Sufla river drainage basins. In these areas the eroded surface of Late Triassic granitic rocks is overlain by (147):
1. Sandstone, thick-bedded, in places cross-bedded, arkose. 1.5 km south of the Manore Sulfa village, at the base of the bed there is 1-5 m layer of clastic Limestone bearing Coniacian ammonites, brachiopods and urchins. The ammonites are Scaphites cf. arnaudi Gross. the brachiopods are Orbirhynchia aff. ventriplanata (Schloenb.) and the urchins are Phymosoma sp., Hemiaster sp. Limestone, organic-detrital Marl and clay with interbeds of organic-detrital and argillaceous limestones. The upper portion of the bed contains Maastrichtian urchins: Echinocorys peronicus Hag., E. arnaudi Seunes, E. ciplyonsis Lam., Coraster villanovae Cott., Tylocidaria sp., and Late Campanian-Early Maastrichtian ammonites: Scaphites sp., Baculites anceps Lam., B. anceps leopoliensis Now. 100 m

2. 3.

10 m 250 m

Above Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones follow with evidence of erosion. The thickness of the rocks in this section is 360 m. Good outcrops of the upper beds of the sequence are available in the area of Lake Bande Amir. The lower part of the section is not exposed, and the upper exposed part consists of bedded sandy marl and calcareous sandy-silty rocks with limestone interbeds. The apparent thickness of beds exposed is 150-200 m V.I. Dronov, S.M. Kalimulin and I.M. Sborshchikov collected Late Campanian ammonites, pelecypods and urchins from the upper beds. The ammonites are Hoplitoplacenticeras marroti Coq., H. lemfoerdense Schlut., Neancyloceras cf. phaleratus Griepenk the pelecypods are Liostrea aff. prima Rom., Inoceramus sp., and the 188

urchins are Echinocorys sp., Micraster sp. The beds are overlain disconformably by Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones. Eastern part of Maymana Fault Block and Pule-Khumri Area In these areas Coniacian-Campanian deposits are associated with the Cenomanian-Turonian strata. The sequence consists of clay interbedded with limestones and marls. The thickness is 127.5 to 166.4 m. In the Pule Khumri area the Coniacian-Campanian is almost entirely composed of calcareous clay interbedded with several horizons of organic-detrital limestones. In this area the Turonian beds are overlain conformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Clay with Marasonella oxycona (Reuss), Gjabelina ex gr. globifera Reuss foraminifera Limestone, light grey, organic-detrital Clay, green-grey, silty, carbonate Limestone, light grey, massive Clay with Marasonella oxycona (Reuss), Anomalina moniliformis (Reuss), A. aff. vesca N. Byk., Gaudryina variabilis N. Byk. foraminifera Limestone, bedded, enclosing pelecypod remains Clay, green, silty, calcareous 10.4 m 2m 29.2 m 10 m 49.5 m 8m 57.3 m

Above, Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones follow with evidence of erosion. The thickness of beds 1-7 is 166.4 m. A similar section of Coniacian-Campanian sequence was reported from an ares south-east of the Dodkash coal deposit (217), where the following beds are exposed:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Clay, calcareous, enclosing Marssonella oxycona Reuss. Anomalina aff. moniliformis (Reuss), Inoceramus inconstans Woods Limestone Clay, green-grey, with Inoceramus cf. kaenleini Mull., Fatina (Costeina) kugitangensis Bobk., Lopha dichotoma Bayle Limestone, organic-detrital, enclosing Ceratostreon spinosum Math., Gryphaea vesicularis Lam., Neithea quinquecostata Sow., Chlamys cf. sokolovae Bobk., Baculites sp. Clay, green-grey, calcareous 39.5 m 4.5 m 47 m 48 m 28.5 m

The beds are overlain disconformably by Maastrichtian -Paleocene limestones. The thickness of beds 1-5 is 127.5 m. Beds 1-2 (44 m) are Coniacian, bed 3 (47 m) Santonian and beds 4-5 (36.5 m) Campanian. Koh-i-Alburs-Shadyan and Qarabator Kartaw Mountains In the Koh-i-Alburs-Shadyan and Qarabator Kartaw Mountains, the Coniacian-Campanian beds are exposed from under the Maastrichtian beds in the cores of anticlines. The section reported from the Qarabatur-Kartaw area (217) is as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. Clay, green, carbonate Clay interbedded with marl bearing Ammobaculites fountinens Terq., Globigerina ex gr. cretacea Orb., Anomalina ex. gr. clemeuxiana (Orb.) Alternation of organic-detrital limestone and clay. The limestone contains Lopha dichotoma Bayle, the clay bears Ammobaculites fountineuse Terq., Bulimina reussi Morr. Clay, green, carbonate 110 m 10.8 m 17.1 m 17.8 m

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Bed 4 is overlain disconformably by Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones. The thickness of beds 1-4 is 155.7 m. Beds 1-2 (120.8 m) are Coniacian-Santonian and beds 3-4 (34.9 m), Campanian. In the Koh-i-Alburs-Shadyan Ridge, the Coniacian-Campanian beds are exposed near the village of Marmol (217). The Coniacian beds (46.8 m) consist of marl and clay interbedded with limestones which contain Micraster turkestanensis Schmidt, M. amudariensis Schmidt, Phymosoma thevester Perona et Gauthier. urchins. The Santonian (158 m) beds are composed of green-grey clay. The Campanian sequence (110.5 m) starts with a 1.5 m bed of coquinoid limestone overlain by sandy calcareous clay (109 m) which locally is gypseous. In unexposed areas of the platforms Coniacian-Campanian deposits are pierced through by drill holes. The sequence is subdivided into the Coniacian Santonian and Campanian. Coniacian-Santonian This part of the sequence is composed of clay, 70-100 m thick. It occurs conformably between the underlying and overlying strata. Coniacian-Santonian forarainifera represented by Spiroplectammina cubensis N. Byk., Anomalina ammonoides Reuss, Nonionella inmuna Kortch., Globigerina incomte Kortch., Marssonella oxycona Reuss, Gumbelina globulosa (Ehr.) have been recovared from a 405-414 m interval of borehole 5 (in the Yatim Tag area), 30-50 m below the top of the sequence. Santonian Trochaminina gaurdakensis Kortch., Buliminella gracilis Vans., Discorbis schirobadensis N. Byk., Gaudryinella pseudoasiatica N. Byk. foraminifera were recovered from an interval of 400-405 m of borehole I, Khwaja-Gogerdak, at the top of the clay beds. Campanian The Campanian stage is represented by two horizons. The lower horizon consists of coquinoid limestone with clay partings. Senonian foraminifera have been recovered from the core of boreholes 2 and 1, drilled in the Khwaja-Gogerdak and Yatim-Tag areas, respectively. The upper horizon consists of fine-grained calcareous sandstone succeeded by interbedding calcareous clays, marls and limestones. This part of the section carries Campanian-Maastrichtian foraminifera : Anomalina aff. dainel Mjalt., Cibicides aff. bembex Marss. recovered from a 310-313 m interval of borehole 1, at the YatimTag area. Physical properties of Coniacian-Campanian rocks are poorly studied. As evidenced by single measurements, sandstone porosity varies from 2-5% to 8.5-9.5% and permeability from zero to 2-5 millidarcy. The thickness of the Coniacian-Campanian together with the closely associated Turonian clays is 505-790 m in the Yatim-Tag, Khwaja-Gogerdak, Khwaja-Bolan, Jarquduk and other areas. Northwards it increases reaching 1,561 m in Mohammad Jandaghar. To the west, south and east the thickness reduces measuring 232-250 m in the Khwaja-Qol and Jigdalek, 277-401 m in the Angot and Awdan and 569 m in the Khanabad area.

Cretaceous, undifferentiated
The undifferentiated Cretaceous sequence includes hard-to-study various facies of sedimentary-volcanogenic rocks which contain very scant fossils. The sequence is recognized in the Dari Rod Trough, in the Tarnak and Chagay zones. The sections of the sequence are different in the two zones.

Tarnak Zone In the Tarnak Zone, the Cretaceous sequence was studied by G. Gabert (128), A. Hess (180), Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144), Yu.M. Koshelev et al. (222), V.I. Slavin (393), and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (371). Yu.M. Koshelev et al. (222) subdivided the Cretaceous sequence of this zone into three parts. Lower part The lower part (600-1,000 m) is represented by two types of facies, predominantly volcanogenic and volcanogenic-terrigenous. The volcanogenic rocks are exposed near the Shelgera village and at the south side 190

of the Dachunar Ghar Ridge. These are variegated andesite porphyry, andesite-dacite, dacite and rhyolite porphyries and keratophyres interbedded with tuffaceous rocks of the same composition. The most abundant rock types are andesite porphyry and its tuff. At the base of the unit, the andesite porphyry and its tuff include sandstone, siltstone and shale beds reaching 15 to 30 meters in thickness. The upper portion of the unit is composed of acid and intermediate lavas and lava breccias. The total thickness of the unit is 1,000 meters. The volcanogenic-terrigenous rock types occur throughout the area concerned. These are represented by quartzo-feldspathic sandstones, siltstones and shales interbedded in the upper portion of the section by calcareous sandstones, limestones, gravelstones and conglomerates. Chert members are found occasionally. Volcanogenic rocks represented mainly by andesite porphyry and its tuff occur at different stratigraphic levels. Alternation of the rock types is irregular, though in the upper portion of the section rhythmic interbedding can be observed. Commonly, cycles start with coarse-grained calcareous sandstone and and with shale. The rocks are 600 meters thick. The volcanogenic rocks pass gradually into the volcanogenicterrigenous. The relationship of the unit concerned with the underlying formations has not been established. It is supposed that originally it lied transgressively on the Precambrian metamorphic rocks (222). The present-day structural pattern suggests that the lower contact of the unit is faulted everywhere. Organic remains are scarce. Poorly preserved remains of ammonites were collected in an area 20 kilometers east of Kandahar along the road to Spin Boldak, supposedly from the top of the unit (144, 319). After preliminary examination N.P. Luppov identified Costidiscus sp., Paraspiticeras sp., and Leptoceras sp. On this basis he dated the enclosing rocks as Barremian. Later he succeeded in identifying one of the forms as Costidiscus ex gr. recticostatus Orb., and placed the rocks into a range of Upper Barremian-Lower Aptian. Middle part The middle part (500 m) lies conformably on the lower and is composed of rudistid-orbitolina limestone. The representative outcrops of the unit are known in the Dashunar Ghar, Tashme Ghar, Khade Ghar, and Shorleq ridges, near Spin Boldak and Arghestan villages and in other localities. The most complete section was studied in Khade Ghar, where the unit is seen to overlie the lower volcanogenic unit. The lower 200 meters the unit consists of light grey, thick and very thick-bedded limestones with chert nodules and lenses and dark dolomite beds. The upper 300 meters of the section are made up of dark grey markedly bedded limestone with rare interlayers of gravelstone, conglomerate and marl. The rocks are abundant in fossils. Rudistids and oysters represented by Apricardia sp., Horiopleura sp., Eoradiolites sp., Turkmenia sp., were collected at the base. Actaeonella sp., Diptysis sp., Diozoptysix sp. and other gastropods occur at the top. In addition, orbitolinid remains occur throughout the section. The stratigraphic position of the series and the encountered fossils suggest Aptian-Albian age of the unit. G. Gabert (128) regarded the unit to be Albian in age. Upper part The upper part (200-3,000 m) is distinguished in the Tashme Ghar and Khade Ghar ridges, where the rocks of the unit constitute the cores of anticlines whose limbs are composed of limestone of the middle part. In the Khade Ghar Ridge, the unit consists of quartzo-feldspathic, inequigranular sandstone, sandy limestone, siltstone, marl and volcanites. In the Tashme Ghar Ridge, it is composed of brown sandy limestone interbedded with gravelstones, sandstones and siltstones. The rocks are separated from the underlying formations by an erosion surface. The overlying rocks are missing. Organic remains are represented by corals, which have not been identified so far. So, the age of the unit remains uncertain. Yu.M. Koshelev (222) dated it as Albian-Cenomanian.

Chagay Zone In the Chagay Zone, the deposits concerned were studied by V.I. Slavin et al. (149) and V.S. Drannikov et al. (371). As reported by these investigators, the Cretaceous sequence consists of volcanites known as the Loy Dor Series (149). No underlying formations are exposed. The rocks are overlain strongly unconformably by 191

Quaternary volcanics and drift sands of the Regestan Desert. V.S. Drannikov (371) divided the Loy Dar Series into three conformably lying rock units. Lower unit The lower unit consists of cherry-red and brick-red, crimson, red-violet, brown-green, yellowish-green, bright green and greenish-grey tuffs and tuff breccias, andesite, andesite-dacite and dacite lavas and lava breccias interbedded with siltstone, sandstones and limestones. The section of the rocks described from the the Dor River drainage basin, west of the Somali Mountain (2, 273 m) is as follows (371).
1. 2. 3. 4. Tuff of andesite and andesite-dacite porphyries, green-grey, thin-bedded, including dark grey sandstone and siltstone interbeds Tuffaceous siltstone, tuffstone and tuffaceous conglomerate interbedded with dark grey lavas of andesite and andesite-dacite porphyries Limestones, dark and light grey having a creamy-yellow tinge, organic-detrital, wholly composed of deformed shells of Albian bivalves of a Chondrodonta genus Tuff of andesite and andesite-dacite porphyries, variegated, interbedded with andesite and andesite-dacite lavas and including 3 to 5 centimeter interlayers of brown-grey limestone, green-grey siltstone and chert at the top 250 m 500 m 20-80 m 500 m

The total thickness of the sequence is 1, 330 meters. Middle unit The middle unit is composed of dark grey well-bedded lavas and lava breccias of andesite, andesite-dacite and basalt porphyries interbedded with compositionally similar tuffs and thin beds of calcareous sandstone, siltstone and limestone; rhyolite beds are occasionally encountered. The sequence is 1,000 meters thick. Upper unit The upper unit is also composed predominantly of lavas and lava breccias of andesite, andesite-dacite and basalt porphyries including rare interbeds of acidic volcanites. The rocks are greenish, dark and light grey and dirty-greenish-yellow in colour and massive in structure. A distinctive feature of the upper unit is the presence of horizons varying in thickness, which consist almost wholly of formations resembling volcanic bombs. The sequence is 600 to 1,000 meters thick, and the whole Loy Dor Series is 2,830 to 3,330 meters in thickness. And this is not the complete original thickness since the base of the series is not exposed, and the top is eroded. Below follows the description of the petrographic composition of the most common rock types of the Loy Dor Series (371). Andesite porphyries Andesite porphyries constituting a substantial portion of the series are grey, greenish-blue and brown-red rocks porphyritic, hyalopilitic, microprismatic-granular or pilotaxitic in texture. The rock consists of phenocrysts (40 to 60%) and groundmass. Phenocrysts are plagioclase (up to 50%), orthopyroxene (hypersthene), clinopyroxene (diopside) (up to 40%), amphiboles and diopside. The groundmass, microlitic or andesitic in texture, consists of plagioclase laths immersed into brown glass, and rare opaque minerals. Amygdaloidal types of andesite porphyry are distinguished by the presence of amygdales filled in with quartz, calcite, zeolite, epidote and chlorite and the absence of volcanic glass in the groundmass which consists of plagioclase and opaque mineral. Trachyandesite porphyries are trachytoid in texture and have phenocrysts of plagioclase, chlorite pseudomorphs after amphibole, and biotitized pyroxene. The groundmass consists plagioclase laths, orthoclase and chlorite.

192

Dacite porphyries Dacite porphyries which constitute a small portion of the Loy Dor Series are grey, dirty-yellowish-green and reddish rocks consisting of phenocrysts and groundmass. The rocks are porphyritic in texture, the groundmass being microprismatic-granular, microallotriomorphic-granular or microhypidiomorphic-granular in texture. Phenocrysts are zonal plagioclase, orthopyroxene and hornblende which is commonly wholly replaced by calcite and scaly biotite. The groundmass is composed of short-prismatic plagioclase laths and isometric Kfeldspar and quartz grains. Occasionally, hornblende and opaque mineral needles are encountered. Rhyolite porphyries Rhyolite porphyries forming thin interlayers in the Loy Dor Series are fine -to medium-grained, occasionally breccia-like rocks of green, grey, lilac-grey and white colour and porphyritic in texture. The texture of the groundmass is micro-felsitic or microspherulitic. Phenocrysts are quartz, sanidine and feldspar. The groundmass is composed of radially oriented K-feldspar microlites with quartz, sericite and fine flakes of biotite in between. Andesite porphyry tuffs Andesite porphyry tuffs are most widespread red, brown, violet, green and grey rocks, lithoclastic, lithiccrystal or vitroclastic in texture and of brecciated structure. The lithoclasts are andesite porphyries, plagioclase basalt, dacite, acidic and alkali rocks immersed into andesite matrix with rare porphyritic plagioclase phenocrysts. Intermediate-acidic tuff Intermediate-acidic tuff is similar to the previous tuffs in appearance and texture, but in addition to fragments of andesite porphyries it contains those of dacite and rhyolite. Rhyolite porphyry Rhyolite porphyry tuff is a grey compact rock of lithic-crystal and lithic-clastic texture and indistinctly fluidal structure. The groundmass is microfelsitic or vitrophyric in texture. Lithoclasts of aphyric and porphyric rhyolite are immersed into amorphous chloritized glass. Trachyrhyolite tuff Trachyrhyolite tuff is lithic-crystal or crystal-lithovitroclastic in texture and pseudofluidal in structure. The rock consists of crystallized ash particles of acidic composition which coat rhyolite, trachyte, dacite, andesite and other rock fragments. All the volcanogenic rock types of the Loy Dor Series have undergone secondary alteration. Intermediate rocks have undergone greenstone transformation which manifested itself in actinolitization of hornblende, saussuritization and chloritization of plagioclase and extensive development of epidote, including pumpellyite. Secondary alteration of acidic rocks has resulted in pelitization of K-feldspar and carbonatization of plagioclase. The rocks of the Loy Per Series are poor in organic remains. Apart from the above mentioned Albian bivalves, no other fossils have been found. Moreover, Albian bivalves have been collected in the lower portion of the series and its two overlying parts are unfossiliferous. These two parts may be either Albian or Upper Cretaceous. For this reason the age of the whole series is assumed to be Cretaceous. The counterpart of the Loy Dor Series is the Sinjrani Series from the south side of the Chagay Ridge within Baluchistan (163). The Sinjrani Series is pre-Campanian in age since it is overlain unconformably by CampanianMaastrichtian hippurite-bearing limestones of the Khumai series (163). So, the Loy Dor Series is likely to be pre-Campanian as well. At the same time it should be noted that the Loy Dor volcanites exhibit a great resemblance to the volcanites of the Lower Cretaceous sequence from the Tarnak Zone, and hence it cannot be ruled out that they may prove to be a stratigraphic and facies counterpart of the latter volcanics. This problem needs further investigation. 193

Maastrichtian-Paleocene
Undifferentiated Maastrichtian-Paleocene sequence is mapped in the North Afghanistan Platform, in the Turkmenistan-Horosan Region, and in Middle Afghanistan. In the two former regions it consists of terrigenous-carbonate rocks and in the latter, of volcanogenic rocks.

North Afghanistan Platform Maastrichtian-Paleocene deposits are most abundant in this region underlying extensive areas in a system of the Paropamiz, Firozkoh, Bande Turkestan, Farand and other ridges. They lie on the Campanian either conformably or with evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity, and unconformably on all the older formations. They are overlain by Eocene beds conformably within most of the platform, or with evidence of erosion in the south of it. The lower stratigraphic contact of the sequence is not quite distinct, being recognized at various intervals of Lower and Upper Maastrichtian Units in different areas; the upper contact corresponds to the top of Thanetian stage. The sequence extends into the USSR, where its Maastrichtian-Paleocene beds are exposed in South Turkmenia and South-West Tajikistan.

Qala-i-Naw Fault Block In this area properly studied sections of the Maastrichtian-Paleocene sequence are known from the Paropamiz and Firozkoh ridges. In the Paropamiz mountain system, the sequence comprises the topmost Maastrichtian and the whole of the Danian-Paleocene. Their outcrop are known in the Laman cirque and along the motor road from Qala-i-Naw to Balomurghab. They consist of limestones and a great amount of terrigenous rocks. The thickness of the rocks is 147-210 m. The Maastrichtian-Paleocene is represented by marine and the Danian by lagoonalcontinental and marine deposits. In the Laman cirque (347), the Campanian beds are overlain disconformably by;
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Limestone, cavernous Sandstone, brownish-red, gypseous Clay, bluish grey, gypseous Marls, grey and light brown Clays, lilac and green, calcareous Marls grey-brown, silty 7m 40 m 10 m 8m 2m 80 m

The beds are overlain conformably by Eocene deposits. The thickness of beds 1-6 is 147 m. Bed 1 (7 m) is Maastrichtian, beds 2-3 (50 m) are Danian and beds 4-6 (90 m) are Paleocene. Organic remains found in the rocks are pelecypods, identified as Chlamys dujardini Roem., Gryphaea aff. pitcheri Mort., in the Maastrichtian; Cardita sp., Cardiopsis sp., Lucina aff. microdonta Desh., in the Paleocene. The Maastrichtian-Paleocene sections were described south of the village of Siny, close to the road linking the Qala-i-Naw and Balomurghab settlements (147), where Campanian beds are overlain disconformably by;
1. Limestone, light-coloured, with interbeds and lenses of quartz sandstone. The limestone contains Maastrichtian pelecypods (Fogel, 1971); Orbignya vlasovi (Bobk.), Bournonia bournoni (Moul.) B. cf. excavata Orb. Biradiolites lumbricoides Douv., Sauvagesia sp., Limatula semisulcata (Nilss.), L. aff. ovata (Nilss.), Spondylus sp., Aequipecten cf. decemcostatus (Goldf.), A. cf. septemplicatus (Nilss.), Fragum cf. cerevicianum Pasic. 15 m

194

2. 3. 4. 5.

Sandstone and clay, grey-green, enclosing pelecypods of Danian appearance identified as Cardita (Venericardia) sp. Marl and sandstone, variegated, with Lima sp., Cardita sp. pelecypods of DanianPaleocene appearance Alternation of grey-green sandstone, sandy limestone and clay with gypsum lenses Limestones, grey and cream-coloured, thick-bedded Near the village of Khushmurg at the top of the limestone beds were collected Thanetian pelecypods: Pholadomya cf. cuneata Sow., Cucullaea aff. crassatina Lam., Corbis cf. davidsoni Desh.

10 m 15 m 10 m 160 m

The beds are capped conformably by Eocene deposits. The thickness of beds 1-5 is 210 m. Bed 1 (15 m) is considered to be Maastrichtian, beds 2-4 (35 m) Danian and bed 5 (160 m), Paleocene. In the Firozkoh Ridge, Maastrichtian-Paleocene deposits form a continuous cover. The section described from outcrops in the Okhankoshan, Rakhna, Kharbed, Jare Toygaht, Darrae Khushk, Darrae Wa'in and other river basins is as follows (147). Carboniferous-Triassic deposits are overlain unconformably by:
1. 2. Sandstone and conglomerate, red-coloured Limestone, organic-detrital, sandy, bearing Campanian-Maastrichtian pelecypods: Gryphaea vesicularis Lam., Lopha (Arcostrea) tadjikistanica Bobk., Exogyra cf. ostracina Lam. Chlamys cf. dujardini Roem., Spondylus sp. Siltstone with pelecypods and ammonites Limestone, organic-detrital, enclosing Exogyra cf. ostracina Lam., E. aff. decussata Goldf., Lopha (Arctostrea) aff. tadjikistanica (Bobk.), Hemiaster blankenhorni Gauth. Marl and argillaceous limestone with brachiopod and pelecypod remains Limestone, sandy, lumpy, with chert nodules and Campanian-Maastrichtian pelecypods: Gryphaea vesicularis Lam., Exogyra cf. overwegi Buch., E. cf. ostracina Lam., Lopha (Arctostrea) tadjikistanica Bobk., Chlamya cf. sokolovae Bobk., Ceratostreon spinosum Math., C. spinosum Math. var. malikensis Musaf.; brachiopods : Neoliothyrina ex. gr. obesa Sahni, Praeneothyris ovalis Katz. gastropods: Campanile afghanicum Djalilov, and Phymosoma sp. urchins Alternation of marl, lumpy limestone, calcareous sandstone and siltstone. The rocks carry Campanian-Maastrichtian pelecypods; Gryphaea vesicularis Lam., G. cf. vesicularis Lam. var. similis Pusch., Exogyra cf. ostracina Lam., E. overvegi Buch., Ceratoatreon spinosum Math. var. malikensis Muzaf., Neithes aff. quinquecostata Sow.; brachiopods: Neoliothyrina obesa Sahni; gastropods: Goniocylindrites (?) sp., Athleta sp. foraminifera: Orbitoides media (Arch.), Orbitocyclina ex. gr. minima Douv., Nummulites sp., Globotruncana sp. Limestone, grey, thick-bedded Sandstone, red, calcareous Alternation of marl and argillaceous limestone Limestone with Schizaster sp. Urchin remains of Paleogene appearance Marl with limestone partings Limestone, grey, bedded 100 m 7m.

3. 4. 5. 6.

30 m 10-20 m 30-50 m 50-70 m

7.

50-100m.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

15-30 m 2-3 m 20 m 150-200 m 30 m 20 m

These are followed by conformably lying Eocene clays. The thickness of beds 1-13 is 514-680 m. Beds 1-8 (292-407 m) are considered to be Maastrichtian, beds 9-10 (22-23 m), Danian, beds 11-13 (200-250 m), Paleocene. A different section of Maastrichtian-Paleocene sequence was reported from the Barikak Ridge south-west of the above mentioned outcrops (147), where Middle-Upper Triassic deposits are overlain unconformably by: 195

1. 2

Sandstone interbedded with conglomerate Sandstone, calcareous, bearing Late Cenomanian -Maastrichtian pelecypods: Liostrea cf. acutirostris Nilss., Ceratostreon aff. spinosum Math, and Praeneothyris aff. ovalis Katz brachiopods Limestone, light-coloured, thick-bedded with Campanian-Maastrichtian foraminifera: Orbitoides media (Arch.), Nummulites (?) sp., Globotruncana sp. Limestones, grey, thick-and giganto-bedded Limestones, argillaceous, thin-and medium-bedded

25 m 30 m

3. 4. 5.

40 m 180 m 57 m

The beds are succeeded conformably by Eocene clays. The thickness of beds 1-5 is 332 m. Beds 1-3 (95 m) are Maastrichtian and beds 4-5 (237 m) DanianPaleocene. East of Chaghcharan town, Maastrichtian-Paleocene beds outcrop in the Kutse-Ulya, Darrah-i-Khushkak, Jare-i-Khushk and other river basins, where they rest unconformably on the Proterozoic rocks (147). The section consists of:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sandstone and conglomerate, red-coloured Limestone, organic-detrital, enclosing Campanian-Maastrichtian foraminifera: Orbitoides media (Arch.), Orbitocyclina sp. Limestone with chert nodules and urchins of Maastrichtian appearance Alternation of limestone and marls Limestone with Paleocene Crassatella aff. bellovacensis Desh. pelecypods on the top 1m 2-7 m 10-50 m 100-500 m 500 m

The total thickness of the section is 613-708 m. Beds 1-4 (113-208 m) are Maastrichtian, and bed 5 (500 m) is Danian-Paleocene. To the north-west of the above-mentioned outcrops, in the Guldara River valley, 2.5 km north of the village of Khwazagak, a 50-60-meter unit of alternating limestones and marls correlatable with the above bed 4 bears Late Maastrichtian Hoploscaphites constrictus vulgaris Now. ammonites (147), which are characteristic of the "Inoceramus dobrovi" zone from the west of Central Asia. CampanianMaastrichtian pelecypods of Spondylus sp., Gryphaea cf. vesicularis Lam. were collected together with the ammonites. In the eastern part of the Firozkoh Ridge, the Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones rest on Campanian clays (147). The sections described from the Jare Gigonak, Acha Chap, Nawpul and Manore Sufla river basins consist of the following beds:
1. Limestone, organic-detrital, bearing remains of ammonites and urchins. The ammonites were identified by A.A. Atabekjan as resembling Campanian -Early Maastrichtian species. The urchins were identified by O.I. Schmidt as new species of Echinocorys tagobensis Schmidt Limestones, argillaceous, interbedded with marls Limestone similar to that in bed 1 Marl with clay partings and Late Maastrichtian Holposcaphites constrictus constrictus Sow., Baculites sp. ammonites and Cyclaster integer Seunes urchins. Limestone with Danian Echinocorys sulcatus Goldf. urchins in the lower 1/3 of the section 500 m 100 m

2. 3. 4. 5.

20 m 40 m

The beds are followed unconformably by Pliocene conglomerate. The thickness of beds 1-5 is 700 m. Beds 1-4 (200 m) are Maastrichtian, bed 5 (500 m) is Danian-Paleocene.

196

South of the above-mentioned outcrops, at the left side of the Hari Rod River valley (the area of the village of Dahane Bum), only the Maastrichtian - Danian part of the section is exposed. It consists of organic-detrital limestones with chert nodules and Early Maastrichtian ammonites and Danion urchins (147). The ammonites are Baculites cf. anceps anceps Lam., "Scaphites" sp. The latter form resembles the Early Maastrichtian species of the Haureceras sulcatum zone from the Kopetdagh and Europe. The urchins are Echinocorys sulcatus Goldf., Cyclaster danicus Ravn, Hemiaster inkermanesis Lor. The thickness of the limestone beds is 300 m.

Eastern segment of the Maymana Fault Block In this area Maastrichtian-Paleocene sequence is similar in lithology to this exposed in the Firozkoh Ridge, differing only in the succession of beds. Well studied sections are known from areas near the villages of Doabi Mebsarin and north of Ali-Mardan (217). Near the village of Doabi Mehzarin, the Neocomian-Lower Aptian red beds are overlain disconformably by:
1. Limestone, organic-detrital. Near the village of Andab limestone bears Maastrichtian rudistids and foraninifera: Orbignya vlasovi (Bobk.), Hippurities lapeirousei Goldf., Sauvagesia cf. attenuata Tavani, Lapeirouseia cf. darwaseana Bobk., Orbitoides sp., Loftusia sp. Limestone carrying Campanian-Maastrichtian pelecypods: Chlamys ex gr. dujardini Roem., Biradiolites aff. boldjuanensis Bobk. Clay, brown-red, carbonate Dolomite, brown-red, brecciated Conglomerate, inequipebble Limestone, grey, massive, oolitic Sandstone, variegated carbonate Clay, green and blue, slightly carbonate Limestone, grey, sandy Argillite, clay, and gypsum, variegated Limestone, grey Clay, blue, with siltstone partings Limestone, organic-detrital, with Gryphaea vesicularis Lam. var. similis Pusch. Limestone with Amphidonta sp., Ceratostreon sp. Limestone, grey, bedded Limestone, white, foraminiferal Limestone, organic-detrital, bearing Thanetian pelecypods: Modiola jeremejevi Rom. var. aberans Vial., Cardita multicostata Lam., C. pectuncularis Lam., Pectunculus terebratularis Lam., Cyprina ex gr. scutellaria Lam., Panope vaundini Desh. Limestone, foraminiferal Marl with foraminifera and pelecypods: Karreria fallax Rzehak., Globigerina pseudoeocenica Subb., G. varianta Subb., Anomalina sp. Gryphaea tournali var. wakhschenensis Vial. 35 m

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

18 m 10 m 4.5 m 9m 15 m 25.8 m 3.2 m 7.2 m 8.7 m 4.8 m 3.5 m 21.9 m 19.7 m 148.2 m 56.2 m 133 m

18. 19.

14 m 57 m

These are followed, with a conformable contact by Eocene clays. The thickness of beds 1-19 is 594.7 m. Beds 1-2 (53 m) are considered to be Maastrichtian, beds 5-14 (133.3 m), Danian, beds 15-16 (204.4 m), Montian and beds 17-19 (204 m), Thanetian. 197

North of the village of Ali-Mardan, the Turonian clays are overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Limestone, organic-detrital, with Terebratula aff. chrysalic Schloth. Marl with Late Maastrichtian amnmonites identified as Hoploscaphites constrictus Sow. Limestone, organic-detrital, foraminiferal Limestone, light grey, thick-bedded, argillaceous Marl, green-grey 66 m 54 m 518 m 114 m 25 m

These are followed conformably by Eocene clays. Beds 1-5 are 777 m thick. Of those beds 1-2 (120 m) are Maastrichtian and beds 5-5 (657 m) are Danian-Paleocene.

Pule-Khumri Area In this area Maastrichtian-Paleocene deposits are predominantly limestones. They are referred to in literature as the Gori Series (161). Representative sections are known from the areas of Pule Khumri and DodkashKarkar coal deposit (217). In the Pule Khumri area the eroded surface of Campanian strata is overlain by;
1. Limestone, 13 m below the top enclosing Campanian-Maastrichtian pelecypods: Ceratostreon spinasum Math, var. malikensis Musaf., Gryphaea vesicularis Lam., Spatangoides cf. striatoradiatus Laske Limestone, white, in some beds pink Limestone, cream-coloured and red, foraminiferal, bearing on the top Paleocene pelecypods: Cardium alternans Reuss, Cardita minutula Rom., Calyptraea suessoniensis Orb. 69 m

2. 3.

234 m 97 m

The thickness of beds 1-3 is 400 m, bed 1 (69 m) being Maastrichtian and beds 2-3 (331 m) being DanianPaleocene. A more complete and better faunally characterized section of Maastrichtian-Paleocene sequence is known from the Dodkash-Karkar mines, where the succession of beds is as follows.
1. Limestone, sandy, bearing Maastrichtian pelecypods: Praeradiolites aff. schurabdariensis Bobk., Ceratostreon spinosum Math. var. malikensis Mucaf., Gryphaea vesicularis Lam., Biradiolites boldjuanensis Bobk. Dolomite, calcareous Limestone with Maastrichtian rudistids; Praeradiolites aff. schurabdariensis Bobk, Lapeirousia aff. boldjuanensis Bobk. Limestones, grey and white Limestone, foraminiferal, with Paleocene pelecypods: Cardium alternans Reuss, Cardita minutula Rom., Calyptraea suessoniensis Orb. Limestone, organic-detrital, foraminiferal Limestone, foraminiferal, bearing Paleocene pelecypods Levicardium trifidum Desh., Cardita ferganica Mir. Gypsum, white, interstratified with bituminous marl 81.6 m

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

12.2 m 24.6 m 379 m 15 m 53.3 m 30.7 m 6m

These are followed conformably by Eocene clays. The thickness of beds 1-8 is 602.4 m, beds 1-3 (118.4 m) being Maastrichtian and all the overlying beds (484 m) Danian-Paleocene. 198

Kohe-I-Alburs-Shadyan and Karabatur Kartaw Mountains In this area the Maastrichtian-Paleocene sequence consists of limestones with a small amount of clay, gypsum and dolomite (217). In the Karabatur-Kartaw mountain system the Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones (603 m thick) rest disconformably on Campanian clays, the lower limestone beds bearing Campanian-Maastrichtian pelecypods: Gryphaea ex. gr. vesicularis Lam. var. similis Pusch. and Globigerina ex gr. cretacea Orb. foraminifera. The limestones are overlain by Eocene clays. In the Koh-i-Alburs and Shadyan ridges, outcrops of the Maastrichtian-Paleocene sequence are known from the lower course of the Samangan River (Khulm), where Turonian clays are overlain with a stratigraphic gap by:
1. 2. 3. 4. Limestone, massive, organic-detrital, foraminiferal Limestone, thick-bedded, with chert nodules Limestone, massive, organic-detrital bryozoan-foraminiferal Limestone, thick-bedded, organic-detrital above the base there is a bed of green clay with Paleocene Gryphaea antiqua Schwetz pelecypods and Eponides saginaris N. Byk., Anomalina ekblomi Brotz., Cibicides rigidus (N. Byk.). C. succedens Brotz., C. praeventritumidus Mjatl., C. lectus Vase., Globigerina varianta Subb., Acarinina conicotruncata (Subb.) foraminifera 77 m 60 m 527 m 32 m

The beds are overlain conformably by Eocene clays. The thickness of beds 1-4 is 496 m. Beds 1-2 (137 m) are supposed to be Maastrichtian, and beds 3-4 (359 m), Danian-Paleocene.

Unexposed areas of the platform In the plain and foothill areas of the platform, Maastrichtian-Paleocene sequence was penetrated by drill holes at different depths. The thickness is 200-600 m. The sequence is subdivided into two units, the Maastrichtian and Danian-Paleocene. Maastrichtian The Maastrichtian consists of dark-coloured and variegated sandstones, clays and siltstone interbedded with marls and limestones. Fossils are represented by foraminifera. These are Campanian-Maastrichtian Anomalina dainae Mjatl., Cibicides aff. bembex Marsa., occurring in the beds transitional from the underlying ones, and Maastrichtian Ammo-baculites aff. agglutinaus (Orb.), A. ex gr. glabra Cushm., A. excavatus Cushm. et Watt., Gyroidina turgida Hag., found at the top. The thickness of the rocks varies from 57-93 m in the Jarquduk area to 173189 m, in the Jangale-Kolon area. Danian-Paleocene The Danian-Paleocene is composed everywhere of limestone beds exposed at the arches of the Angot, Sheram, Kares, Yatim-Tag, Jigdalek and others anticlines. The upper beds in the Jigdalek area, pierced through by borehole 1, bear Paleocene foraminifera: Eponides aff. Saginaris N. Byk., Globigerina triloculinoides Plumm., Globorotalia membranacea (Ehrenb., Acarinina subsphaerica (Subb.). The lower beds are unfossiliferous and are assigned to Danian tentatively. The thickness of the Danian Paleocene sequence varies from 153 m in the Ahss to 420 m in the Karez area.

Turkmenistan-Horosan Region. Chaghcharan Trough Maastrichtian-Paleocene beds are not widespread in this region. The lower beds consist of limestone and the upper beds, of sandstones and siltstone. They are strongly unconformable with all the pre-Maastrichtian 199

strata and are overlain also unconformably by the Eocene. The most representative outcrops of the sequence are known in the Bande Ghulzar Ridge, at the right-hand side of the Hari Rod Valley (147), where the Proterozoic metamorphics are overlain strongly unconformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Limestone, light, organic-detrital Limestone, clayey, enclosing chert nodules Limestone, light grey, coquinoid Limestone, pink, organic-detrital, carrying pelecypods and foraminifers of the Orbitoid family Limestone, grey, bearing remains of Orbitoid foraminifera Limestone, black, clayey, enclosing chert nodules and remains of CampanianMaastrichtian foraminifers, brachiopods, pelecypods and ammonites, e.g. foraminifers: Orbitoides media (Arch.), Orbitocyclina ex gr. minima Douv., Siderolites ex gr. calcitrapoids Lam., Nummulites sp., and brachiopods: Prasneothyris subdepressa (Stol.), Cyclothyris (?) gibbosus Katz, Neobiothyrina (?) obesa Sahni Sandstone and siltstone interbedded with fine-detrital limestone, gravelstone and conglomerate 5m 40 m 20 m 15 m 60 m 500 m

7.

500 m

The beds are succeeded unconformably by Eocene deposits. The total thickness of the beds in the above mentioned section is 1,400 meters of which beds 1 to 6 are supposed to be Maastrichtian and bed 7, DanianPaleocene (?).

Middle Afghanistan The Maastrichtian-Paleocene sequence is supposed to include here volcanogenic rocks occurring in Central Badakhshan and in an area of Bawran village. In Central Badakhshan, the sequence concerned is exposed in the Nakhchir Par Zone (the Koh-i-TishalDarrah Ridge). It consists of grey-green andesite and andesite-basalt porphyries, their tuffs and tuffaceous conglomerates. The volcanite sequence is 1,000 meters thick. The rocks lie on Maastrichtian rudistid limestones with indications of erosion yet with no angular unconformity. The Maastrichtian limestones and the volcanics are folded into parallel folds. The deposits overlying the volcanics are eroded. The extension of the sequence in the USSR is the lower portion of the Bartang Series (39, 83.). The rocks are unfossiliferous and were assigned Maastrichtian-Paleocene age on the basis of their stratigraphic position and a close association with the Maastrichtian rudistid limestones. In the Bawran area, the Maastrichtian-Paleocene volcanics constitute a small fault block on the left-hand side of the Hari Rod Valley, south-west of the Abi settlement. The volcanics are similar to those of Koh-i-TashayDarrah Ridge, but they are more intensely altered and schistose, which is probably accounted for by the vicinity of a fault.

CENOZOIC
Cenozoic sedimentary rocks are abundant in Afghanistan. They are represented by marine, lagoonalcontinental and continental genetic types. In the northern regions of the country these rocks lie conformably, with gradual transitions on the Upper Cretaceous. Evidence of erosion can be observed locally, yet no angular unconformities were encountered. In other regions they rest unconformably on various older beds. Indications of local and regional erosion and angular unconformities are traceable inside the Paleogene, inside and at the base of the Neogene, and inside and at the base of the Quaternary. All the Cenozoic units are fossiliferous. Identifications of fossil remains were made by A.M. Penkova pollen, I.V. Vasiliev - flora, A.A. Ashurov and T.G. Parfionova - foraminifera and radiolaria, M.R. Jalilov 200

gastropods, A.G. Isseva and O.V. Cherkesoy - pelecypods. (Footnote: Mentioned here are the paleontologists who identified fauna and flora collections obtained during the survey made in 1968-1973 on a scale of 1:500,000. Those who examined the Cenozoic fossils collected previously are cited in the references.)

Paleogene
Paleogene rock units are known in all the regions of Afghanistan (Sketch Map No. 8). These are the youngest stratified rock units of Afghanistan in which marine sediments are abundant. In the north of the country, they lie conformably on Cretaceous strata and, combined with the latter, constitute a genetically uniform complex of marine cratonic-type deposits, which are absolutely similar to the contemporaneous deposits from South Turkmenia and South-West Tajikistan. In other regions of the country, the Paleogene sequence lies unconformably on all the older strata and consists of compositionally and environmentally variable marine and terrestrial volcanogenic-sedimentary facies of geosynclinal and orogenic origin, which are similar to the Paleogene from the internal and southern areas of the Mediterranean Fold Belt. The Paleocene beds of North Afghanistan, which are closely associated with Maestrichtian beds, have been considered above together with the latter. Elsewhere, the Paleogene sequence includes Paleocene, Eocene, Eocene-Oligocene and Oligocene units.

Paleocene
An independent Paleocene sequence is distinguished in Suleiman-Kirtar area (the Katawaz Trough). It rests unconformably on the pre-Paleogene strata and is overlain conformably by Eocene beds. Its thickness is 1,000-1,500 m. Relevant information on the Paleocene deposits is available in the works by O. Gauss (131, 133). M. Kaewer (189, 191), G. Mennessier (283, 285), Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145), Yu.S. Perfiliyev et al. (162), I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (371) and V.I. Slavin (393). The Paleocene sequence in the Katawaz Trough has been subdivided by I.M. Sborshchikov (371) into two units, one of basal conglomerates, and the other of shales and limestones. Basal conglomerate A Basal conglomerate sequence, varying in thickness from 10 to 450 m, consists of grey and variegated conglomerates interbedded with sandstone, siltstone, limestone and gravelstone. A 2-metre limestone bed occurring in the conglomerates bears Paleocene foraminifera: Dasicladsceae, Thyrsoporella sp., Dictyoconoides sp., Fasciolites sp. In the Altimur Ridge and in the adjacent to the east areas conglomerates are absent. It is believed that the conglomerate portion of the sequence is occupied there by the Shege Volcanics (145). The lower part of the volcanic sequence (400-500 m) consists of tuff conglomerates enclosing 100-150 m of calcareous-cherty rocks. The upper part (500 m) consists of spilite, diabase and dolomite with rare interbeds of limestone and calcareous-cherty rock. The thickness of the volcanic sequence is 900-1,000 m. The presence of volcanics at the Paleogene base was observed also along the Mukur-Chaman Fault in the southern part of the Katawaz Trough (222). The volcanics are unfossiliferous and are attributed to the Paleocene tentatively. Shale and limestone sequence A shale and limestone sequence (500-1,000 m) resting conformably on the basal conglomerates consists of dark-coloured and variegated shales and calcareous shales with interbeds and lenses of limestone, sandstone and gravelstone. It was correlated with the lower portion of the Urgun Series by O. Gauss (131, 133), the lower portion of the Osman Series, by M. Kaewer (190, 191), the lower portion of the Azra Formation, by Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145) and with the lower portion of a limestone-shale formation, by I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (371). The rocks contain very scarce fossils. In the Hesarak River drainage basin, the 201

lower beds of the sequence contain Paleocene pelecypods (145): Pitaria cf. similis (Leym.), Cerratocerritium ex gr. alloiteui Villate. To the north-west of Khost, a limestone bed occurring in terrigenous rocks bears Middle-Late Paleocene foraminifera (191): Assilina dandotica Davies, Alveolina ellipsoidalis Schwag., A. (Glomalveolina) minuta Reich., Miscellina miscella (Arch. et Haime), Nummulites cf. globules Leym., Ranikothalina nuttalli Davies. In an area 20 km north-east of Gardes, near the village of Khundur, flaggy organic limestone imbedded in shales carries Middle-Late Paleocene foraininifera: Pararotalia sp., Operculina sp., Discocyclina sp., Lockhartia sp., Miscellanea sp. On the basis of the listed fauna and the position in the section the age of basal conglomerates is assumed to be Early-Middle Paleocene and that of shales and limestones Middle-Late Paleocene.

Eocene
Eocene sedimentary rocks can be distinguished in the regions of Alpine folding and in the North Afghanistan Platform. In the former they are represented by geosynclinal facies and in the latter, by cratonic-type facies.

Suleiman-Kirtar Area, Katawaz Trough Eocene sedimentary rocks are most widespread among the rock types infilling the trough. These are darkcoloured and variegated shales and calcareous shales, argillites and siltstones with beds and lenses of sandstone, limestone and gravelstone. The sequence is 1,000-1,500 metres thick. It is conformable with the underlying aid overlying rock units. The sequence was correlated with the middle and upper portions of the Urgun Series, by O. Ganss (131, 133), with the middle and upper portions of the Osman Series and the whole of the Dobandi Series, by M. Kaewer (189, 191), the upper portion of the Azra Formation and the whole of the Spin Jumat and Hesarak formations by Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145), and with the upper portion of limestone-clay-shale unit and the whole of the limestone and clay-sandstone unit, by I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (371). The rocks are fossiliferous throughout the section. The lower beds carry an assemblage of Early Eocene foraminifera identified as Alveolina oblonga Orb., Assilina daviesi Cizanc., A. lacunata Cizanc., A. placentula (Desh.), Discocyclina douvillei Schwag., Nummulites Afghanicus Cizanc., Opertorbitolina douvielli Nutall. Upwards, all the way throughout the section, the sediments, contain Middle Eocene foraminifera: Assilina exponenais (Sow.), A. laminosa Gill., A. leymerie Arch., Alveolina elliptica Sow., A. leupoldi Hott., A. posticillata Schwag., A. schwageri Checc.-Rispoli, A. corbarica Hott., Discocyclina discus (Rutim.), D. javana (Verb.), Dictyoconoides cooci (Carter), Nummulites beaumouti Arch. et H., N.obtusus Sow., N. globulus Leym., N. fichtelli Mich., N. mamilla Fichtel et Moll., N. incrassatus Rarpe, N. atturicus Jally et Leym., N. dolloti Cizanc., N. exilus Douv., N. subramondi Harpe.

Turkisenistan-Horosan Region Eocene sequence is exposed along the Hari Rod River and at the southern foothills of the Firozkoh and Paropamiz ridges. It has been recently distinguished and hence is poorly known (96, 147, 201). Two series, Myanasang and Sangbor, are distinguished in the sequence. Myanasang Series Myanasang Series is recognized at the right side of the Hari Rod Valley, near the village of Hari Rod. It consists of metamorphosed limestones, shales, siltstones, marls, conglomerates and volcanic rocks. The thickness of the series is 1,500-2,000 m. It rests unconformably on Maestrichtian - Paleocene beds. No overlapping deposits have been detected. The series is divisible into three parts: the lower part (100-200 m) consisting of conglomerates, the middle part (300-400 m) composed of banded marmorized limestones and the upper part (1,000-1,500 m thick) made up of variegated thin-bedded calcareous shales, marls, sandstones and siltstones with layers and lenses of intermediate to basic volcanics.

202

Sanghbor Series Sanghbor Series consists of unmetamorphosed variegated sandstones, clays and siltstones with beds and lenses of conglomerate, gravelstone and acid to basic volcanics. The rocks exhibit a flysch-type interbedding. The thickness of the series is 2,000-3,000 m. It lies unconformably on MaestrichtianPaleocene and older strata and is overlain unconformably by Neogene beds. The relations with the Myanasang Series remain uncertain. The two series, slightly different in facies and the grade of metamorphosing, may be of the same age. Organic remains collected in the rocks are represented by Eocene nummulites (147): Nummulites uroniensis Heim., N. brongniarti Arch. et Heim, N. laevigatus (Brug.), N. Gizehensis (Forsk.), N. acutus (Sow.), N. nitidus Harpe, N. partschi Harpe, N. gallensis Heim., N. globulus Leym., N. perforatus Montf.

North Afghanistan Platform In accordance with the stratigraphic scale worked out for the southern part of Soviet Central Asia (435) the Eocene sequence of the platform is subdivided into the Suzak, Alay, Turkestan, Rishtan, Isfarin, Khanadab and Swasar beds. Some investigators include the Sumsar beds into the Oligocene sequence. The lithology and succession of the beds are different in various places of the platform. This difference served as the basis for differentiating the deposits into three subtypes, Afghan-South-Tajik, Badhyz and Gaurdak (305). They are described in many works and reports (55, 56, 292) and by the geologists of the Oil and Gas Department. Most thoroughly they are described in summary works by G.N. Khatiskazi et al. (217) and V.I. Bratash et al. (161). Afghan-South Tajik subtype The Afghan-South Tajik subtype of the Eocene deposits is reported from the area located east of the meridian of the town of the Shebergan. Its section includes all the beds mentioned above. Suzek beds The Suzek beds rest conformably on Paleocene limestones. They consist of bluish- and greenish-grey clays interbedded with gypsum, marl, limestone and sandstone. The representative section is known from an area south of Khulm (Tashqurgan). This section once served as a type section of the Tashqurgan Series (55, 292). The succession of beds in this section is as follows (217). The contact with Paleocene limestones is hidden beneath the debris. Above follow:
Clay, grey, marly, slightly gypseous, enclosing Pulsiphonina wilcoxenais Cushm., Eponides umbonatus (Reuss) foraminifera Clay, black, bituminous, slightly gypseous Clay, green, carbonate, bearing foreminifera: Recurvoides gracilina (N. Byk.), Gyroidina orbicularis Orb., G. depressaformis N. Byk., G. lobigerina varianta Subb., Acarinina pentacamerata (Subb.), Globorotalia crassata Cushm., Marginulina eofragaria Bal., Cibicides ainmophila (Gmb.), Globigerina triloculinoides Pl., G. varianta Subb., Uvigerina elongata Cole., U. asperula Czizek var. rossica Bal. Clay, green-grey, carbonate with sandstone partings and Ostrea hemiglobosa Rom. Sandstone, fine-grained, calcareous Clay, green, carbonate 88 m

1. 2. 3.

4m 222 m

4. 5. 6.

12 m 7m 3m

The total thickness of the Suzak beds in this section is 336 m. The lithological composition of the beds is persistent everywhere, and the thickness is variable (217, 350) measuring 36 m at the Dahane Tor coal deposit, 255.7 m at the right side of the Darah-i-Siwak River, 134 m near the village of Dashte Safed, 384 m near the village of Doab, 73 m east of Pule Khumri, 106 m at the Dodkash coal deposit, 205 m at the Koh-iKartaw, 155 m near the village of Marmol and 0-85 m, in the Koh-i-Alburs anticline. In unexposed areas of the platform, the Suzak beds build up two horizons, the lower, 57 m thick, consisting of bituminous marl interbedded with calcareous clays and the upper, 137 m, consisting of calcareous clay. 203

Alay beds The Alay beds lie conformably on the Suzak beds. The beds concerned are alternating limestones, sandstones and clays. The section described from an area south of Khulm comprises the following beds:
1. 2. 3. 4. Coquinoid limestone with Ostrea turkestanensis Born., O. afghanica Vial., Cardita wachschica Kash pelecypods Clay, yellow-grey, carbonate Coquinoid limestone with Ostrea turkestanensis Rom. var. baissunensis Rockm. Clay, green-grey, carbonate, bearing Ostrea alaica Vial., O. afghanica Vial., Panopaea tadjikistanica Kach. pelecypods, Rotalia ex gr. simakovi N. Byk., Baggina volvulineriaformis (N. Byk.), Cibicides infraferganicus N. Byk., Nonionella bykovas Vol., Hopkinsina bykovas Bal., Nonion Morozovae Limp. and other foraminifera Clay, brown, carbonate Sandstone, medium-grained Clay, carbonate interbedded with sandstone and conglomerate 3m 8m 7m 71.1 m

5. 6. 7.

46 m 6m 88 m

The thickness of the Alay beds in this section is 229.1 m. The succession of the beds is almost the same everywhere, and the thickness is variable, being 130 m in the Karabatur Mountains, 80 m in the Kartaw Ridge, 120 m in the Ambar and. 130 m in Schtali anticlines. Turkestan beds The Turkestan beds rest conformably on the Alay beds and consist of variegated clays, sandstones and siltstones with limestone interbeds. Over the greater part of the territory the rocks were eroded during preMiocene time. Natural outcrops are known south of Khulm, near the town of Khanabad, in the Karabatur Mountains, and in the Ambar and Sehtali anticlines. The section described South of the town of Khulm consists of two beds (217).
1. 2. Clay, brown-grey and rusty red, gypseous Clay, red, carbonate, with sandstone partings, enclosing Fatina esterhauzyi Pay. pelecypods 26 m 6m

The beds are overlain disconformably by Miocene deposits. The thickness of the Turkestan beds in this section is 32 m; it is 120 m near the town of Khanabad, 88 m in the Karabatur Mountains, 140 m in the Sehtali, 80 m in Ambar, 50 m in Ghanj and is in Mohammed Jundaghar anticlines. Rishtan, Isfarin, Khanabad and Sumsar beds The Rishtan, Isfarin, Khanabad and Sumsar beds were discovered in several outcrops from the Amu Darya belt of the Afghanistan South-Tajikistan Depression, in the structures of Sehtali, Sekuduk, Qaradum, Khwajay, Ambar, Khanabad, North Badom, Karabatur, Shamar and in the area of port Sharkhan. They consist of variegated clay and siltstone interstratified with sandstones and limestones. At the base of the section there is a gypsum bed up to 14 m thick. The greatest thickness of the beds is 150 m. They rest disconformably on the Turkestan beds (217). The Rishat, Isfarin and Khanabad beds contain scarce, not representative fossils. The Sumsar beds enclose Eocene-Oligocene pelecypods (161):Gryphaea sewerzowi Rom., G. sewerzowi Rom., Amphidonta ferganensis (Rom.). Gaurdak type of Eocene deposits The Gaurdak type of Eocene deposits is found north and north-west of Sheberghan. The succession of beds is similar to that in the Eocene sequence from the Gaurdak area in Turkmenia. In the Sheberghan area, the 204

Eocene sequence consists of carbonate-clayey deposits; it is thinner here and more abundant in gypsum and anhydrite than elsewhere. Suzak beds The Suzak beds lie conformably on the Paleocene. They consist of limestones and gypsiferous clays with Ostrea hemiobosa Rom, and Gryphaea camelas Burac. The beds are 100 metres thick. Alay beds The Alay beds overlie conformably the Suzak beds. They compose a uniform clayey-marly sequence, 20 to 50 metres thick. The beds contain scarce fossils. Turkestan beds The Turkestan beds lie conformably on the Alay beds. They constitute a clayey sequence, 20 to 30 metre thick, enclosing interbeds, lenses and inclusions of gypsum, sandstone and marl. Badhlz subtype of Eocene deposits The Badhlz subtype of Eocene deposits is found at the Paropamiz Ridge. The succession of the beds resembles that of the Badhlz subtype of the Eocene deposits exposed in the USSR (395). The sequence comprises the Suzak and Alay beds. The Turkestan and overlying beds are grouped together with the Oligocene into the undifferentiated sequence which considered separately. Suzak beds The Suzak beds rest conformably, in places with evidence of erosion, on the Paleocene sequence. They are grouped into three members. The lower member (50-100 m) consist of gypseous clay or siltstone interbedded with limestone and marl. The middle member (10-50 m), referred to in the USSR as the Kushka horizon, consists of yellow and pink fine-grained calcareous sandstones. The upper member, 150-250 m thick, consists of green and yellow clays with marl partings. The thickness of the three members is 200-380 m. Fossils found in the beds are Gryphaea antique (Schwetz.) G. camelus Burac.,G. cf. smirnowi Rom., Ostrea (Solidostrea) hemiglobosa Rom. pelecypoda and Eponides obtusus (Burr. et Holl.), Pullenia quinqueloba (Reuss) foraminifera. Alay beds The Alay beds rest conformably, in places with evidence of erosion, on the Suzak beds. They also build up three members referred to in the USSR as Sub Shar Safed, Shar Safed and Super-Shar Safed units. In areas adjacent to the USSR territory and in the Bande Ghandaw Ridge, the lower member (52 m) starts with a 14 m bed of sandstone followed by variegated clay 58 m thick; the middle member (28m.) starts with a bed of small-pebble conglomerate overlain by sandstone with clay and marl partings; the upper member (60 m) consists of 58 m of clay at the base, 13 m of sandstone and 9 m of red-coloured conglomerate. The total thickness is 140 m. To the south of the Bande Ghandaw Ridge, the sequence does not exhibit a three member structure and its thickness varies as follows: 100 m near the village of Khwaja Shahab, 44 m at the Sabzak pass, 241 m at the northern side of the Koh-i-Pirakha, 202 m at the right-hand bank of the Darya-i-Gala Chaghar and 325 m at the southern side of the Koh-i-Takht-i-Khanum Mountain. The beds are abundant in pelecypods: Ostrea turkestanensis Rom., O. baisunensis Bohm., O. cf. multicostata Desh., O. schirabadica Vial., O. cf. pseudobellovacina Koch., O. afghanica Vial.

Eocene-Oligocene
Undifferentiated Eocene-Oligocene sequence is recognized in all the regions of Afghanistan except the Region of Hercynian Folding. In all the regions it consists of acid to basic volcanics and a variable amount of terrigenous and carbonate rocks. The thickness varies between 150 and 2,000 m. The rocks rest on older formations unconformably. They contain scarce fossils and their age is inferred by the stratigraphic position.

205

North Afghanistan Platform and Turkmenistan-Kharosan Region The undifferentiated Eocene-Oligocene sequence is recognized only in the west of the platform and in a belt extended between the Hari Rod and Bamyan rivers. The sequence consists of acid to basic volcanics and a small amount of terrigenous rocks. It rests on the Alay beds unconformably and is overlain unconformably by Neogene strata. The thickness varies from 210 to 1,410 m. The representative section described from the Naw-i- Jurgha-i-Mazari is as follows (147):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Sandstone, red-coloured, interbedded with conglomerate Rhyolite and dacite porphyries Dacite lavas and tuffolavas Andesite porphyry, amygdaloidal Andesite and dacite porphyries Tuff conglomerate of dacite porphyry Andesite porphyry Dacite porphyry tuff conglomerate Andesite porphyry Intermediate tuff conglomerates Tuffstone and tuff conglomerate 40 m 30 m 80 m 400 m 200 m 100 m 200 m 10 m 50 m 200 m 100 m

The thickness of beds 1-11 is 1,410 m. The chemical composition of the rocks is given in Table 9. Table 9 Chemical composition of Eocene-Oligocene volcanics from the drainage basin of the Nawa-iJilgha-i-Mazar River.
Oxide SiO2 TiO2 A12O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 Loss on ignition Total 1 65.81 0.52 15.65 2.74 2.50 0.12 1.73 2.82 3.44 3.42 0.21 1.47 100.43 2 55.80 1.02 17.31 3.39 2.84 0.10 5.03 4.97 3.32 3.56 0.45 1.75 99.62 3 60.58 0.81 16.82 2.79 2.40 0.12 2.88 4.30 3.92 2.72 0.35 1.94 99.63 4 61.00 0.60 14.29 1.63 2.63 0.12 1.87 4.94 3.24 4.32 0.03 5.10 99.77 5 60.60 0.66 14.47 1.78 3.27 0.19 4.02 3.23 3.88 3.37 0.46 3.57 99.60 6 53.20 1.00 16.00 2.55 2.95 0.10 4.90 8.20 3.90 2.00 0.48 4.90 100.18 7 50.00 1.32 15.45 2.25 3.90 0.18 5.05 7.05 2.88 4.40 0.60 6.50 99.58 8 64.20 0.72 14.90 2.30 2.30 0.07 3.35 2.50 4.00 3.00 0.21 2.00 99.55

West of the Nawa-i-Jilgha-i-Mazar River, Eocene-Oligocene sequence is exposed at the Paropamiz Ridge. It consists of volcanics that are referred to as the Galagachar Series (347). The lower portion of the series (10206

120 m) consists of andesite and andesite tuff, the middle (150-210 m) of basalt and the upper portion (50-70 m) of trachyte. The thickness is 2 10-400 m. On the USSR territory, the counterpart of this series are apparently the Eocene volcanics exposed in the Badkhyz area in the south of Turkmenia.

Middle Afghanistan The Eocene-Oligocene sequence in this region is referred to as the Talaw Series which consists of andesite and dacite porphyries, tuffs and tuff conglomerates with interbeds and lenses of red-coloured and variegated sandstones, siltstones and conglomerates. In some places limestone beds occur. Basal red-coloured sandstones and conglomerates occur ubiquitously. The thickness of the sequence is 365 m. It rests strongly unconformably on older rocks, and is overlain by Oligocene beds with evidence of erosion. The most representative section of the sequence was described from the Talaw Basin, along the left side of the Shela-iSyahsangak River (103, 147), where Carboniferous-Triassic and Jurassic strata are overlain strongly unconformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Basal conglomerates grading to limestones with algae. Many pebbles are rudistid limestones with Radiolitidae, Horiopleura and other forms Andesite and dacite porphyries, their tuffs and tuffstones interbedded with sandstone, siltstone and aleuropelite Conglomerate, red-coloured, grading to algal limestone. Pebbles are sandstone, limestone, andesite and dacite porphyries Sandstone, thick-bedded, inequigranular Lava breccias and andesite and dacite porphyry tuff conglomerates, dirty brown, violet and lilac 25 m 110 m 80 m 50 m 100 m

These are followed by Oligocene beds of the Poykutal Series. Organic remains were not found in- situ in the Talaw Series. The rocks were dated Miocene-Oligocene tentatively. In the USSR the counterpart of the sequence is the Teshiktash Series of the South-East Pamir (73, 79).

Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass. The Wakhan Zone The undifferentiated Eocene-Oligocene sequence is exposed here at the upper reaches of the Aqsu river. It consists of andesite and trachyandesite porphyries interbedded with red sandstone and conglomerate (198, 200). The thickness of the deposits is 150-600 m. The sequence rests unconformably on Carboniferous-Jurassic strata and is overlain disconformably by Oligocene red sandstones and conglomerates. A direct extension of the sequence in the USSR is the Tashiktash volcanic series of the South-East Pamir (73, 79).

South Afghanistan Median Mass Eocene-Oligocene deposits are widespread in this region constituting wholly or partially superimposed basins of a varying size. The deposits extend into Iran where their lithological and stratigraphic counterparts are Upper Eocene and, possibly, Oligocene volcanites of Central Iran (162): Helmand-Argandab Uplift In this region Eocene-Oligocene sedimentary rocks are known as the Tangay Series (144). It consists of acid and basic volcanics lying unconformably on Lower Cretaceous strata. The composite section from the areas of Karez-i-Mir Hazar (606-A) and Tangay is as follows: 207

1.

Andesite tuff. A 0.2-metre lenticular limestone interbed occurring 20 m above the base encloses Eocene radiolarians: Cenellipsis cf. ellipsoides Limp., Cenodiscus cf. biconvecsus Limp., Cenosphaera sp., Dyrysphaera sp., Prunulum sp., Dicocapsa sp., Staveralastrum sp. and Assilina? sp., Dictonides sp. foraminifera Andesite porphyry lava breccia Tuff conglomerate Andesite-dacite, hornblende-biotite Hornblende-biotite dacite lavas Dacite lava breccia Interbedding of tuff and tuff lavas of dacitic composition Dacite, biotite-hornblende, aphyric Dacite tuff Dacite, hornblende-biotite Dacite-liparite tuff Interbedding of trachyliparite and liparite lava breccias Dacite, hornblende-biotite

35 m

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

130 m 35 m 50 m 68 m 92 m 30 m 45 m 30 m 55 m 15 m 50 m 108 m

The overlying rocks are eroded. The thickness of the Tangay Series is 743 m. The series has almost the same composition, succession of beds and their thicknesses in other outcrops. Farah Rod Trough The undifferentiated Eocene-Oligocene sequence is known here as the Shindand Series (152) composed of acid and basic volcanics resting unconformably on the Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous strata. The thickness of the rocks is 470-1,922 m. Starting the Paleogene sequence, the Shindand Series underlies most Cenozoic basins of the region (152). Table 10
Oxide SiO2 TiO2 A12O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 Loss on ignition

Chemical composition of the Miocene-Oligocene volcanics of the Tangay Series.

1 53.57 1.17 18.32 3.40 4.36 0.12 2.77 8.73 2.34 0.60 0.24 4.39 2 58.83 0.90 17.00 2.40 3.50 0.11 3.25 6.65 2.65 1.68 0.16 2.37 3 57.71 0.90 15.52 1.30 4.82 0.14 2.98 5.70 1.78 1.90 0.16 7.15 4 57.68 0.94 16.82 0.54 5.33 0.16 4.01 6.84 2.00 1.55 0.17 4.18 5 50.70 1.05 17.61 1.31 4.82 0.17 4.49 6.51 3.00 1.65 0.11 7.15 6 50.86 1.50 17.54 1.25 5.87 0.19 4.72 5.70 2.84 0.90 0.26 7.97 7 51.35 3.00 15.91 6.50 3.06 0.18 2.49 6.82 2.87 2.15 0.82 4.46

208

Total

100.01

100.12

100.63

100.74

99.65

99.60

99.61

1-4 - andesite; 5-7 - andesite-basalt Tawdanak Trough The Eocene-Oligocene section was described from the outcrops encountered near the village of Durbar, where Upper Aptian-Albian rudistid limestones are overlain with angular unconformity by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Conglomerate consisting of pebbles of Aptian-Albian rudistid limestones Sandstone, red-coloured Andesite, aphyric, amygdaloidal Conglomerates, dirty red, coarse pebble Tuff lava, dirty lilac, dacitic Andesite, green-grey, massive aphyric Dacite are andesite, fine-fluidal Andesite-porphyrite, amygdaloidal Basalt, dark brown, aphyric Andesite, green-grey, aphyric 3m 10 m 30 m 20 m 10 m 180 m 180 m 150 m 15 m 220 m

The overlying beds are eroded. The thickness of this section is 818 m. The Larband and Taywara basins are situated north-east, on the extension of the Tawdanak Basin. The basins are smaller in size but the Paleogene sections are more complete than in the Tawdanak Basin. Larband Basin The succession of Eocene-Oligocene beds is as follows. Aptian-Albian limestones are overlain with a slight angular unconformity by:
1 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Boulders and blocks of Aptian-Albian limestones Conglomerate, pale red, thick-bedded with pebbles of Aptian-Albian limestones varying in size Sandstone, bright red Conglomerate, dirty-red; pebbles of medium size Sandstone, bright red Andesite and andesite-dacite, dirty lilac, violet ant dirty green-grey 0-30 m 50-70 m 5-8 m 10 m 5-7 m 400 m

These beds are followed by Oligocene red sandstones and siltstones with indications of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity. The total thickness of the Eocene-Oligocene unit is 470 to 525 metres in this section. What distinguishes this section is an easily recognizable basal unit (beds 1 to 5), totalling 70 to 125 metres in thickness, and a reduced thickness (400 m) of volcanites. A roughly similar section of Miocene-Oligocene sequence is reported from the Taywara Basin, though the basal unit is reduced to 5 metres there and the vulcanite thickness is increased to 700 metres. Shindand and Adraskan Basins These two basins, which seem to have been a single structure in Paleogene epoch, exhibit three different sections of rocks. One of them was reported from the outcrops available between Kalmashaw and Shindand 209

settlements. This is a composite section. The lower beds were observed in the Kalmashaw area, along the northern foot of the Kalmashaw Ridge. The middle and upper beds were described northwards, in the Kaftar Ridge. The Valanginian-Hauterivian terrigenous deposits are overlain unconformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Conglomerate, grey, inequipebble; all Cretaceous rock types are represented in pebbles Sandstone, tuffaceous, grey and malachite green, with fragments of acidic volcanites, carbonatized Trachyandesite porphyry with rare interlayers of red tuffstone Rhyolite-trachyte porphyry Interbedded effusive rocks, lava breccias and fluidal tufflavas of trachyrhyolite composition Interbedded acidic lava breccias and tufflavas with rare layers of rhyolite porphyry 2m 20 m 600 m 300 m 300 m 700 m

The thickness of beds 1 to 6 is 1,922 metres. This is the greatest thickness of Eocene-Oligocene volcanics measured within the area concerned. A distinctive feature of this section is a wide occurrence of subalkalic rock types and an easily recognizable upper portion of the unit which consists of acidic and moderately acidic volcanites (1,300 m). All the rocks are redstone-altered. The clastic material of tuff-lavas is abundant in fragments of hyalopelitic andesite porphyry. Carbonate, quartz and chlorite fill in numerous amygdales in intermediate rocks and fluorite, in acidic rocks. Another section of the sequence studied within the Shindand and Adraskan basins was reported from an area of Shand settlement. The base of the section is not exposed, and the top is eroded. The exposed portion of the Eocene-Oligocene volcanic sequence can be divided into two members. The lower member , 700 metres thick, consists of dacite-andesite and andesite porphyrites with tuff lava and tuff breccia interlayers. These are followed by 500 metres of rhyolite-dacite porphyry and acidic tuff. Layers of trachyandesite porphyry and subalkaline andesite-basalt porphyry appear at the top of the tuff. The total thickness is 1,200 metres. Finally, one more section of Eocene-Oligocene volcanic rocks was described from an area near Mir-Ali Pass, where a fault surface is overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Pyroxene andesite porphyry including 5 to 10-metre layers of amygdaloidal tuff of the same composition Andesite tuff and tufflava Dacite and rhyolite tufflava Aphyric andesite porphyry Rhyolite tufflava Andesite porphyry and tuff with inter- beds of graywacke sandstone Sandstone and gravelstone, calcareous and volcanomictic with 25- to 30-metre members of subalkaline basalt porphyry 500 m 60 m 100 m 100 m 300 m 350 m 100 m

The total thickness of beds 1 to 7 is 1,510 metres. Table 11

Oxide SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3

Chemical composition of the Eocene-Oligocene volcanics of the Shindand Series.

1 62.60 1.56 15.9 3.79 2 55.09 1.09 17.51 4.78 3 58.13 1.15 18.92 2.60 4 58.52 1.47 16.97 3.66 5 45.55 2.19 17.64 4.80 6 74.50 0.16 13.75 0.94 7 71.68 14.30 0.09 8 83.39 0.12 8.47 0.26

210

FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 Loss on ignition Total

0.16 0.20 0.36 4.82 3.90 3.48 0.47 4.89 100.01

2.48 0.26 4.29 6.45 2.60 2.46 2.60 2.47 99.70

1.48 .020 0.89 6.97 3.49 3.48 0.40 1.90 99.52

3.19 0.24 2.25 5.46 3.92 3.00 0.47 5.40 99.55

5.47 0.25 6.24 8.27 3.64 0.80 0.53 -

0.77 0.04 0.21 0.59 2.60 5.48 0.12 -

0.57 0.03 0.40 0.56 1.00 8.85 0.08 -

0.88 0.06 0.10 0.44 1.00 3.72 0.11 -

1 - dacite porphyry (Pasaband); 2-3 - andesite porphyry (2 - Mir Ali, 3 - Shindand); 4-5 - basalt porphyry. (4Shindand, 5 - Taywara); 6-7 - liparite porphyry (6 - Abul, 7 - Pasaband); 8 - porphyry lava breccia (Abul).

Oligocene
The Oligocene, as a separate unit, is recognized in the Suleiman-Kirtar area, in Middle Afghanistan, and in the South Afghanistan Median Mass. In the Suleiman-Kirtar area the rocks are predominantly marine and in the remaining regions, continental. The Suleiman-Kirtar Area The Oligocene beds are found in this area in the Katawaz Trough only. They make up the upper predominantly sandstone portion of the Paleogene sequence which is 2,490-4,550 m in thickness. Though the lower sandstone beds are of Eocene age, they are so far not separable from the Oligocene, and are therefore discussed here together. In the Katawaz Zone two units of the rocks are distinguished in the Oligocene sequence. The lower unit consists of polymictic and quartzo-feldspathic sandstones with interbeds of dark and variegated siltstones, shales, calcareous shales and marls. There are occasional conglomerate beds. The thickness of the unit is 1,000-1,500 m. It is referred to as the Sultane Series by O. Ganss (133), as the lower part of the Galang Series by M. Kaewer (189, 191) and as the Tangrak Series by Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145). Organic remains are plant detritus, pelecypods, gastropods and rare bones of vertebrates. I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (371) reported a list of Middle Late Eocene Nummulites and alveolines represented by Nummulites vonderschmitti Schaub., N. fichteli Michel. N. fabioni Prever, Alveolina (Glomaveolina) lepidula (Schwag.), though it is doubtful that they come from this series. O. Ganss (133) mentioned findings of Middle Late Eocene foraminifera but did not quote any lists of these foraminifera. J. Bruggay (38) reported a finding of Meretrix cf. incrasata Sow. at the base of the series. The upper unit (1,490-3,050 m) rests conformably on the lower and consists of quartz-carbonate and polymictic sandstones with interbeds and lenses of limy gravelstone, conglomerate and variegated calcareous shale and marl. It is referred to as the Sarawsa Series by O. Ganss (133) and as the upper portion of the Galang Series by M. Kaever (189 191), C. Reul distinguished four members in it. The first member (1,0002,000 m) was referred, to as "upper flysch sandstone". The second (40-250 m) consists of marly shales with shell limestone interbeds. The third (150-500 m) resting disconformably on the preceding one consists of sandstones with conglomerate lenses. The fourth (300 m) lies conformably on the third and consists of finegrained sandstones, siltstones and argillites. Fauna remains are poorly preserved and therefore unidentifiable. Flora remains are Oligocene and Oligocene-Miocene forms. These are Dipterocarpus antiquus Heer known from Y. Bruggays collection (38), and Phragmites oecingensis A Br., Paucites sp., Juglans acuminata A. Br. var. latifolia Hear, Ulmus cf. 211

carpinoides Goepp., Terminalia radobojensis Ung., Andromeda (?), Rhododendron sp., Dicotylophyllum sp., from I.M. Sborshchikov's collection (371).

Middle Afghanistan In this region Oligocene deposits are known as the Poykutal Series which is exposed in the cores of Paleogene basins. The series consists of variegated sandstones and siltstones with beds and lenses of conglomerate, gravelstone and intermediate to acid volcanics. The thickness of the series is 1,050 m. It rests on Eocene-Oligocene volcanic rocks disconformably and is overlain unconformably by Neogene beds. A complete section was described from the Talaw Basin (152), where the following beds are exposed:
1. 2. 3. Conglomerate, pale red, inequipebble Sandstones, variegated with 0.5-3 m bed of dacite lavas at the base and a 50-metre band of argillite and gypsum at the top Tuff conglomerates of andesite and dacite porphyries 50 m 500 m 500 m

The section is succeeded unconformably by Pliocene conglomerate. No fossils were found in the rocks, and they were included into the Oligocene tentatively. Their counterpart on the USSR territory is the Kyzylrabat Series of the South-East Pamir.

South Afghanistan Median Mass Oligocene deposits compose the cores of Paleogene basins. These are red and variegated sandstones and siltstones including interbeds and lenses of conglomerate, gravelstone and intermediate to basic volcanites.

Helmand-Argandab Uplift Oligocene deposits are known here as the Cajao Series exposed in the Cajao Basin which is located to the north-west of the Tezak Pass. The deposits are red-coloured and variegated sandstones and siltstones with beds and lenses of conglomerate and gravelstone. The sediments are poorly studied. Their thickness is estimated to be 500-1,000 m. Farah Rod Trough In this area Oligocene deposits are known as the Taywara Series consisting of both regularly and irregularly interbedding red-coloured and variegated sandstones, siltstones and argillites with beds and lenses of conglomerate, gravelstone and acid or basic volcanics. The thickness of the series is 1,575 m. It rests on the Shindand Series of Eocene-Oligocene age with evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity and is overlain, also unconformably, by Neogene beds. The sections of the series were described from the Larband and Taywara basins (152). Larband Basin In the Larband Basin, only the lower portion of Oligocene sequence is exposed in the core of a broad intact syncline whose limbs are composed of Eocene-Oligocene volcanics. Volcanics are overlain here conformably, yet with evidence of erosion by:
1. 2. 3. 4. Sandstone, red, volcanic Sandstone, red, volcanic, with intermediate tuff partings Sandstone, red, volcanic Tuff conglomerate, lilac 50 m 25 m 30 m 30 m

212

5.

Sandstone and siltstone, red, with rare interbeds of conglomerate and gravelstone

500 m

The rocks are 635 m thick. The younger beds are eroded. Tawara Basin Sedimentary rocks of Oligocene age occur in the core of an asymmetrical faulted syncline whose limbs are built up of Holocene-Oligocene volcanics. The Oligocene sequence consists here of two units. The lower unit has the following succession of beds. Eocene-Oligocene volcanics are overlain disconformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Tuff conglomerate, red, with pebbles of Lower Cretaceous orbitoidal and rudistid limestones and Eocene-Oligocene volcanics Tuffaceous sandstone interbedded with tuff gravelstone and tuff conglomerate Sandstones and conglomerates, red Andesite, lilac Sandstones aid gravelstones, red, parallel- and cross-bedded, with bands and single beds of inequipebble conglomerate 200 m 50 m 30 m 10 m 1,000 m

Above, after a stratigraphic gap, follow conglomerates, sandstones and volcanics of the upper unit having the following succession of beds:
6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Conglomerate, red-brown, inequipebble Olivine basalt Sandstone, red Andesite-basalt porphyry Sandstone, red Andesite-basalt porphyry Sandstone, red Trachybasalt Sandstone, red Andesite-basalt porphyry Sandstone, red Andesite-basalt porphyry Sandstone, red Andesite-basalt porphyry Sandstone, red Andesite-basalt porphyry 20 m 95 m 20 m 7m 5m 8m 12 m 5m 10 m 8m 10 m 10 m 15 m 15 m 15 m 30 m

Above follow unconformably lying Pliocene deposits. Beds 1-5 (1,290 m) constitute the lower unit and beds 6-21 (285 m) the upper unit of the Taywara Series whose total thickness amounts to 1,575 metres. Approximately the same thickness was reported from the other basins except for Shindand and Adreskan, where the Taywara Series reaches 4,000 metres in thickness (152). The deposits of the Taywara Series are unfossiliferous and thus are assigned Oligocene age on the basis of their occurrence above the Eocene-Oligocene volcanics. 213

Neogene
Neogene deposits are of continental origin. At the base the sequence consists of red and variegated deposits and at the top, of variegated and grey, fine and coarse terrigenous varieties. In some places evaporites, carbonate rocks, coal and volcanics are found in the Neogene sequence. The deposits were formed in submontane and intermontane superimposed basins. Their thickness varies from several metres to 13,000 m. They rest unconformably on all the older rocks and are overlain also unconformably by Quaternary deposits. The fossils are scarce and not representative. For this reason they are differentiated tentatively on the basis of the comparison with other better known Neogene sequences from adjacent areas of the USSR. The sequence is subdivided into the Miocene and Pliocene parts.

Miocene
Miocene deposits build up the lower red-coloured and variegated portion of the Neogene sequence varying in thickness from 300 to 6,550 m. In the most complete sections from North Afghanistan, the lower, Middle and Upper Miocene units have been tentatively recognized, whereas in. the remaining part of the country the sequence is mapped as the Miocene, undifferentiated (Sketch Map 8).

Lower Miocene
The Shafay Formation in North Afghanistan is assumed to be of Early Miocene age (161). It consists of redcoloured clay, sandstone and siltstone with limestone layers, lenses and nodules. The thickness of the formation is 200-750 m It rests on Eocene strata disconformably and is overlain conformably by the Middle Miocene Kashtangi Formation. In the most complete sections (Pule Khumri, Talikan) the Shafay Formation is separable into two units with a surface of erosion in between. The lower unit (200-350 m) consists of clay with sandstone partings, and the upper (200-400 m) of siltstone, sandstone and clay interbedded with gravestone and small-pebble conglomerate. The Early Miocene age was assigned tentatively. In composition it is similar to the Boljuan Formation of South-West Tajikistan (73).

Middle Miocene
The Kashtangi Formation of North Afghanistan is believed to be of Middle Miocene age (161). It consists of red-brown siltstones, sandstones and clays interbedded with conglomerates. Limestone interbeds were found at the base of the formation in the Sheberghan-Khulm belt. The thickness of the rocks is 300-2,000 m. The relation with the underlying deposits varies. In the east of the platform, the Kashtangi Formation rests conformably on the Lower Miocene Shafay Formation, and in the west it overlies unconformably Eocene or Cretaceous strata. The most complete sections are known from the east of the platform, near the village of Rushtak, the Khanabad town and in the Sangcharak Basin. Near the village of Rustak, the Kashtangi Formation consists of three members (153). The lower member, 700-850 m thick, consists of red siltstone and clay with sandstone and conglomerate interbeds. The middle member 700-900 m thick, is made up of variegated siltstone with conglomerate bands. The upper (250 m) member consists of alternating 5 to 15 m thick beds of brown siltstone, sandstone and conglomerate. In this area the total thickness of the formation is 1,650-2,000 m. In the Khanabad area (in Ambar and other structures) the formation is also separable into three members though the lithology of the members is somewhat different (161): the lower member consists of red-brown clay with sandstone partings (780 m), the middle member is made up of brown gypseous siltstone and clay with limestone interbeds (613 m) and the upper member is composed of red and brown gypseous clays (320 m). Here the total thickness of the rocks is 1,713 m. In the Sangcharak Basin the Kashtangi Formation consists of two members. The lower member, 400 m thick, consists of brown gypseous clay interbedded with conglomerates and sandstones. These are followed by a 500 m thick unit of brown-grey siltstone with conglomerate lenses. The total thickness is 900 m.

214

In the west of the platform, in the Kalarin Trough, the Kashtangi formation encloses, along with sandstone, a great amount of red-coloured conglomerates. Its thickness varies there from 300 to 800 m. The formation contains scarce fossils. In the Sheberghan-Khulm belt, limestone interbeds at the lower portion of the section enclose Planorbis cf. corn. Brogr. var. mantelli Dunk. In the Sangcharak Basin, the lower beds of the sequence contain Globigerina officialis Subb., Bulimina ovata Orb., Cibicides sp. Nodosaria sp. (161). All the forms indicate Miocene age of the rocks. They were dated Middle Miocene tentatively. Their stratigraphic equivalent in the USSR is the Hingaus Formation from South West Tajikistan (73).

Upper Miocene
Late Miocene age is assigned to the Rustak Formation exposed in North Afghanistan, Afghanistan- South Tajikistan Depression (161). It rests conformably or with evidence of erosion and angular unconformity on Middle Miocene beds and is overlain also either conformably or disconformably by Pliocene sediments. Formation of the Rustak beds is related to the erosion of the Hendukush-Badakhshan mountain system and accumulation of clastic material in the foredeep. At the foothills, the Rustak Formation consists of red conglomerate with members, single layers and lenses of gravelstone and sandstone (161). Far from the mountains, at the mouth of the Kokcha River and near the towns of Qundus and Talikan, the predominant rocks are brown, brown-grey and variegated siltstones, sandstones and clays with interbeds of small-pebble conglomerate. According to V.I. Bratash et al. (161), the thickness of the formation varies from 2,000 to 3,000 m. A relatively complete section is known from the Dashtak area in North-West Badakhshan. It consists of three members (161). At the base red conglomerates outcrop interbedded with sandstones and siltstones (1,000-1,200 m), in the middle part pink and red sandstones occur with beds of gravelstone and small-pebble conglomerate (150 m), and at the top grey and red sandstones are found enclosing small pebbles and gravels (70 m). The total thickness of the rocks in this section is 1,200-1,420 m. The following assemblage of pollen was identified from the upper beds of the formation: Ulmus Salix, Fraxinus, Chenopodiaceae, Polygonum, Rosaceas, Umbelliferae, Dipsacaceae, Compositae, Potamogeten. In the USSR a similar spore and pollen assemblage is known from the Upper Miocene Tavildarin Formation (73), South West Tajikistan. Similar spore and pollen assemblage was found in the Rustak beds from the Hazar Valley (153) near the village of Samti: Ulmus, Moraceae, Caryophyllaceae, Gypsophila, Salsola, Chenopodiaceae Polygonum, Rosaceae, Umbelliferae, Dipsacaceae, Artemisia, Compositae, Potamogeton, Gramineae. A somewhat younger assemblage was found in the Rustak beds in the areas of Fachar Gazistan village and near Pule Khumri town (142). This comprises Licopodium, Sphagnum, Osmunda aff. Cinnamoca, L., Triporites, Taxodium, Ephedra eff. scoparia Bge., E. aff. strobilaceae Bge., Quercus Alnus, Juglans regia L., Juglans, Carys, Myrica, Tilia cordata Mull., Artemisia, Texocladaceae, Cichotium. Bearing in mind that Juglans regia L., Carya and Tilia cordata are Pliocene forms, it is admitted that the top of the Rustak Formation may be of Pliocene age. In the USSR a stratigraphic equivalent of the Rustak Formation is the Tavildarin Formation from South-West Tajikistan (73).

Miocene, undifferentiated
Undifferentiated Miocene sequence was distinguished along the southern margin of the North Afghanistan Platform, in Middle Afghanistan in the Nurestan-Pamir and South Afghanistan Median masses, as well as in the Region of Alpine Folding. Usually it is exposed in thrust sheets and fault wedges traceable within large fault zones, and in the core and peripheral parts of superimposed depressions and grabens. In all the regions the sequence consists of bright- and pale-red, at the top variegated and grey inequibedded, parallel- and cross-bedded, irregularly interstratified sandstones and conglomerates, sedimentary breccia and gravestones. In addition to these rocks, in some basins occur intermediate and basic volcanics and at the top lacustrine limestones, clays and marls. The thickness of the deposits varies from 300 to 500 m. They rest unconformably on all older formations and are overlain conformably or disconformably, and frequently unconformably by Pliocene-Quaternary sediments. The deposits are relatively well studied in the Yakowlang-Bamyan Graben. In the Yakowlang-Bamyan Graben, which is traceable at the southern periphery of the North-Afghanistan Platform, the Miocene sequence consists of two conformable units. The lower unit (100-200 m) comprises the Ghalah and Buddah formations (236) which consist of red sandstones, gravelstones, conglomerates and 215

breccias. The upper unit (200-300 m), referred to as the Gulgola Formation (236) is made up of variegated sandstones, clays, conglomerates, and lacustrine limestones and marls. The latter enclose Late Miocene (Sarmatian-Early Congerian) fossils represented by crocodile teeth, bones of birds, atriodactyls, amphibians and other organisms identified as Rhizomys mirzadi Lan., Kanisamus bamiani Lan., Bovidae, Leporidae cf. alilepus annectens Schlos., Planorbis ex gr. decorni L. Taking into account the listed fossils, the upper unit may be dated as Upper Miocene and the lower one as Lower-Middle Miocene on the basis of their stratigraphic position. The total thickness of the Miocene beds in this section is 300 to 500 metres. In all the other areas, the undifferentiated Miocene sequence, 300 to 500 metres thick, is supposed to include dark and pale-red conglomerate, sandstone, clay and siltstone beds of the lower portion of the Neogene sequence.

Pliocene
Pliocene deposits are more widespread compared to the Miocene. Along with Quaternary sediments, they infill all the recent basins of Afghanistan. The deposits are everywhere variegated and grey-coloured fineand coarse-terrigenous varieties. Occasionally the sequence includes lacustrine limestones and marls, as well as volcanics exposed in a number of basins. Their relationship with Miocene deposits varies from place to place. In the axial parts of the basins they normally rest conformably on Miocene while along the margins of the basins they exhibit a disconformable and often unconformable relationship. Everywhere they are overlain by Quaternary sediments disconformably. In the Afghanistan-South Tajikistan Basin and Seystan Depression, the Pliocene sequence is separable tentatively into the Lower and Upper Pliocene; on the remaining territory the sequence is mapped as undifferentiated (Sketch Map 9).

Lower Pliocene
Afghanistan-South-Tajikistan Basins In the Afghanistan-South-Tajikistan Basins Early Pliocene age was assigned to the Kokcha Formation whose numerous outcrops are known in the Kokcha-Panj interfluve (161). It consists of grey and pale brown parallel - and cross-bedded inequigranular sandstones, siltstones and clays. According to V.I. Bratash et al. (161), the thickness of the rocks varies between 6,000 and 7,000 m. At the right-hand bank of the Kokcha River, near the villages of Khwaja-Almas and Qochi the rocks contain the following pollen assemblage: Pinus excelsa, Platanus, Ulmus, Celtis, Moraceae, Ostrya, Fraxinus, Juglans sieboldianiformis, Hexacoplites, Caryophyllaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Polygonum, Roaaceae, Umbelliferae, Labiatae, Artemisia, Crepis, Compositae, Potamogeton, Gramineae. A similar pollen assemblage was encountered in the Early Pliocene Karanak Formation of the south-west Tajikistan (73). Seystan Depression Seystan Depression, Lower Pliocene deposits are known there as Registan Formation. They occur at the northern foothills of the Chagay Mountains where they outcrop within the plains of Marak-Dashte, MotoDashte, Soro-Dashte, Qaramhan-Dashte and other (371). The deposits concerned are variegated inequigranular sandstones interbedded with single beds and lenses of gravelstone and small-pebble conglomerate The thickness of the formation varies from 300 to 2,000 m. It rests unconformably on Cretaceous beds and is overlain conformably, and with evidence of erosion at the margins of the depression by Upper Pliocene beds.

Upper Pliocene
In the Afghanistan South Tadjikistan Basin, the Upper Pliocene sequence is referred to as the Keshm Formation (161) composed of grey sandstones and conglomerates. According to V.I. Bratash et al. (161), the formation is from 3,000 m to 4,000 m thick. The unit rests conformably on the Kokcha Formation of Early Pliocene age and is unconformable on the older beds. 216

The section described in the Sara Buzurg area exhibits the following succession of beds (153):
1. Interbedding of coarse-grained sandstones (60-65%) and medium- to coarse-pebble conglomerates. Single beds are commonly 0.5 or 0.8 m thick. The rocks enclose pollen Cedrus cf. deodora, Pinus sect. Strobus, P. sect. Cembrae,. Moraceae, Caryophyllaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Poligonum, Resaceae, Geraniaceae, Umbelliferae, Artemisia, Centaurea, Compositae Conglomerate, grey, interbedded with sandstones Sandstone, grey, coarse grained Boulder conglomerates with sandstone intercalations 80 m

2. 3. 4.

75 m 5m 270 m

The total thickness is 430 m. This is a type section with reduced thickness It extends farther north-eastwards to the Rawenjab, Ab-i-Tangi, Jerwab and other river basins (153). A spore and pollen assemblage was identified in the sediments from the Jerwab Valley. The spores and pollen are those of pine, fir, spruce, grasses, mari, ephedra and other plants characteristic of the Polizak Formation from southwest Tajikistan (75, 351). Southwards the sediments of the Keshm Formation are predominantly sandstones with a subordinate amount of gravelstones and conglomerates, the total thickness being 1,000-3,000 m. The sediments occurring near the village of Keshm were found to enclose the following assemblage of pollen (161): Lycopodium, Sphagnum, Pinus, Ephedra aff. scoparia Bge., E. off. strobilaceae Bge., Salsola rigida Pall., Atriplex sp., Kochia sp., Corisperum, Chenopodiaceae, Umbelliferae, Compositae. Seystan Depression In this depression sedimentary rocks of Late Pliocene age are known as the Seystan Formation. They outcrop from beneath the Quaternary cover in deeply incised valleys and at the margins of lake basins. The formation consists of pale-yellow and varicoloured, poorly cemented sandstones, siltstones and argillites interstratified with gravelstones and small-pebble conglomerates. The total thickness varies from 100 to 500 m. The sediments rest in some places conformably, in others with evidence of erosion on the lower Pliocene Registan Formation and unconformably on all older beds. A good section of Upper Pliocene sequence was reported from the left-hand bank of the Helmand. River, east of Khanneshin. The lower portion of the section comprises pink-yellow-grey arid red-brown sandstones with thin partings of gravelstones and conglomerates. These are followed by a monotonous unit of grey-coloured thin-bedded sandstones interbedded with sandy clays. In the area of Lake Hamune Saberi, the Upper Pliocene sequence consists of pale brown to ruddy and bluish green loess-like sandy clays with beds and lenses of grey pebblestones and sand (88). A 0.5-2-metre bed of white calcareous travertine is found at the base of the sequence at the mouth of the Rod-i-Shirinak River. The thickness of the deposits is 100-150 m.

Pliocene, undifferentiated
Undifferentiated Pliocene sequence is recognized in all the regions of Afghanistan, except for the above mentioned Seystan Depression and the Afghanistan-South Tajikistan Basin. The sequence consists of variegated and grey-coloured fine and coarse terrigenous rocks and has a small amount of lacustrine limestones and marls; in some basins volcanics can be also found. With certain assumptions the Pliocene sequence can be subdivided into the lower and upper parts though their correlation with other Pliocene subdivisions is difficult.

Lower part of Pliocene sequence Lower part of Pliocene sequence is less eroded and better known than the upper one. The beds included into it are known to have different names in different areas. 217

North Afghanistan Platform The lower Pliocene beds have been fairly well studied in the Madar and Sayghan basins and in the Yakowlang-Bamyan Graben. Madar and Sayghan Basins Previous studies of the Pliocene beds extend back to C. Griesbach (165-167). They are referred to in literature as the Madar Beds (292). The beds consisting of terrigenous rocks rest unconformably on the Cretaceous-Paleogene strata. The sequence includes volcanic intercalations at the base. In the middle courses of the Sajitak River the section consists of the following beds (350):
1. 2. 3. 4. Amygdaloidal lava Clay, sandstones, conglomerates, rare interbeds of acid tuff Alternation of clays, marls and sandstones; marl beds enclose- Neogene Spirialis sp. and ostracodes Clay, siltstone, marl and conglomerate 3-5 m 35-50 m 75-120 m 70 m

The total thickness of the section is 183-245 m. Yakowlang-Bamyan Graben Pliocene beds have been distinguished in this area since the earliest geological investigations in Afghanistan. In the east of the Graben, they are referred to as the Gorband lower and upper sandstones and conglomerates (123, 292). The lower sandstones and conglomerates (100 m) lie unconformably on the Paleozoic. They bear fossils of Neogene age (342): Lymnea cf. trunculata Mueller, Melanoides tuberculata Mueller, Planorbis planorbis L. The upper conglomerate (20 m) lying unconformably on the lower beds are unfossiliferous. The total thickness of the two units is 120 metres. A thicker section of the Gorband beds was reported by G.Sh. Achilov from the Jare Khushkak creek (148), where Paleozoic strata are unconformably overlain by:
1 2 3 4. 5. Breccia, red, with fragments of Paleozoic rocks Sandstone, fawn, including clay interlayers Alternation of grey and brown sandstones and siltstones with interbeds of marl, carbonaceous siltstone and. coal, and rare conglomerate Sandstone, fawn, including gypsum and gravelstone interlayers Interbedded grey and fawn sandstones, gravelstones and siltstones with 2- to 15-centimetre layers of marl and coal 0.5 m 45 m 93 m 32 m 328 m

The total thickness of the beds is 498.5 metres. Apart from a greater thickness this section is distinguished by the presence of coal. In the west of the Yakowlang-Bamyan Graben, the lower Pliocene beds outcrop extensively near Yakowlang settlement, where they have the following succession (147):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Conglomerates, red, thick-bedded Clays, sandstones and siltstones, variegated Conglomerate, grey, predominantly calcareous Limestones, marls, clays and sandstones, bearing algae and gastropod remains Conglomerates, pale red, thick-bedded, frequently cross-bedded 200 m 50-100 m 50-100 m 100-300 m 100-200 m

218

The total thickness of beds 1-5 m 500-900 m. The Lower Pliocene beds of similar thickness and composition have been observed in Manarijam Graben as well.

Herat Trough Deposits of tentatively Early Pliocene age are widespread in this area. They are particularly abundant in the Khanidamo Basin. In the geological literature they are referred to either as the Herat beds (109, 123, 166, 292) or as the Hasan-Abad Formation (347). The beds are composed of variegated and grey conglomerates, clays, sandstones, silts, lake limestones, marls and gypsum. Volcanic rocks were mentioned by some investigators (109). The beds vary within 50 to 250 metres in thickness. They lie unconformably on all older formations. References were made to the presence of vertebrate bone remains, though identifications of these were not reported (347).

Middle Afghanisatan Beds of tentatively Early Pliocene age occur in a system of nearly E-W-trending basins of Tulak, Sharak, Tarbolaq, Talaw, Gok, Hoke Molla, Abul, Asgharat and others. The beds are combined into the Dulayna Formation which consists of grey sandstone, gypsum, marl, gravelstone and conglomerate varying from 500 to 1,000 metres in thickness. Organic remains are represented by Pliocene gastropods identified as Girsotrema (Girsotrema) ex gr. camelosa Bronn., Mathilda sp. and others (152). The beds lie unconformably on all older strata.

Nuristan-Pamir Median Mass Sedimentary rocks of supposedly Early Pliocene age occur sporadically, mostly along the southern periphery of the mass, in the Jalababad Basin, and in the Zebak and Anjoman imbricate zones. These are variegated and grey sandstones and conglomerates including interbeds and lenses of sandy loam and siltstone. The sequence varies from 500 to 1,000 metres in thickness. In the Jalalabad Basin they are referred to as the Shahidan beds. The beds are known to contain vertebrate bones identified as Rhizomyides sp., Paracamelus sp., and Bovidae similar to Tragoceras. They overlie unconformably all the older rock units.

Farah Rod Trough and Helmand-Argandab Uplift Lower Pliocene deposits compose the cores of the Taywara, Pasaband, Tirinkot and other basins. The deposits are represented by variegated and grey fine-and coarse-clastic varieties; inequipebble conglomerates, gravelstones, sandstones, clays and siltstones varying in thickness from 150 to 170 metres. In the south, the deposits are gradually replaced by the Regestan beds and in the north, by the Dulayana beds. The deposits bear remains of vertebrate bones.

Afghanistan-East Iran Region Like everywhere in Afghanistan, Lower Pliocene deposits occur in recent superimposed basins. West Afghanistan Basins The West Afghanistan basins merge in the south with the Seystan Depression and in the east with the superimposed basins of the western part of the Farah Rod Trough. Representative outcrops of Lower Pliocene beds are known north of the Kalata Nazarkhan frontier post. Using the name of this type locality the beds are referred to as the Nazarkhan Formation. The formation consists of grey, loose conglomerate, sandstones, gravelstones, clays, gypsum and marl. The base of the formation is not exposed. It is overlain unconformably by Upper Pliocene clays. The apparent 219

thickness is 200 metres. No organic remains were found, and the formation was tentatively assigned Early Pliocene age. Outwardly and lithologically the deposits resemble those of the Pulayna Formation from Middle Afghanistan. Suleiman-Kirthar area, Kabul Stable Mass Lower Pliocene deposits are known here as the Kabulistan beds (121, 123, 166, 178, 292). The untypical Planorbis sp., has been identified among the abundant organic remains derived from the deposits. The most complete section of the lower Pliocene beds was reported from the Aynak Basin where a borehole drilled near Aynak settlement revealed the following succession of beds (269). Proterozoic metamorphic rocks are unconformably overlain by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 15. 14. Basal breccias with carbonate cement Alternation of breccias and brown sandstones Argillites, siltstones and sandstones with imprints of plants, fishes and gastropods Conglomeratic breccia, grey, polymictic Sandstone, calcareous with siltstone partings Marl, greyish-white Sandstone, grey, calcareous Siltstone intercalated with calcareous sandstones and marls Conglomerate Siltstone with sandstone interbeds Conglomerate Sandstone interbedded with siltstones, clays and pebble beds with imprints of plants and fishes Conglomeratic breccia Boulder conglomerate, grey-coloured 14 m 75.5 m 20.5 m 6.5 m 13.3 m 2.2 m 4.5 m 17.5 m 3.7 m 71.1 m 8m 93 m 14 m 11 m

The thickness of beds 1-14 m 354.7 m. Katawaz Trough Ab-i-Estoda Basin. Like in the previous region, the deposits which are supposedly dated as Early Pliocene are represented by variegated and grey inequipebble conglomerates, sandstones and siltstones including interbeds and lenses of clay and gypsum (371). They overlie the deposits of assumingly Miocene age either conformably or with a stratigraphic gap. Their thickness varies within 200-800 metres. Organic remains are represented by fresh-water mollusks and fragments of vertebrate bones. The fossils are poorly preserved.

West Hendukush, Badakhshan, Wakhan and Nuristan Mountainous areas Supposedly Lower Pliocene deposits have been preserved from erosion in some of the remnant intramountain lake basins and in imbricate zones extending along major faults. They are represented by grey and variegated, distinctly bedded, unconsolidated conglomerates, gravelstones, sandstones and siltstones. They lie on red beds of assumingly Miocene age with a pronounced or obscure gap, or unconformably on all older units. The deposits are 100 to 500 metres thick. Their counterpart in the USSR is the Kenchiber Formation which is exposed along the boundary between South-East and South-West Pamir.

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Upper part of Pliocene sequence

As mentioned above, the upper beds of the Pliocene sequence were eroded in most of the areas, being preserved only in undisturbed recent basins. In addition to the previously considered Afghanistan-South Tajikistan and Seystan basins, West Afghanistan basins can be regarded as typical representatives of such structures. Upper Pliocene beds are composed there of variegated and. grey clays and sandy looms including interbeds and lenses of sandstone, conglomerate and gravelstone. Gypsiferous beds are noted. Using the name of the type locality, the beds are distinguished as the Ateshan Formation. The beds are greatly variable in thickness (10 to 500 metres). They lie on lower Pliocene beds with a stratigraphic gap or unconformably and are overlain unconformably by Quaternary deposits. Fossils are rare and, poorly preserved bone remains. The counterparts of the beds are the Seystan Formation in more southern areas and the Badhyz beds in northern ones (166, 292). It is assumed that Upper Pliocene beds have the same lithological composition and comparable thicknesses in all the other basins of Afghanistan. Upper Pliocene deposits are more abundant in coarse fragments in the alpine areas of the West Hendukush, Badakhshan, Wakhan, and Nurestan. The counterpart of this Upper Pliocene sequence in the Pamir is the Bakhmaljilga Formation (73).

Quaternary
Quaternary deposits are most widespread and least studied stratified units of Afghanistan. The Quaternary sequence can be arbitrarily subdivided into the lower, Middle and Upper Quaternary and recent units (Sketch Map 9).

Lower Quaternary
Lower Quaternary deposits are represented by lacustrine, alluvial, alluvial-proluvial, glacial and volcanogenic facies.

Lacustrine, alluvial and alluvial-proluvial facies In North Afghanistan, lacustrine and alluvial, alluvial-proluvial deposits of Early Quaternary age outcrop in the southern and eastern parts of the North Afghanistan Plain. Taking into account facies variation, the deposits were distinguished as the Mazare-Sharif, Shordara and Samangan units (161). Mazare-Sharif Unit The Mazare-Sharif Unit is recognized in the eastern part of the region and consists of poorly consolidated grey and variegated clays, siltstones, sands and pebble beds. The unit extends into the USSR, where it is known as the Kulab Formation of South-West Tajikistan (73). Representative outcrops of the Mazare-Sharif Unit were described in the eastern side of the Sehtali Anticline (161), where Neogene beds are overlain unconformably by:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Basal pebble bed Silt, grey and variegated with selenite gypsum Silt including 1-3 cm layers of sandstone and small-pebble conglomerate Clayey-silty deposits, variegated Alternation of 2-5-metre beds of sand and clay Clayey-silty deposits with sand interbeds Alternation of clays, silts and sands Silt interbedded with sand 5m 185 m 102 m 38 m 40 m 94 m 260 m 106 m

221

This is overlain disconformably by the Middle and Upper Quaternary beds. The thickness of the unit is 830 m In the Qunduz area, in the south-eastern part of the Ambar structure and in the north-western parts of the Khanabad and Majar structures, the Mazare-Sharif unit includes dacite tuff beds reaching five metres in thickness. Shordara Unit The Shordara Unit is exposed in the western part of North Afghanistan. It consists of irregularly interbedded poorly sorted brownish and grey clay-silty deposits including inequipebble conglomerates and breccia (161). In the Shordara Creek, at the northern limb of the Alburz Anticline and in other localities, a 40- to 507 metre member of massive breccia-like limestone occurs at the base of the unit. The Shordara Unit reaches 1,200 metres in thickness. It lies unconformably on the Neogene and older formations and is overlain disconformably by Middle-Upper Quaternary beds. In the USSR, the counterpart of the Shordara Unit is the Gokcha Formation from the Badhyz-Karabil area in South Turkmenia. Samangan Unit The Samangan Unit is distinguished in the south-eastern part of North Afghanistan, in the drainage ares of the Samangan (Khulm), Qunduz and other rivers (161). The unit is poorly exposed. It outcrops from beneath younger deposits only in most deeply incised valleys. The unit consists of brownish and dirty-red thin and microlaminated clay-silty deposits and varved clays with occasional pebble beds and conglomerates. Commonly, the beds are flat-lying. The apparent thickness is several dozen metres. The lower contact of the unit is not exposed. The unit is overlain disconformably by Middle-Upper Quaternary deposits, All the above mentioned units are practically coetaneous, yet they slightly vary in facies. They are dated here as Lower Quaternary with uncertainty. It cannot be ruled out that some of their beds are Upper Pliocene as reported by V.I. Bratash (161) and as assumed for the Kulab Formation in South-West Tajikistan (73). The Lower Quaternary sequence exposed in the mountainous region of North Afghanistan is somewhat different. It consists of pebble beds including interbeds and lenses of sandstone, gravelstone, loam and breccias. The beds are 50 to 150 metres thick. Spores and pollen of cereals, ephedra, herbage, lycopods and sphagnum were found in the beds (351). Remnants of Lower Quaternary alluvial pebblestone unit reaching 60 to 100 metres in thickness were reported from the Pule Khumri area at elevations of 230 to 250 metres (350) and from the upper reaches of the Surkhab and Sayghan rivers, at elevations of 200 to 400 metres (436). In the Cah-i-Ab paleovalley Lower Quaternary deposits are grey alluvial sand and pebble beds 20-30 m thickness at the base aid loess-like loans varying in thickness from 10 to 80 m at the top. The deposits exposed in am area 0-5 km upstream of the village of Anjir contain Early Quaternary pollen assemblage identified as Picea, Pinus sect. Strobus, P. longifolia, P. excelsa., P. gerardiana, Ephedra strobilacea, Ulmus, Corylus, Carpinus, Juglans, Salix, Ranuculaceae, Convolvulaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Umabelliferae, Labiatae, Compositae, Gramineae. The paleovalley extends northwards to the USSR territory where it is traceable for 200 km to the upper reaches of the Ab-Khingov River in the South-West Tajikistan. In the south of the country, within the Helmand River Drainage basin Lower Quaternary deposits are scarce. In the mountainous areas there are outliers of erosional terraces occurring 500-800 m above the valley bottoms. Occasionally these are capped by poorly cemented alluvial pebblestones and sand patches, 5 to 10 m in thickness, overlain by loess-like loams. A post-Pliocene erosional surface is preserved at an elevation of 3,000-3,450 m, at the water divide of the Darrah-i-Mur and Syahdara rivers, in an area south-east of the village of Panjaw. In some places the surface is overlain by patches of poorly sorted pebble beds, 100-150 m thick, consisting of fragments of local rocks cemented by clayey-carbonate silt (155). At the right-hand bank of the Syahdara River the erosional surface is capped by olivine basalt slag lavas. Fragments of the pebble beds similar to those described above are preserved on compound terraces and levelled water divides at the upper reaches of the Argandab and Farah Rod rivers. Extensive areas are covered by Lower Quaternary deposits at the upper reaches of the Tarnak and Arghestan rivers and in an area of Lake Ab-i-Estoda. Their thickness varies from 100 to 400 m. The deposits are undeformed, poorly cemented sandstones, siltstones 222

and loess-like loams interbedded with pebble beds, peculiar white tuff, tuffaceous sandstones, lavas, lava breccias and tuff breccias of dacite-andesite composition. In the Kabul River drainage basin lower Quaternary deposits preserved from erosion occur in patches near the Naghlu and Sarobay water storage reservoirs, in the Aynak area and in the Laghman River drainage basin. The deposits are 15 to 80 m in thickness.

Glacial deposits The alluvial-proluvial accumulations of the Panj ancient valley at the upper reaches of the Pamir, Wakhan and Aqsu rivers grade into thick moraine exposed in the bottoms of ancient valleys. The moraines are covered by younger drift or incised by valleys which contain younger terraces. The moraines reach 100 m in thickness.

Volcanogenic rocks Early Quaternary volcanics are common in the country and are exposed in several isolated areas. Compositionally, they are classified into phonolite-carbonatites and andesite-dacite formations. Phonolite-carbonatite formation Volcanic rocks of this formation have been located in the Seystan Depression, at the Khanneshin volcano. D. Lang (235) and H. Zibdrate (116) were the first to examine the volcano. They classified all the rocks constituting it as basalts. In 1973 the volcano was visited by P.G. Cherepov, O.V. Cherkesov, V.S. Drannikov and, others (371). G.K. Yeriomenko identified carbonatites in the samples collected by them. Later, G.K. Yeriomenko, B.Ya. Vikhter and V.M. Chmyiov ventured on a special study of the volcano and determined a phonolite-carbonatite composition of the Khanneshin lavas (431, 434). The Khanneshin volcano is an isolated massif, 1,419 metres high, rising 700 or 750 metres above the surrounding terrain. This is an intensely eroded polygenetic structure, isometric in plan, having a diametre of 6.5 or 7 kilometres at the base. It penetrates through the surrounding Neogene deposits and is likely to be situated at the intersection of north-striking and east-striking faults. A volcanic vent up to 4 kilometres in diameter is traceable in the center of the structure with a plug-like soevite body 2 by 3 sq. km in cross section in the core. The body is surrounded by an intermittent ring of ankerite-barite carbonatite including soevite zenoliths. Alvikite stocks 0.5 sq. km in area occur at the contact of soevite and carbonatite in the southern part of the volcano. Remnants of alvikite flows related to the stocks are observed four kilometres west of the volcano. Thick-bedded crater tuff and agglomerate lava, produced during an alvikite eruption phases occur near the alvikite stocks. The rocks of the vent funnel are surrounded by carbonatite pyroclasts which constitute a highly eroded cone grading outward to a tuffite-sedimentary mantle formed at the expense of the volcano disintegration. The pyroclastic unit is 700 to 800 metres in thickness. It can be divided into three members. The lower member consists of brick-red thick-bedded tuff dipping at 40 or 45. Tuff beds grade outward to a middle member consisting of orange carbonatite tuff and tuffite. At the peripheral part of the volcano there exposes the upper member composed of green carbonatite tuff and tuff conglomerate with pebbles and fragments of different size. Lahar breccias consisting of ankerite-barite carbonatite fragments were encountered in the north side of the cone. All the above mentioned rock types are cut by carbonatite dykes which are oriented radially from the center. Remnants of leucitic phonolite lava sheets less than 0.01 sq. km in area are found south-east of the volcano. A stock-like body of the same composition is associated with one of such remnants. The lava sheet is 10 to 30 metres thick. Reworked tuff and tuffite are found nearby. Isolated bodies of alvikite lava breccia and green tuff outcrop west and south-west of the main Khanneshin massif. The chemical composition of the Khanneshin volcanic rocks is given in Table 12. At the southern periphery of the volcano, lava was flowing down the hill to overlap cross-bedded eolian sands and pebble beds of the Helmand upper terrace. Fragments of Neogene sandstone and Aptian-Albian limestone with orbitoids were encountered in the basal strata of the volcano. These fragments were seemingly removed from the folded basement of the Seystan Depression during eruption. 223

The multiphase character of the volcanics suggest that the volcano was active over a long period of time. The earliest phase tuff material is found in Upper Pliocene sequence and the latest phonolite and soevite tufflava flows overlie pebble beds of the Middle Pleistocene upper terrace of the Helmand River. Andesite-dacite formation Andesite-dacite formation is found in several areas of the country.
1. 2. 3. Qunduz area is situated in the north of Afghanistan near the town of Qunduz where dacitic tuff interbeds up to 5 m in thickness are imbedded in the lower Quaternary deposits of the Mazare Sharif Unit (161): Volcanics exposed in the Nayek area are poorly known. A. Lapparent (241) described several well-preserved volcanic cones rising above the Precambrian terrain in an area south of Nayak village. Yulhar area is situated in West Afghanistan near the village of Rabaturk. A large tumbledown volcanic cone rises there above Neogene conglomerates (152). Volcanics building up the cone are light grey lava breccias, agglomeration lavas and rhyolitic and dacitic lavas. Kohe Qaftarkhan area is situated in Middle Afghanistan, where a small hill of acidic tuff conglomerates rises at the northern side of the Kohe Qaftarkhan Ridge. Pasaband area is situated near the village of Pasaband where three volcanic cones up to 500 m in diametre and 200 m in height are found (354). The sides and centres of the cones are built up of andesite lava covered by Pliocene conglomerate. Dashte Nawer area is 4,000 sq. km in size. Starting near Lake Ab-i-Estoda it extends as a belt 15-20 km wide for about 200 km northwards to the Cajaw Basin. These volcanic rocks were first described by J. Barthoux (17). Later the area was visited by many investigators (26, 29, 30, 144, 152, 206). The volcanics are biotite-amphibolite dacite lavas. Less common are andesite lavas and their pyroclastic varieties, A. Lapparent (245) reported that more than 50 volcanic centers were preserved in the northern part of the area alone, lavas prevailing in an area north of latitude 33 and pyroclastic rock types southwards. In the south no volcanic centers are known. The volcanic sequence is subdivided into two parts (144). The lower tuffogenic part consists of pyroclastic dacite-type rocks among which light-coloured fine-elastic, frequently welded tuff prevails. Near volcanic centres there are interbeds of agglomeration xenotuff and lava and tuff breccias. The unit starts with basal conglomerate and tuff conglomerate. The thickness of the lower unit is 200-500 m. The upper unit, 150-250 m thick, consists of andesite-dacite and andesite lava flows interbedded with agglomeration tuffs, lava breccias and scorias. Volcanic breccias and conglomerates with tuff or lava cement of dacitic composition are commonly found at bases of lava flows. Volcanic domes and spines are composed of dacite and andesite-dacite. Central eruption products are most common in the area. The volcanoes are dome- or cone-shaped reaching a height of 4,500 m and rising 1,000-1,500 m above the floor of the Dashte Nawer Depression. The largest volcanic structures of Zarkadah and Mamiqala are strato-volcanoes whose bases reach 15 km in diameter. As estimated by P. Bordet (29), the amount of volcanic material erupted in the Dashte Nawer area is at least 100 cu. km. O. Ganss (132) described tuffs and lavas filling in valleys incised in granodiorite massif a in an area near the town of Mukur and to the north of it, in the Garwala Mountains. He also described tuffs overlying the pebble beds in a terrace of the Ghazni River. The chemical composition of the Dashte Nawer volcanics is given below in Table 12. The volcanics from this area are of Early Pleistocene age. They are flat-lying on the folded strata of Pliocene age. The volcanics fill in post-Pliocene valleys and are in turn dissected by middle and late Quaternary valleys filled in with pebble beds and sands of high terraces, containing redeposited pebbles of the described volcanics. Occasionally volcanic rocks are overlain by travertines (3.5 km north of the village of Sarsa Deh). The Early Pleistocene age of the Dashte Nawer volcanics was proved by absolute age determination. As reported by P. Bordet (30), the K-Ar age of five dacite specimens collected from different places in the lower unit varies from 2.8 0.3 m.y. to 1.59 - 1.68 m.y., and that of three andesite specimens from the upper unit from 1.87 - 1.97 m.y. to 1.4 m.y. 7. Chagay Area is situated in the mountains of South Afghanistan, in the northern submontane areas of the Chagay Ridge. A 100-kilometre belt including a chain of volcanoes (Arbu, Torusab, Malekdokand, Aynak, Karo, Zoldag and Ayahdak) were described by V.I. Slavin et al. (149, 393) and Sborshchikov et al. (371). The volcanic rocks cut through Pliocene deposits. The truncated cones are overlain by the Middle Pleistocene upper terrace of the Loy Dor River (149). Compositionally, the rocks are almost similar to those of the Dashte Nawer area, though in the area concerned there are no structures of stratovolcano type; sheet type covers and shield volcanoes are common

4. 5.

6.

224

there. The greatest sheets are 30-50 sq. km in area, their thickness reaching 100 m. The predominant rock types are andesite and dacite, acid rocks being subordinate. Lavas, tuff breccias, tuff and scorias are common in the area. Easily distinguished are extrusive, subvolcanic and vent-type (lava and explosive) facies. Vent facies either occur in single cones 0.5-3.5 km in diameter, or form extensive volcanic rock massifs of several contiguous volcanoes. Extrusive facies are widespread and spatially associated with vent facies. Commonly, these form steeply sloping (50-80) domes and spines situated in the centers of volcanoes. The largest of them (Malekdokand, Aynak, Torusab) are up to 4,000 m in diametre and rise to 500-800 m above the bottoms of valleys. The rocks are characterized by a fan-fluidal structure. The volcanic sequence of the Chagay foothills is separable vertically into three parts, the lower consisting of dacitic explosive facies, the middle of andesitic lavas and the upper of andesitebasaltic lavas. In the Zoldag and Torusab massifs andesitic and trachy-andesitic porphyries occur. At the Karo Mountain, Neogene beds are overlain by tuff enclosing ash interlayers and ejectamenta inclusions (2-3 cm.). These are followed by globular lavas of intermediate composition with coarse tuff interlayers enclosing volcanic bombs 0.6 m in diametre. The upper 10-15 m consist of coarse tuff and tuff lavas with volcanic bombs up to 1-2 m in diametre. The total thickness of the rocks is 120 m. Small outcrops of thin fine clastic tuff with ejectamenta 0.5 cm in size are known from the Nalap Rod River valley, north of the Arbu and Torusab massifs.

225

Components Dashte-Nawer

Andesite-Dacite formation Passaband Panjaw Chagay

Basalt-andesite formation Asparan

Trachy-basanite formation Sarlogh

Phonolite-carbonatite formation Khanneshin Carbonatite

Daciteandesite 3 analyses SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 68.00 0.35 17.35

Andesitedacite

Andesite

Andesite 3 analyses 55.52 1.48 16.47

Andesitebasalt 1 analyses 52.09 0.55 14.92

Andesite 4 analyses 54.41 0.79 15.52

Andesitebasalt 8 analyses 58.62 1.65 16.42

Olivinebasalt

Basanite Trachybasalt

Leucitephonolite

Soevite

Ankaritebarite

Alvikite

15 analyses 15 analyses 68.03 0.53 16.49 57.63 0.67 15.47

9 analyses 6 analyses 5 analyses 50.91 1.80 15.21 47.35 0.93 15.49 51.07 1.02 16.59

3 analyses 2 analyses 3 analyses 2 analyses 52.69 0.12 17.40 6.04 1.28 0.08 0.30 2.66 0.92 1.76 0.06 nil 7.57 nil 18.17 0.28 2.99 5.70 3.20

Fe2O3/FeO

2.90

4.20

4.92

3.11

8.44

8.90

8.23

12.55

8.27

7.62

0.13

MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5

0.07 0.96 3.18 3.00 3.00 0.15

0.08 2.18 4.86 3.20 2.3 0.18

0.13 3.84 6.64 3.56 3.00 0.32

1.76 4.97 6.35 2.93 2.00 0.29

0.17 8.40 9.30 2.44 2.20 0.34

0.18 4.63 7.56 4.18 1.27 0.33

0.10 3.75 8.35 3.96 1.00 1.21

0.13 6.02 8.05 3.27 0.68 0.53

0.29 5.88 8.81 5.52 4.33 1.16

0.24 4.98 7.14 4.41 3.93 0.94

0.28 nil 4.69 4.66 10.83 0.14 BaO + S2O SO3 TR2O3

1.16 5.22 42.60 0.07 0.26 0.35 3.75 2.06 0.80

2.27 3.69 27.93 0.18 0.17 0.77 19.83 9.63 0.37

0.30 2.83 34.92 0.25 0.80 3.25 nil nil 0.05

Table 12

Chemical composition of the Quaternary volcanics in Afghanistan. 226

Middle Quaternary
Genetically, Middle Quaternary deposits are classified into alluvial, alluvial-lacustrine, alluvial-proluvial, chemogenic, glacial and volcanogenic types.

Alluvial deposits Alluvial deposits are most widespread among all the types of Middle Quaternary formations. They compose high terraces and extensive aggradational plains in the north and south of the country. Along the main stream of the Amu Darya River and in the lower reaches of its left-hand tributaries, Middle Quaternary alluvium constitutes pronounced terraces and terrace-like cliffs rising to 50 metres above the river channels (161). Southwards, the terraces and cliffs merge gradually with the extensive North Afghanistan Plain whose absolute elevations average 260 to 300 metres in the north and 600 to 700 metres in the south. The section of the terraces and plain consists of two parts everywhere; grey river pebbles, sands and loamy sand lying at the base and loess and loess-like loam, at the top. The exact thickness of the deposits is not known, yet it exceeds 100 metres everywhere. In mountainous areas, Middle Quaternary alluvium is encountered at different elevations in remnants of terraces and intermountain aggradational plains. Well preserved terraces and aggradational plains of Middle Quaternary age are known in the Ishkamysh area and in the drainage basins of the Banghi and Rod-i-Zamburak rivers. The town of Ishkamysh is situated on an aggradational plain whose absolute Elevation averages 1,100 metres. The Banghi and Rod-i-Zamburak rivers drain a terrace which occur at 1,200 m and 1,300 m elevations. Extensive Middle Quaternary terraces with Astana-Tepa and Qalas. Afghan settlements occur at elevations of 1,500 to 1,600 metres. Relative elevations of the terraces above the river beds are 100 to 200 metres, occasionally reaching 400 metres. An outlier of a Middle Quaternary terrace rising to 1,100 metres above the Panj River bed is preserved in an area of Hohan village on the old terrace socle at an absolute elevation of 2,000 metres. The terrace consists of two parts: river pebbles with sand aggregate (40 to 60 m) at the base, and loesslike loam (40 m), at the top. Middle Quaternary alluvium pebble beds, 80 to 100 metres thick, were described from an area of Bastanak village, where-they infill an ancient valley at an absolute elevation of 2,500 metres (153). The beds occur at a relative elevation of 1,800 metres above the Panj River bed. Middle Quaternary alluvium described from an area extending along the Panj River from the Hohan to Eshkashim villages occurs at relative elevations reaching 2,000 metres, occasionally faring three terrace levels (351). The upper level is recognizable between the Rushan and Shidz settlements at absolute elevations of up to 3,000 metres. A spore and pollen assemblage reveals the predominance of trees such as spruce, pine and broad-leaved trees, as well as sedge and herbs. These plants are indicative of a warmer climate compared to that in Early Quaternary time (351). The middle level of the terraces is traceable at an average elevation of 2,500 metres (Darwas village). The spores and pollen found there are those of trees and herbs (351). The lower level of the terraces is fixed at elevations of up to 1,400 metres, where only herb spores and pollen were found. Two Middle Quaternary erosion-aggradational terraces were described from the Pamir Valley (200). The lower terrace rises 40 to 60 metres above the river channel descending gradually upstream. It is composed of well-rounded pebbles including loam and sand interbeds (20 to 40 m.). The upper terrace lies at 100 to 200 metres above the river channel having a lithological succession similar to that of the lower terrace. One, occasionally two levels of compound-aggradation terraces are distinguished in the mountainous area of the southern half of the country. The terraces are composed of alluvium, and near the sides of valleys, of alluvium and proluvium. Beginning from the upper reaches of the Helmand, Argandab, Khash Rod, Farah Rod and other rivers, these terrace surfaces, reaching 3 or 5 kilometres in width (Behsud, Shekhristan, Gizab, Oruzgan and other settlements), rise slowly up to 300 or 350 metres above the river channels and, at the foothills of the mountains. They descend rapidly grading to the Dashte-Margo Plateau with absolute elevations of 650 to 800 metres. The plateau is the upper (third) terrace of the main rivers, which rises to 95 to 100 metres above the river beds. Like in the north of the country, the section of the terraces is uniform everywhere. The lower 50 to 100 metres are commonly composed of pebble beds including lenses of sands and gravels, and the upper 1 to 20 metres, of loess and loess-like loam with sand interlayers. 227

Alluvial-proluvial deposits Alluvial-proluvial deposits occur in mountainous areas near the sides of Middle Pleistocene valleys. These are composed of alluvial fans and local debris.

Glacial deposits There are moraine accumulations underlying the trough floors in the valleys of the Pamir, Aqsu, Wakhan, Kokcha, Shewa and other rivers (151, 154, 200). Downstream, the accumulations merge with fluvial-glacial and alluvial pebble beds of high terraces. Disintegrated moraines of Middle Quaternary age were reported from the upper reaches of the Chal, Surkhab and Andarab rivers (148, 350) and other localities.

Chemogenic deposits The Middle Quaternary age was assigned to travertine of high terraces and ancient peneplain surfaces overlain by loess-like loam. In the Hari Rod River drainage basin, travertine composes extensive peneplained, occasionally hilly areas rising 30 to 300 metres above the river channels. Travertine beds vary from 2 to 40 metres in thickness. Similar travertine beds are found on water-divide crests in the drainage basins of the Helmand, Khash Rod, Kabul, Farah Rod, Harut Rod and other rivers, where they form fields reaching dozens of thousand square metres. Similar travertine sheets were described from an area west of Panjaw, Shekhmiran and other areas (155). Travertine is often overlain by loess reaching 10 metres in thickness. Less commonly travertine underlies alluvial-proluvial pebble beds. Such travertines are known from the upper reaches of the Kabul, Tarnak, Argandab, Tirin, Helmand, Hari Rod, Bande-Amir, Khash Rod, Farah Rod, Harut Rod and other rivers. Travertine sheets described from the Tarnak Valley, near Mien-iKundalan village, rest on pebble beds of Middle Pleistocene terraces ranging from 2-8 to 60-80 metres in thickness (144). Cover-type travertines were reported from the Pasaband and Ghujibas fault zones, at the upper reaches of the Farah Rod River (354). Travertine fields are often covered by eolian soil up to 10 m in thickness. Less frequently travertines underlie alluvial-proluvial pebble beds. Such travertines are known from the upper reaches of the Kabul, Tarnak, Argandab, Tirin, Helmand, Hari Rod, Bande Amir, Khash Rod, Farah Rod, Harut Rod and other rivers. Travertine covers, 2-8 to 60-80 m thick, overlying pebble beds of Middle Pleistocene terraces are known in the Tarnak River valley near Mien and Kundalan villages (144). Cover-type travertines are described from the Farah Rod River upper courses in the Pasaband and Ghujibas fault zones.

Volcanogenic rocks Volcanogenic rocks of Middle Quaternary age are represented by basalt-andesite and basanite-trachy-basalt formations occurring in separate areas. Basanite-trachybasalt formation Volcanic rocks of this formation are known from the water divide of the Bande Amir and Kahmard rivers. They were studied by A.Kh. Kafarsky, B.Ya. Vikhter and G.K. Yeriomenko (1974). Several lava flows occur in area 2.5 by 25 km in size. So far only one lava flow, 1 to 2.5 km wide and 15 km long, covering the bottom of an ancient valley near the village of Sarlogh, has been studied. The flow overlies a peneplanated plateau of Maestrichtian-Paleocene limestones. The Sarlogh lava flow is 20-30 m in thickness. Several necks of fissure type were observed south of the flow. Lava was outpoured in one eruption. The rocks of the flows belong to a group of alkaline basaltoids: trachy-basalt, leucitic basanite and their intermediate varieties. The chemical composition of the rocks is given in Table 12. The rocks are noted for the abundance of nodules and xenoliths up to 10 cm in size including rocks of crystalline basement and platform cover. The inclusions are represented by ultrabasic rocks, gabbro, spinel-bearing lherzolite, orthopyroxenite and garnet peridotite. 228

Andesite-basalt formation Andesite-basalt formation is found in several areas of the country. 1. Asparan Area Asparan Area is situated in West Afghanistan to the north-west of Lake Hamune Saberi. The volcanic rocks of this area were studied and described by V.I. Dronov et al. (88). Later the rocks were studied by B.Ya. Vikhter and G.K. Yeriomenko. They described several shield-type volcanoes which are confined to a system of N-S-trending faults. Two phases of lava eruption are recognized. First, olivine basalt lava was erupted and later andesite-basalt. In the Chehret volcano, olivine basalt is intruded by andesite-basalt. Olivine basalt occurs in flat-lying lava sheets overlying the pre-Quaternary deposits. The distinguishing feature of lavas is absence of pyroclastic material and presence of a small amount of scoria. The thickness of lava sheets does not exceed 40 m The largest of them are 8 sq. km in area. Andesite-basalts make up here shield volcanoes. The largest of them, Atgot and Chakab, are situated in the south of the area. The lower parts of the volcanoes are built up of thin (1-8 m) layers of agglomeration lavas. These are followed by massive or slightly fluidal lavas. A 30-metre agglomerate bed separated by lenticular interbed of sandstone was observed beneath a 20-metre lava flow in the north of the Kohe Qarata massif. The thickness of andesite-basalt sheets varies from 20 to 80 m. Andesite-basalt lava was erupted in one volcano from several channels of central and fissure types. Isometric lows surrounded by scoria piles are present. For instance, one of such poorly recognizable craters 20 m in depth and 250 m in diameter, was observed at the side of the Chakab shield volcano. A somma dome is still preserved on the floor of the crater. The chemical composition of the volcanic rocks is given in Table 12. 2. Kohe Mazar Area Kohe Mazar Area is located in West Afghanistan in the Kohe Mazar Ridge, as reported by H. Bergman (183) who described a green-black diabase lava sheet. 3. Rabat-i-Jam Area Rabat-i-Jam Area is situated in South Afghanistan near Rabat-i-Jam settlement. The volcanic rocks of this area were found and described in 1973 by O.V. Cherkesov and P.G. Cherepov who reported a 2- to 5-metre black basalt sheet lying above Pliocene conglomerates at the north-west foot of the Maleksyah Mt. 4. Panjaw Area In the Panjaw Area are two volcanic cones at the right-hand side of the Syahdara River, 10 kilometres east of Panjaw settlement. They were located and described by D.A. Starshinin (155). The section of the volcanoes consists of two parts. Pebble beds of supposedly Early Quaternary age are overlain by 1.5 or 2 metres of olivine basalt lava breccia succeeded by 60 or 70 metres of amygdaloidal olivine basalt, scoria-type vesicular olivine basalt lava and lava breccia. The chemical composition of the Panjaw volcanic rocks is given in Table 12.

Upper Quaternary
Deposits of this age occur in all the regions of the country. They are represented by alluvial, alluviallacustrine, deluvial and proluvial, glacial, landslide and chemogenic types.

Alluvial deposits In the north of the country, alluvial Upper Quaternary deposits make up extensive terraces traceable along all the main rivers of the region. In the area of port Sherkhan, in the Amu-Darya River, terraces of 24, 36 and 48-metre height are easily recognizable (16l). It is worth mentioning that Qunduz town and extensive fields of irrigated land are situated on the first terrace traceable on the left-hand bank of the Amu-Darya River. The 229

terraces are composed of pebbles, sands and clays overlain by loess-like loans and loess 1-4 m thick. In the Badam area, fossils Subzibrinus albiplicatus Mart. Planorbis planorbis Lum were collected from the loess beds of the 36-metre high terrace. In the same area a tooth of the late Quaternary Equus cabalus Zat. was found in a sand intercalation from a 36 m high terrace at the water divide of the Qunduz and Panj rivers upstream the Sherkhan port (351). In the Pule Khumri area, Upper Quaternary terraces occur at 12 to 18, 24 to 36 and 36 to 42 metres above the river beds. In an area of the Panj River low reaches, Upper Quaternary alluvium is found in remnants of terraces at a height of up to 500 metres above the present water streams. A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (153) described an Upper Quaternary terrace from the Panj Valley near Maymay settlement at a height of 300 metres above the water level. The terrace is composed of boulders and pebbles with lenses of sand and loamy sand. The deposits are 100 to 120 metres in thickness. Similar deposits 60 to 80 metres thick were encountered in a compound terrace at a height of 500 metres in the Chasnud area. In the mouth of the Pamir River, Upper Quaternary terraces have relative elevations of 18 to 20 metres. In the Hari Rod Valley, Upper Quaternary alluvial terraces rise to 12 to 18 and 18 to 24 metres above the river bed. In the south of the country, in the lower reaches of the Helmand, Khash Rod, Farah Rod and Harut Rod river, Upper Quaternary alluvial terraces fringe the flood plains in stripes reaching 25 kilometres in width, which, in an area of Lake Jehile Pusak, join to form a continuous alluvial plain reaching several thousand square kilometres in area. A terrace rising to 50 metres above the Helmand River bed is easily recognizable. The terrace is composed of pebble beds with sand and loam interlayers, which lie on the eroded surface of Pliocene socle. The beds are 40 to 45 metres thick; near Lake Jehile Pusak they reach 100 metres in thickness. Approaching the mountains, the Upper Quaternary alluvial plain consists of two levels of compound-alluvial terraces rising up to 90 metres above the present water streams. Upstream, the terrace heights lower to several metres. The dating of the deposits concerned is based not only on geomorphological evidence but is proved by organic remains. In addition to the above mentioned forms, organic remains were found in other areas of the northern parts of the country, which are indicative of the Late Quaternary age of the enclosing deposits. For instance, Gramineae, Ericales, Filicalis spores and pollen, as well as these of herbs, grasses, wormwood and birch were encountered in loam from an Upper Quaternary terrace of the Panj River. A mammoth tooth was discovered in a pebble bed at a height of 580 metres above the Panj River bed in a 30-metre high Upper Quaternary terrace near Maymay settlement (351). The tooth was identified by S.A. Vangenheim as the Late Quaternary species of Mamuntus primigenius Blum. Another tooth identified as Ursus sp. suggesting the late Upper Quaternary was found in a pebble bed 5 metres below the terrace top, 330 metres above the Panj River bed near Barzud settlement (351).

Alluvial-lacustrine deposits Deposits of this genetic type are represented by limy clay, sand and loam 40 to 50 metres thick. They outcrop along the left-hand bank of the Panj River at elevations reaching 250 metres in the Hohan, Wand and Jamarji-Bala areas.

Deluvium-proluvium deposits Deluvium-proluvium deposits are widespread, particularly in the foothill areas. However, they can hardly be identified as a separate unit since they are mixed with the recent proluvial deposits.

230

Glacial deposits Glacial deposits are known from the alpine regions of the country. They form moraine hills consisting of unsorted detrital material, 30-70 metres in thickness. Semi-disintegrated moraines are also found in upper reaches of trough valleys at distances of 4-8 km from modern firn basins and glaciers. Such moraines are known from the upper reaches of the Caj-Darya, Rasti-Darrah, Darrah-i-Jaway, Shewa, Darrah-i-Suf, Kokcha, Konar, Wakhan, Aqsu and other rivers, predominantly at the northern sides of ridges. In some places two or three ridges of frontal moraines accompanied by lateral moraines are observed.

Rockfall and landslide formations Rockfall and landslide formations were found at the left-hand bank of the Panj River (153), 400 m above the river bed near Labghard village, where Carboniferous limestones are in places capped by huge chaotic accumulations of limestone collapse breccia. Another rockfall mass amounting to 60-80 million cu. m was reported from an area near Wand village. A lake was formed as a result of collapse heap 250 m high (153). A similar ancient rock fall was reported from the Panjsher River basin near Dahane Rewat (148). The fallen mass is 1.5 km in length, up to 1 km in width and 300-350 m in. thickness.

Chemogenic deposits Chemogenic deposits are particularly abundant in the central part of the country. These are commonly represented by cover travertines, Yu.M. Dovgal (144) described large travertine covers dozens of metres thick and 1-2 sq. km in area from the upper reaches of the Argandab and Tarnak rivers. Extensive travertine covers are known from the Helmand River drainage basin. Interesting information on the time of Upper Quarternary travertine formation in Afghanistan is given by D. Pias (333, 334). He believes that the deposits were formed in the Late Wrmian time in two stages. The first stage began about 35 thousand years ago and spanned the period of between 34,300 1,900 and 18,900 420 years ago. The second stage lasted from 15,750 190 to 11,670 165 years. These ages are proved by absolute dating of travertines and carbonate- clayey loams by the carbon-14 method. For instance, travertines from high terraces of the Kandahar area gave values of 34,300 1,900 ; 33,200 1,600 ; 30,300 1,050 and 26,270 + 880 years. Carbonatized loams from high terraces near Jalalabad yielded a value of 20,490 300 years. Loesses from the top of the Upper Quaternary terraces found near the town of Bamyan have the age of from 40,000 to 24,750 700 years. Similar loams from a terrace in the Kabul Basin near the village of Baraki gave a value of 25,850 850 to 21,700 420 years. Carbonatized loams imbedded in conglomerates of the same terrace in the Logar area yielded the age of 22,200 1,050 years. The values for the second stage terrace are as follows. Loess of low terraces from Bamyan has yielded the age of 15,350 230 years, carbonatized loans from tops of low terraces of the Logar River, 12,750 190 years and loam interbeds from the same terrace, 15,740 230 years. An interbed of similar loams occurring in conglomerates of a 30-metre high terrace near Kalat yielded a value of 15,970 240 and travertines and loesses of the Bamyan low terraces gave an age ranging from 14,230 190 to 11,670 165 years.

Upper Quaternary and Recent undifferentiated deposits

These deposits are widespread in the north, south and west of the country. These are mainly talus-proluvial deposits and eolian soils.

Talus-proluvial deposits Talus-proluvial deposits occur ubiquitously. Resulting from erosion of growing uplifts they have been accumulating since Late Quaternary time forming fans that overlap one another. The total thickness of the-so debris-sand-loam deposits varies commonly within a few dozens of metres, reaching locally 100 metres. 231

Eolian deposits Eolian deposits are widespread in the south and north of the country. In a strip adjacent to the Amu-Darya River eolian sands lie on the low Late Pleistocene and Holocene terraces forming an almost continuous cover extending for 300 km. In the south of the country they cover almost totally the Regestan Desert and the southern part of the Seystan Depression (Garmsir Desert, the western part of the Dashte Margo Plateau, and the above-flood-plain terraces of the Helmand River. Eolian sands occur in broad strips of barkhans up to 10 to 40 m in height extending from the west to the east.

Recent deposits
Recent deposits are alluviums proluvial-tallus, eolian, rockfall and landslide, lacustrine and chemogenic types.

Alluvial deposits Alluvial deposits are found everywhere both in hilly and plain areas. They are normally represented by pebbles, sands and clays. In plains they form flood plains and first terraces above the flood plain, 0.5 to 5.4 metres high, usually enclosed into older deposits. In hilly areas flood plain accumulations occur in a narrow intermittent strip along the river beds, Such terraces are commonly preserved on a socle foundation or grade into erosional terraces, their height changing from place to place.

Proluvial-talus deposits Proluvial-talus deposits are widespread in the mountainous and submontane areas. They are represented by unsorted accumulations cemented with loam-sand-debris material and occurring on the slopes and in temporal streams.

Eolian deposits Eolian deposits occur in the south and in the north of the country where they form fields of wind-blown sand barkhans and hills up to 20 m in height.

Rockfall and landslide formations Rockfall and landslide formations occur primarily in the mountainous parts of the country. Large collapse heaps are known from the Darmarah valley, where a large Shewa Lake was formed as a result of a fall; at the mouth of the Yarkh River where Lake Yarkh was formed; near the village of Disar and other areas of the country. The volume of the collapsed rock mass in the Lake Shewa area was estimated to be 228.3 million cu. m, in Yarkh area 128 million cu. is, in Disar, 181 million cu. m. A large (30 million cu. m) Holocene beds was described from the Kufob Valley near the village of Raj. Another heap is known near the village of Kul at the western side of the Pash Darrah River where the volume of the collapsed rock mass is estimated to be 1.5 billion cu. m.

Lake beds There are several large lakes having no outlets within the country, e.g. Jehile Pusek, Hamune Saberi, Dashte Nawar, Ab-i-Estoda and others. Lake beds consist of sand and clay occasionally with a substantial amount of vegetation material. Eolian sands surrounding the lakes and being subject to the activity of lake water are rewashed to form a shelf zone and, in some case, low terraces (less than one metre in height). Salinized sand, loam and clay of a solonchak facies often covered with salt crust are found in temporary lakes. 232

A different type of lakes are high-mountain rock-dammed lakes, e.g. Shewa, Yarkh and others. High mountains surrounding the lakes favour the accumulation of a great amount of debris which are sorted and rounded by water to form pebble beaches and underwater pebble bars and trains. Glacial lakes, Zor Qol, Chakmante Qol and others, surrounded by moraines occur at the upper reaches of the Pamir and Aqsu rivers. Material accumulating in the lakes consists of reworked and sorted moraine products.

Chemogenic deposits Chemogenic deposits are widespread in mountainous areas, particularly in Middle Afghanistan, where mineral water springs form travertines. The travertine covers are 3-5 m in thickness and several thousand square metres in area.

Glacial deposits Recent glacial deposits are known in all the alpine regions of the country, where perennial neves and glaciers surrounded by moraines occur at elevations higher than that of 3,800 to 4,300 metres. Apart from the geomorphological evidence, the age of the recent glacial deposits was verified by absolute datings of cultivated soil. Near Zaranj as determined by C14 method, soil from the Zaranj area was formed 9,030 125 years age, and that found near Logar, 2,790 100 years ago (428, 436). Humus loam found at a depth of 2 or 2.5 metres in the Tarnak river bed has an age of 6,500 140 years, that occurring in the Mukur area in a depth of 12 metres, 9,750 175 years (235).

233

Chapter 5

IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rocks occupy about 8% of the Afghan territory. Together with the Soviet Pamir, Afghanistan may be considered as one of the Earths unique regions where intrusive processes have, been evident virtually throughout the Earths history, beginning with the earliest Precambrian through the Quaternary. The first information pertinent to igneous rocks of Afghanistan. was obtained at the end of the last and the beginning of the present century by C.L. Griesbach (164-168), L.H. Hayden (178, 179), R. Furon (119-124), L. Bruckle (37) and others. More or less specific data on the scope and time of intrusive magmatism manifestation in Afghanistan became available only in the late 1950s and the early 1960s owing to the activities of the German Geological Mission (42, 116, 134, 136) and the expedition headed by A. Desio (60- 65). Regular studies of igneous rocks in Afghanistan were initiated in 1963 and continued in the course of geological surveys undertaken, by the Soviet and Afghan specialists. Further materials were provided by the geological prospecting and exploration, as well as by some special-purpose investigations of a smaller scope. The greatest contribution to the study of igneous rocks of Afghanistan has been made by B.Ya. Vikhter, A.N. Diomin., Sh.Sh. Denikayev, Yu.M. Dovgal, V.S. Drannikov, V.I. Dronov, A.A. Yelyanov, G.K. Yeriomenko, O.N. Kabakov, S.M. Kalimulin, S.S. Karapetov, A.Kh. Kafarsky, V.A. Kolesnichenko, V.P. Kolchanov, A.Ya. Kotchetkov, Yu.M. Koshelev, G.S. Loginov, A.N. Mayorov, K.Ya. Mikhailov, O.I. Makstenek, B.R. Pashkov, I.V. Pyzhyanov, L.N. Rossovsky, I.M. Sborshchikov, G.G. Semionov, G.S. Silkin, K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, D.A. Starshinin and others. This chapter and a more refined scheme of intrusive formations in Afghanistan (Annex 2) are based on the assumption that there are four supraregional cycles of magmatic activity, notably, the Archean, Proterozoic, Late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic, and Late Mesozoic-Cenozoic. Determinations of the absolute age of the intrusive rocks in Afghanistan are few and controversial. In distinguishing both the supraregional and regional cycles of the magmatic activity, as well as in dating of particular intrusive massifs and complexes primary account was therefore taken of the geological relation of intrusions to the stratified enclosing units as well as the concepts on the general geological evolution of the entire country and individual parts of it. Correlation of intrusions with the corresponding, better studied intrusive formations in adjacent areas of the USSR was used extensively (73, 320). Intrusive formations and complexes were recognized in accordance with the implications of these terms as understood by Yu.A. Kuznetsov (232).

ARCHEAN INTRUSIONS
Intrusive rocks of Archean age occur in Southern Badakhshan, within the areas underlain by the coeval stratified formations. According to A.N. Mayorov (266) and Yu.S. Perfiliyev et al. (162) two complexes of the intrusive rocks may he distinguished there: 1) the complex of ultrabasic rocks and 2). the complex of acidic rocks. The former are derived from the formation of ultrabasic rocks, whereas the latter are derivatives of migmatite-granite formation their Archean age is recognized on the basis of their close spatial, structural and genetic association with the enclosing ultrametamorphosed stratified sequences.

Formation of ultrabasic rocks Complex of ultrabasic rocks The massifs composed of ultrabasic rocks - picrites and hornblendites - occur at the upper reaches of the Darya-i-Kokcha River. These small, subconformable and dike-like bodies are 10 to 350 m long and between 0.5 to 3.0 m thick. They occur in gneisses, marbles and calciphyres of the Sare Sang Series and pervade the folded structures of the series. They are quite often crumpled to form subvertical folds and boudins that are characterized by swells and pinches. Their contacts with the country rocks are distinct.

234

Pyroxenites are composed of variously altered diallage (actinolitization, phlogopitization, carbonatization) hornblendites consist of amphibole, with an admixture of andesite (up to 15%). The chemical composition of some rock types of the complex is shown in Table 13. Besides, the Sare Sang Series encloses concordant lens- and sheet-like bodies of the eclogite-type garnetpyroxene and pyroxene amphiboles. The largest massif is 15 km long and 80 to 100 m thick. The rocks are granoblastic in texture and are characterized by distinct schistosity. The rocks consist of hornblende (20 to 40%), augite (up to 25%), almandine (20 to 40%), plagioclase (10 to 15%), quartz (5 to 20%). It is assumed that these rocks represent highly metamorphosed gabbroids. The Darshai Complex of the South-Western Pamir on Soviet territory is regarded as the age and formation counterpart of the intrusive rock complex described (73).

Migmatite-Granite Formation Complex of acidic rocks The constituents of this complex include granites and pegmatites, considered in this section; they occur throughout Southern Badakhshan, forming concordant or, less frequently, cross-cutting bodies in metamorphites of the Sare Sang and Kohe Lal series. Most commonly, they occur as migmatite packets, but are occasionally encountered as isolated bodies stretching from a few metres to a few kilometres; they vary in thickness from a few centimetres to a few dozen metres. The granites are massive, locally banded or mottled. The following varieties can be distinguished there: alkaline hornblende granites consisting of quartz (20 to 30%), microcline (55 to 60%), oligoclase (up to 10%), alkaline hornblende (up to 7%); alkaline biotitic granites comprising quartz (20 to 30%), microcline (50%), oligoclase (5 to 10%), biotite (5%); pyroxene granites consisting of quartz (20%), microcline (40%), oligoclase (30%), augite (10%), and other varieties; all are accompanied by pegmatite dikes. The pegmatites are zonal, with clearly discernible zones: aplitic, pegmatitic and quartz. They contain crystals of schorl, rock crystals and muscovite. The chemical composition of certain granite varieties is shown in Table 13. The counterparts of this rock complex on Soviet territory are the Zugvand and Romanite granitoid complexes of the SouthWestern Pamir (73). Table 13
Oxides SiO2 Ti02 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 H2O

Chemical composition of Archean ultrabasic and acidic intrusive rocks.

1 52.20 1.51 13.02 3.40 9.50 0.11 7.50 9.33 1.81 0.72 0.12 0.14 2 49.07 2.58 12.69 3.27 13.04 0.12 6.12 9.89 2.09 0.48 0.18 0.08 3 46.99 2.97 12.39 2.49 15.11 0.11 5.16 9.70 1.74 0.48 0.25 0.08 4 56.77 1.02 13.46 5.52 0.66 0.02 2.52 4.90 4.29 2.90 0.10 0.92 5 74.16 0.03 14.00 0.79 0.51 0.01 0.18 0.55 3.83 4.84 0.00 6 71.19 0.07 15.02 0.67 1.55 0.03 0.61 1.15 3.40 4.84 0.02 0.05 7 72.79 0.02 15.12 0.57 1.10 0.01 0.39 1.37 5.84 1.46 0.01 8 74.90 0.12 12.98 0.16 0.70 0.20 0.19 1.64 4.60 3.80 0.11

235

S Loss on Ignition Sum Total

0.05 1.49 101

0.03 0.89 12:00

0.02 0.83 101

4.63 2.55 100

0.04 0.38 99.32

0.02 0.27 99.25

0.14 0.41 99.23

0.02 0.64 99.88

1-3 Complex of Ultrabasic rocks (162); 5-8 Complex of acidic rocks (162).

PROTEROZOIC INTRUSIONS
Intrusive rocks of Proterozoic age are known in the regions of Hercynian, Middle Cimmerian and Alpine foldings within the North Afghanistan Platform and in the South Afghanistan and Nurestan-Pamir median masses. They are commonly restricted to outcrops of the Proterozoic Basement. With respect to their close spatial association with Proterozoic stratified units of different ages, three groups of Proterozoic intrusions can be tentatively distinguished. The first group of intrusions is closely related to Early Proterozoic metamorphites and is tentatively assigned to the Early Proterozoic; the second group is closely associated with the Middle Proterozoic metamorphites and is tentatively considered to be the Middle Proterozoic; the third group exhibits a close relationship with exposures of Late Proterozoic rocks and is tentatively assigned to the Late Proterozoic.

Early Proterozoic Intrusions

Intrusive rocks of Early Proterozoic age occur in all the regions where Lover Proterozoic metamorphites are developed, but so far they have been grouped into independent units only in the Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass and in the regions of Hercynian, Middle Cimmerian and Alpine foldings. These units comprise the Safed Koh, Kahma, Salang, Kufob, Spin Ghar, Panjsher and Estalef complexes. Rocks of the former three complexes are presumably derived from the gabbro-plagiogranite formation, whereas the rest are considered as derivatives of the migmatic granite formation. Gabbro-Plagiogranite Formation, Suleiman-Kirthar Region Safed Koh complex This is recognized in the Spin Ghar Fault Block and within the Kabul Stable Mass. The complex has been fairly well studied within the confines of the latter. Yu.I. Shcherbina et al. (381) distinguish two rock groups in it: 1) orthoamphibolites, gabbro-amphibolites and gabbro-diabases; 2) albitites. The orthoamphibolites, gabbro-amphibolites and gabbro-diabases make up lens-like bodies that are subconformable with the stratified metamorphites enclosing them. The massifs extend for 7 to 8 km, and rarely to 10 km, being 0.5 to 2 km wide. They are composed of fine- and medium-grained, slightly gneissoid or, less frequently, massive rocks of poikilonematoblastic, blastogabbroic, gabbroic and gabbroophitic texture. The rocks consist of amphibole (40 to 80%), plagioclase (50 to 60%), a mineral of epidote-zoisite group (1 to 10%), magnetite (3 to 6%), sphene, apatite, garnet (up to 4%). Amphibole is represented by common subalkaline hornblende, and plagioclase by sericitized and, less frequently, saussuritized oligoclase. Overall, albitization and silicification are characteristic features of all rock types. In the albitized amphibolites, the hornblende content drops to 20 50%, whereas the amount of the newly formed albite varies from 10 to 40%; locally quartz content amounts to 10%. G.K. Yeriomenko has found that in the area of the Darband deposit, common hornblende is replaced by riebeckite and albite. In the same locality, a higher content (up to 7%) of apatite, magnetite (up to 20%) and tourmaline (up to 50%) has been recorded. The chemical composition of the gabbros from the Safed Yoh Complex is shown in Table 16. Albitites are widespread throughout the Aynak, Darband and Jawkar localities. They are confined to the endocontact zones of the gabbro-amphibolite massifs and are less frequently encountered within the massifs or along the fault zones in Proterozoic rocks. The albitites make up dikes and veins subconcordant with the stratified units. These can be followed up along the strike for a distance of 0.5 to 2.5 km and are from 0.15 to 1 km thick. The contacts of albitites with the country rocks are abrupt, but locally gradual transitions to paraamphibolites have been noted. Macroscopically they appear as white, grey and pink massive, fine236

grained, occasionally saccharoidal rocks of microhypidiomorphic with poikilitic elements, microgranoblastic, allotriomorphic, prismatic, and, more rarely, porphyritic texture with numatogranoblastic texture of the groundmass. The rocks consist of albite (60 to 90%), quartz (up to 20%), amphibole (up to 10%), opaque mineral (up to 8%), sphene (up to 2%). Amphibole is represented by subalkaline hornblende and occasionally riebeckite. Sericite, epidote, phlogopite, chlorite and carbonate are the secondary minerals. Afghanistan-North Pamir and Hinduraj-Hazar Regions Sa1ang and Kahma complexes These are singled out in the West Hendukush and Konar zones. The complexes so far have not been sufficiently well studied, the data on Salang Complex being more complete (148). The massifs comprised by this complex are lens- and stock-like. The area occupied by the massifs in plan varies from a few square metres to a few dozen kilometres. The rocks composing the massifs are gabbros, gabbro-diorites and plagiogranites. Migmatite-Granite Formation, Afghanistan-North Pamir Region Khufob complex The massifs composing this have been described by A. Desio et ali. (59, 64), V.M. Moraliov et al. (351), G.G. Semionov et al. (141), A.Kh. Kafarsky et ali, (148, 153). The massifs are small. In plan, their exposures occupy an area of a few dozen square metres to a few dozen of square kilometres. As for the shape of the massifs, they occur as sheets, lenses, and stocks. Commonly they occur as subconcordant bodies in Lower Proterozoic gneisses. In most massifs, the dominating rocks are two-mica granodiorites, granites and plagiogranites. These are primarily medium- and fine-grained rocks exhibiting a gneissic and, more rarely, massive structure and hypidiomorphic, occasionally blastogranitic, and poikiloblastic texture. The rocks consist of plagioclase (oligoclase-andesite Nos. 27-39 and albite Nos. 3-5), latticed microcline, quartz, biotite and .muscovite; accessory minerals are orthite, zircon, apatite, garnet, magnetite, cassiterite, tourmaline, scheelite, rutile, sphene and monazite. The chemical composition of some rocks from the Khufob Complex is shown in Table 14, while their absolute ages are presented in Table 15. In the USSR a counterpart of the Khufob Complex is the Kurogovat granitoid complex of North-West Pamir (73, 272). Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass, Suleiman-Kirthar and Afghanistan-South Pamir Regions Panjsher, Estalef and Spin-Ghar Complexes These are recognized in the Nurestan, Paghman and Spin-Ghar fault blocks. The Panjsher Complex has been studied in greater detail and has been distinguished by V.P. Feoktistov and Sh.Sh. Denikayev (145, 146, 151). It includes numerous small subconcordant, linearly elongated bodies enclosed in metamorphic rocks of the lower part of the Nurestan Series. They are particularly numerous in the basins of the Alishang, Alingar, Panjsher and other rivers. Table 14 Chemical composition of the Proterozoic granitoid rocks, from Nawa-i-Waras, Darya-i-Panjsher and Khufob complexes.
Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 6 1 73.42 0.08 13.53 2 2 67.58 0.13 14.70 4 3 63.81 0.46 15.90 2 4 72.96 0.13 15.93 5 5 67.35 0.61 15.28 2 6 71.53 0.48 15.58 5 7 73.83 0.30 13.13 3 8 68.32 0.44 15.01

237

Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O3 Loss on Ignition Sum Total

1.50 0.98 0.12 0.68 2.10 3.89 3.12 0.07 0.76 100.25

0.98 3.15 0.05 1.59 4.98 2.73 2.83 0.07 0.93 99.72

2.45 2.78 0.04 2.32 5.79 1.40 2.94 0.24 1.46 99.59

0.43 1.24 0.05 0.68 2.35 1.78 2.08 0.75 1.06 99.44

0.25 3.56 0.10 1.99 3.36 3.25 3.16 0.21 0.69 99.81

1.01 2.44 0.03 1.44 2.40 1.08 3.07 0.57 0.93 100.56

1.69 1.62 0.05 1.00 2.85 2.42 3.29 0.06 0.77 100.31

2.37 2.35 0.09 0.92 3.14 2.38 4.95 0.10 0.70 100.77

1-3 - Waras Complex (152, 155, 206, 381): 1 - granites 2-3 - granodiorites 4-6 - Panjsher Complex (145, 146): 4 - gneiss-granites 5 - granodiorites 6 - plagiogranites 7-8 - Khufob Complex (153, 351): 7 - granites 8 - granodiorites The complex is predominantly composed of medium-grained biotite and amphibole-biotite gneiss-granites and gneiss-granodiorites which exhibit granoblastic, heterogranoblastic, lepidogranoblastic, porphyroblastic and occasionally similar to a granitic texture. Cataclastic and blastoclastic textures are quite common. The rock structure is parallel- and lenticular-banded, ocellar and, less frequently, massive. The rocks consist of quartz (30-45%), plagioclase, Nos. 20-30, more rarely Nos. 30-45 (25 to 60%), microcline (10 to 50%), biotite and hornblende (3-5 to 10-25%), and accessory apatite, zircon, magnetite, sphene, orthite and monazite. Plagioclases, not distinctly zoned, are slightly sericitized and albitized. In the cataclastic varieties biotite is replaced by muscovite. A common feature of the rocks under discussion is their variable composition, non-uniform textural and. structural patterns and the presence of shadow structures. In the massifs of the Panjsher Complex and in their immediate proximity, the country rocks contain small dike-like bodies and veins of leucocratic and alaskitic granites. The chemical composition of some rock types of the Panjsher Complex is shown in Table 14, while Table 15 gives their absolute ages.

Midde Proterozoic Intrusions

Middle Proterozoic intrusive rocks are distinguished just as tentatively as are the stratified formations of this age. It appears that together with the latter the intrusive rocks occur in most regions of Afghanistan where they represent the gabbro-plagiogranite and migmatite-granite formations. The former comprise scarcely pronounced subvolcanic bodies found in the stratified metavolcanites of intermediate to basic composition. So far, they have nowhere been distinguished as an independent intrusive complex. Rocks of the migmatitegranite formation form distinct leucocratic granitoid bodies found in crystalline schists. They are exposed in the areas underlain by Middle Proterozoic metamorphites, but it is only in the South Afghanistan Mass that these rocks were recognized as a separate complex.

Waras Complex The massifs encompassed by this complex occur in the Kandahar Zone and in the Waras and Bashlang fault blocks (144, 152, 206, 142, 155). As a rule they are small, either lenticular or sheet-like concordant bodies resting in crystalline schists and gneisses. Most widespread in the complex are gneiss-granites, granites and granodiorites. Plagiogranites are less common. Confined to massifs of the Waras Complex are intersecting veins and dikes of pegmatites and aplites. 238

The gneiss-granites are represented by two-mica, varieties of a porphyritic texture (with a lepidoblastic and poikiloblastic groundmass) and a gneissic structure. The rocks consist of quartz (25 to 30%), plagioclase (40 to 55%), biotite (up to 15%), muscovite (2 to 8%) and K-feldspar, with accessory apatite and zircon. The granites are porphyroblastic, with a lepidogranoblastic groundmass and massive structure. The porphyroblasts are represented by plagioclase; the groundmass consists of K-feldspar, plagioclase, quartz, muscovite and epidote; the accessory minerals are apatite, zircon and sphene. The granodiorites consist of oligoclase-andesine, quartz, orthoclase, clino- and orthorhombic pyroxene. Sericite occurs along with plagioclase and hornblende along with pyroxene. The plagiogranites are represented by the biotite-hornblende variety, which exhibits a hypidiomorphic texture and massive or, less frequently, gneissic structure, The rocks consist of plagioclase (oligoclase) (50 to 60%), quartz (25 to 30%), biotite (5 to 18%), hornblende (up to 2%), K-feldspar (up to 2%), with accessory zircon, orthite and sphene. Among the chromatic minerals alkaline amphibole occurs occasionally. The pegmatites belong to a poorly differentiated type. In texture they are characteristically granitic, pegmatitic and graphitic. The mineral composition of the pegmatites is as follows: plagioclase, quartz, muscovite and K-feldspar, the accessory minerals being represented by tourmaline, garnet, apatite, zircon, sericite and chlorite. In pegmatites, zones of secondary replacement by quartz and muscovite are occasionally associated with a considerable accumulation of large muscovite flakes. The size of pegmatite veins varies over a wide range; their thickness fluctuates between 0.5 and 20 m, while they stretch between a few dozen metres and several kilometres. The chemical composition of some rocks from the Waras Complex is shown in Table 14 and their absolute ages are quoted in Table 15. Table 15
Ser Nos.

Absolute ages of some granitoid rocks from Waras, Panjsher and Khufob Complexes.
Sample No. Rock K Content % Radiogenic argon content (ng/g) Age (min years) Sample location (sheet no. of topographic map 1:250,000 scale. 7 513-A 513 513 513-A 513-A 513-A 513-B 409-C 511-C 511-C 511-C 511-C 511-C 511-C 504-E

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

2 1857 1707 1428a 1462 1815-I 3197 1 274/4 1 1 2 2 3 4 1

3 Granodiorite Plagiogranite Gneiss-granite Gneiss-granite Migmatite (biotite) Pegmatite (muscovite) Plagiogranite (biotite) Gneiss-granite Orthogneiss (biotite) Orthogneiss (biotite) Migmatite Migmatite Orthogneiss Migmatite Orthogneiss

4 1.86 1.52 2.94 1.48 6.56 8.68 3.46 -

5 37.9 70.1 54.6 5.8 115.0 163.0 8.6 -

6 285 575 254 57 240 265 270-300 36 25.70.5 24.40.3 43 42.1 36 35.3 49

239

16 17 18 19 20 21

AII-81 AM-H 700 266-3 253-16 727

Granitogneiss Granitogneiss Gneiss-granite Gneiss Gneiss Granodiorite

0.87 4.18 1.12 2.38

17.0 28.9 4.3 10.9

15.5 16.7 270 98 56 66

217-F 217-F 217-B 211-F 211-D 211-D

Complexes:1-8 - Waras; 9-14 - Panjsher; 15-21 - Khufob. A possible counterpart of the Wares Complex is the Yandar Tausal Complex, South-East Pamir on Soviet territory.

Late Proterozoic Intrusions

Late Proterozoic intrusions occur in the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region and in the South Afghanistan Median Mass. Their exposures are confined to areas underlain, by Upper Proterozoic sedimentary rocks. The Chekanak, Tamazan and Chasnud complexes have been distinguished there. Massifs of the two former complexes occur within areas underlain by terrigenous rocks that make the lower portion of the Upper Proterozoic sequence. The massifs are built up of the rocks of the diabase and gabbroplagiogranite formations. The massifs of the Chasnud Complex occur throughout the areas underlain mostly by volcanogenic rocks that belong to the Upper Proterozoic sequence. These massifs are made up of the rocks of the liparite-dacite formation.

Diabase and Gabbro-Plagiogranite Formations, South Afghanistan Median Mass, HelmandArgandab Uplift Chekanak Complex This has been isolated by Yu.M. Dovgal, M.A. Chalyan et al. (144) in the Argandab and Kandahar zones. It includes massifs composed of gabbro-diorites, diorites and orthoamphibolites. The massifs are lens-, dikeand stock-like extending in plan from several hundred metres up to 8 km with a width of a few metres to 5 km. The gabbro-diabases and diabases appear as dark green rocks with a schistose or, less frequently, massive structure and with blastogabbroic and blastophitic texture. They are composed of highly altered plagioclase (andesine-labradorite) (up to 55%), and augite, after which epidote, albite, actinolite, sericite, calcite and magnetite are developed. The amphibolites represent rocks which exhibit a gneissous and schistose structure and a granoblastic texture which occasionally becomes prismatic. The rocks consist of common hornblende (so to 70%), andesine (25 to 45%), magnetite (2 to 5%) and secondary quartz. In their composition and structural features these rocks are similar to diorites and gabbro-diorites. The andesine content in the former is higher than that in amphibolites (up to 70%), whereas in gabbro-diorites there is only a very small amount of clinopyroxene. Endocontact alterations in the rocks of the Chekanak Complex consist in the chilling and silicification zone, 30 to 50 cm. wide, which is characterized by reduction of granularity and bleaching of rocks due to a decrease in the amount of chromatic minerals. Pebbles of altered diabases, amphibolites and gabbroids identical to those described above have been found in the basal conglomerates of the Zargaran Formation of Vend-Cambrian age. The chemical composition of some rocks from the Chekanak Complex is shown in Table 16.

240

Table 16 Chemical composition for some rocks from the Tamazan, Chekanak, Salang and Safed Koh complexes.
Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 A12O3 Fe2O3 FeO K2O MgO CaO Na2O P2O5 Loss on ignition 1 1 53.28 0.70 13.81 6.27 4.39 0.09 7.32 9.87 0.64 2.04 0.16 1.44 Sum total: 100.01 4 2 58.39 1.04 14.96 2.61 5.38 0.10 4.81 6.15 1.97 2.45 0.32 1.56 99.74 5 3 63.54 0.61 14.25 2.48 3.02 0.11 3.00 4.83 1.45 2.42 0.30 3.90 99.91 6 4 51.66 1.29 14.37 3.34 6.50 0.18 7.59 8.02 1.47 2.29 0.21 2.79 99.17 1 5 59.50 0.71 17.56 2.59 1.62 0.08 2.18 5.15 1.80 3.50 0.18 5.17 100.04 2 6 49.76 1.03 15.14 3.88 4.77 0.23 10.29 10.45 1.09 0.93 0.13 2.07 99.77 1 7 50.76 0.16 14.62 13.32 0.02 7.33 8.05 0.50 4.16 0.05 0.42 99.39

1-3 - Tamazan complex (155): 1 - gabbro; 2 - diorites; 3 quartz-diorites; 4-5 - Chekanak Complex (144): 4 - gabbro-diabases; 5 - diorites; 6 - Salang Complex (156) - gabbro; 7 - Safed Koh Complex (381) - gabbro. Tamazan Complex This has been distinguished by D.A. Starshinin et al. (155) in the Helmand Zone. The complex includes stock- and dike-like massifs. The biggest massifs up to dozens of square kilometres in area occur in arenaceous-schisty rocks of the Barmanai Series. The massifs contacts with the country rocks are abrupt. The exocontact zone is characterized by development of hornfels (quartz-amphibole-pyroxene hornfels), while the endocontact zone is slightly silicified. The internal structure of the massifs is, as a rule, simple. Commonly the rocks exhibit massive structure, though gneissic and taxitic varieties can occasionally be seen. The Tamazan Complex comprises rocks, referred to two phases: phase I - gabbros, gabbro-diabases, gabbrodiorites, diorites and tonalites; phase 2 - quartz diorite and plagiogranites. The gabbroids are the most widespread phase I rocks. The gabbroids exhibit blastogabbroic, blastogabbro-ophitic and prismatic textures. The rocks consist of highly altered plagioclase (45 to 55%), hornblende (30 to 40%), chloritized biotite (8 to 16%), as well as quartz (10 to 12%) and microcline (up to 10-15%), resulted from the superimposed processes; the accessory minerals are apatite, titanomagnetite and sphene. The schlieren-like pegmatoid segregations in the gabbroids exhibit poikilophitic texture and gabbroic composition, consisting of 45 to 60% sericitized and saussuritized plagioclase and 50% amphibole. Less common are orthopyroxenites composed of rhombic pyroxene, biotite, amphibole and olivine. The diorites of prismatic texture consist of plagioclase (50 to 60%), chloritized biotite (10 to 20%), amphibole (up to 5%) and the minerals resulted from the superimposed processes: quartz (up to 30%) and microcline (up to 8%); the accessory minerals are tourmaline (up to 3-4%), magnetite, ilmenite, sphene, apatite, orthite, garnet, and pyrite. Phase 2 diorites and plagiogranites are medium-grained rocks with prismatic and hypidiomorphic textures. These consist of andesine (so to 55%), quartz (10-15 to 30%), hornblende (up to 25%), biotite (5 to 15%), K241

feldspar (up to 8-15%) and accessory zircon, apatite, sphene, ilmenite, magnetite, garnet, rutile, orthite and fluorite. The chemical composition of some rock types of the Tamazan Complex is shown in Table 16, and their absolute ages in Table 17. Table 17
Ser Nos.

Absolute ages of some rock types from the Tamazan Complex.

Sample No. Rock K Content % Radiogenic argon content (ng/g) 21 13.5 6.6 5.5 9.6 10.6 3 213 240 70 14.5 Age (min years) Sample location (sheet no. of topographic map 1:250,000 scale. 513-B 513-B 513-C 513-C 513-C 513-C 513-A 409-A 511-A 511-B 511-A

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

158/1 212-5 1503 1504 1515 2063 2096 137 794 320 503

Diorite Gabbro-diorite Diorite Diorite Quartz-diorite Quartz-diorite Diorite Pegmatite (muscovite) Pegmatite (muscovite and biotite) Granodiorite Granodiorite

1.81 1.81 1.06 1.07 1.35 1.88 2.07 8.66 8.47 3.15 1.29

161 107 88 74 102 80 21 330 230 245 159

In the Afghanistan South Pamir Region the counterparts of the rocks of the Tamazan Complex may be the diabases and gabbro-diorites of the Kaftarhan Zone forming small lenticular massifs in the Upper Proterozoic terrigenous-carbonate sequence which is overlain disconformably by fossiliferous Cambrian deposits.

Liparite-Dacite Formation, Afghanistan South Pamir Region Chasnud Complex This has been isolated in the Chasnud Fault Block by I.M. Sborshchikov, G.S. Loginov et al. (154). The complex includes several small linearly elongated and isometric massifs in the areas underlain by acidic volcanites assigned to the Guldara Series (top of the Upper Proterozoic). The massifs are made up of acidic subvolcanic rocks, notably quartz porphyries, dacites and granite- porphyries. Their mutual intertransitions are gradual and hardly discernible in the field. Their transition to the enclosing effusive rocks is also difficult to discern in places, but at a number of sites, quartz porphyries, dacites and granite porphyries of the Chasnud Complex clearly cut through the ignimbrites of the Guldara Series. It is this that defines the intrusive nature of the complex described, which is a typical complex of subvolcanic rocks that are genetically close to volcanites of the Guldara Series. Overall, they compose an orogenic volcanite formation of the Baikalian tectonic cycle.

Late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic Intrusions

Late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic intrusive rocks originated in the regions of Hercynian folding. Early Carboniferous, Persian and Late Triassic intrusions have been reported from these regions.

242

Early Carboniferous Intrusions

Intrusive massifs of this age are incorporated into four complexes: Payandeh, Konar, Shengan and Nari. The two former are made up of rocks of ultrabasic formation and the latter two of gabbro-plagiogranite formation rocks.

Formation of Ultrabasic Rocks Payandeh and Konar Complexes The massifs constituting these complexes are characterized by identical structures though they occur in different areas. The Payandeh Complex embraces the massifs of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region and in uplifted parts of the folded basement of the North Afghan Platform. The Konar Complex comprises massifs that occur in the Khinduraj-Hazer Folded Region, the Payandeh Complex being the better studied. The Konar Complex has not been studied at all, and due to this fact we shall not dwell on its description. Payandeh Complex Information on this can be found in the papers by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350), V.P. Kolchanov et al. (348), V.M. Moraliov et al. (351), G.G. Semionov et al. (141), A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153) and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). The available materials allow to classify the Payandeh Complex into two spatially isolated groups of massifs, one of which occurs in the North-Western Badakhshan and the other in the Western Hendukush. In the North-Western Badakhshan, the Payandeh Complex includes smell lens and sheet-like, steeply dipping bodies found in the basins of the Darya-I-Panj, Caj-Darya, Wand, Darrah-i-Jaway, Gudjab and other rivers. Minor flat-laying interformational massifs are also known from these areas (the Rostwand massif). The massifs exhibit either intrusive or faulted contacts with the country rocks. The exocontact alterations consist in the formation of talc-chlorite, talc-carbonate and chlorite-actinolitic zones several dozen centimetres wide. Serpentinites prevail in the massifs listed and only in individual cases serpentized dunites and peridotites are encountered. The serpentinized dunites are medium - and coarse-grained rocks, consisting of lamellar antigorite, that forms pseudomorphs after panidiomorphic aggregates or after individual olivine crystals. The serpentinized peridotites have been altered to form fine-grained aggregates of colorless chrysotile, with a reticulate microtexture. The interstices between the aggregates are filled with serpophyte. The matrix consisting of chrysotile retains relicts of enstatite and clinopyroxene. Also common are hornblende peridotites (schriesheimites) with big hornblende crystals containing minute pyroxene and olivine inclusions. The serpentinites making up the bulk of the massifs are represented by antigorite varieties with a mottled structure. The antigorite aggregate occasionally contain sizable segregations (up to 3 mm) of biotite and fine serpophyte streaks, as well as clinopyroxene and hornblende relics encircled by a rim of fine-grained breunnerite. Magnetite (5 to 15%) forms fine grains, irregularly shaped accumulations and fine streaks. Sometimes talc is noted (5 to 15%). In addition, talc-carbonate rocks consisting of talc, carbonate and serpentine, aggregates make up the endocontact rims of the massifs and frequently occur in the fault zones. The second group of ultrabasic rock massifs is known from the basins of the Surkhab, Payandeh, Andarab, Gorband Rod and Panjsher rivers. These massifs are confined to the area underlain by Lower Carboniferous and Ordovician-Devonian volcano-sedimentary rocks. The massifs are lens-like in shape and extend for 0.5 to 15 km with a thickness of several hundred metres. All the massifs are composed of serpentinites consisting of fibrous and lamellar serpentine and finely disseminated magnetite and chromite. The rock is of parallel- fibrous structure and latticed, reticular and bastitic texture. In rare cases, serpentinites retain relics of the primary rocks which consist of enstatite and olivine and whose original composition corresponded to harzburgites and dunites. In the vicinity of the Warsang village and at the mouth of the Darrah-i-Pusida River, massifs of slightly serpentinized dunites were encountered (348) in association with orthoamphibolite bodies.

243

In the ultrabasics of the Payandeh Complex, in addition to chromite and magnetite, other accessory minerals were found, notably, ilmenite, pyrite, chrome-spinellides, zircon, apatite, garnet, rutile, sphene and chrome diopside. The chemical composition of some rock types from the Payandeh Complex is given in Table 18. The age of the rocks under discussion is defined by their spatial and genetic association with Lower Carboniferous volcanites. In the USSR, a counterpart of the Payandeh Complex is the Darvaz Complex of ultrabasic rocks from the North-West Pamir (73). Table 18
Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 A12O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 Loss on ignition Sum total:

Chemical composition of some rock types of the Shengan and Payandeh complexes.
8 2 4 2 2 11

1 51.49 0.78 15.80 5.13 6.02 0.22 6.45 7.06 0.64 3.05 0.20 2.96 99.81

2 52.86 0.75 17.31 1.49 5.18 0.17 5.22 8.65 1.68 2.50 0.20 3.63 99.64

3 61.32 0.60 15.34 3.03 3.65 0.10 4.38 6.29 1.26 3.42 0.07 1.24 100.70

4 60.59 0.84 13.92 1.38 3.40 0.13 0.58 8.97 1.88 3.68 0.14 3.85 99.36

5 69.26 0.38 13.50 0.63 2.43 0.12 1.15 2.64 2.87 3.56 0.06 2.76 99.36

6 44.98 0.14 1.91 4.68 3.95 0.09 34.40 1.56 0.14 0.16 0.1 10.89 100.0

1-5 - Shengan Complex (160, 351): 1 - gabbro; 2 - gabbro-diorites; 3 - diorites; 4 - quartz diorites; 5 plagiogranites; 6 - Payandeh Complex (148, 154) - serpentinites

Gabbro-Plagiogranite Formation, Shengan and Nari complexes. The massifs incorporated into these complexes have an almost identical composition, but they occur in isolated areas. The Shengan Complex incorporates the massifs widespread in Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region and in the areas where folded basement of the North Afghanistan Platform is exposed. The Nari Complex embraces the massifs developed in the Khinduradj-Hazar Folded Region. The Shengan Complex is sufficiently studied and has been isolated by G.G. Semionov et al. (141). The massifs incorporated in the complex occur within the confines of the Surkhab and Darrah-i-Jaway zones. The country rocks enclosing the massifs are Proterozoic metamorphites and carbonate-terrigenous as well as volcanogenic formations of Ordovician-Devonian and Lower Carboniferous ages. The Shengan. Complex comprises rocks of two phases: phase 1- gabbros, diorites, quartz diorites; Phase 2 diorites, granodiorites, plagiogranites. 244

Phase 1 rocks form isolated massifs that are lens- or stock-like. The biggest massifs occur in the vicinity of the village of Shengan, in the basin of the Darra-i-Ragh River, at the head of the Bozoni Teshken River and at other localities. The massifs have steep contacts with the enclosing rocks. The internal structure of the massifs varies. Some of them are uniform in composition, but generally they are built up of several rock varieties. For instance, according to V.M. Moraliov et al (351), gabbroids predominate in the composition of the Kaydar Massif, opposite the Kalay Hunib village, whereas the massifs occurring in the Zanil area are made up primarily of quartz diorites. Some of these massifs consist of gabbro-diorites, diorites and quartz diorites. Phase 1 rocks are commonly characterized by a massive structure and gabbroid, prismatic, hypidiomorphic, medium- and coarse-grained textures. The gabbro and gabbro-diorites consist of plagioclase (40 to 60%), pyroxene (10 to 25%), amphibole (20 to 30%), biotite (up to 10%), K-feldspar (up to 10%), quartz (up to 5%) and accessory orthite, apatite, zircon, sphene, rutile, and magnetite. In the gabbros, plagioclase is represented by andesine-labrador, Nos. 36-40, and in gabbro-diorites, by oligoclase-andesine, Nos. 28-36. In the gabbro-diorites, hypersthene and clinopyroxene are the prevalent minerals, while apatite and magnetite are accessories. The diorites consist of plagioclase, Nos. 25-32 (60 to 70%), clinopyroxene (10 to 15%), amphibole (Is to 25%), biotite (5%), quartz, chlorite, saussurite, clinozoisite, apatite, sphene, zircon, magnetite and titanomagnetite. In individual instances, hypersthene and iddingsite pseudomorphs are developed after orthorhombic pyroxene. Occasionally, diorite varieties are found to contain secondary metasomatic orthoclase. Such diorite varieties exhibit features of a monzonitic texture. The quartz diorites consist of plagioclase (45%), hornblende (30%), quartz (15%), biotite (4%) and orthoclase (up to 3%), with accessory zircon, apatite, sphene, rutile and garnet. The rocks are of a hypidiomorphic texture, occasionally slightly porphyritic. The phenocrysts (40%) are isometric, being represented by albitized plagioclase. The groundmass consists of minute quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase, hornblende and biotite grains. Phase 2 rocks (Shengan Complex) - diorites, granodiorites and plagiogranites - are known from the Surkhab Zone, where they either occur together with Phase 1 rocks or form individual massifs. In plan, the massifs are either oval or slightly elongated. The massifs stretch subconcordantly with the strike of the country rocks; the area occupied by single massifs varies from 10 to 250 sq. km. The diorites exhibiting prismatic texture consist of zonal plagioclase (65 to 75%), green hornblende and biotite (10 to 25%), orthoclase (up to 3%) and quartz (up to 10%). The granodiorites and plagiogranites are coarse-grained rocks with a massive and gneissose structure. These consist of plagioclase (20 to 40%), quartz (up to 38%), microcline (13 to 40%), hornblende and biotite (5 to 10%), with accessory apatite, zircon and sphene. The texture of the rocks is hypidiomorphic and granitic, but in the endocontact portions of intrusions, the texture may occasionally be porphyritic. Elements of the pegmatitic granulitic granophyric texture are frequent. The plagioclases are represented by oligoclase (Nos. 15-18) and andesine (Nos. 35-40); quartz is encountered in large (up to 5 mm.), phenocrysts otherwise it forms fine xenomorphic grains in the groundmass. Pegmatitic and granophyric intergrowths of quartz and perthitized microcline are often encountered. Biotite is often completely replaced by chlorite and epidote. Characteristic of the rocks of the two phases are high concentrations of accessory minerals, notably magnetite, ilmenite, pyrite, zircon, garnet and apatite, while for Phase 2 rocks cassiterite, sphene, orthite, lepidocrocite and monazite are also characteristic. The chemical composition of some rock types of the Shengan Complex is presented in Table 18. Spessartites, microgabbro, plagiaplites and diabases have been described from a number of the rock types making up the dike phase of the Shengan Complex. The dikes are from 1 to 5 m thick and from 10 to several hundred metres long. They strike nearly N-S and cut through the rocks of the two phases of the complex. Exocontact alterations in the enclosing rocks produced by invasion of gabbroids and diorites of the Shengan Complex consist of silicification, hornfelsing, amphibolization and skarnization. Among the skarns, the 245

garnet-pyroxene-epidote and wollastonite-vesuvianite varieties are known. The zones of contact alteration may reach 400 m in width. Early Carboniferous age of the rocks from the Shengan Complex is defined on the basis of their intrusive interrelations with Lower Carboniferous deposits in the basins of the Khenjan, Kig-Dara, Vand and other rivers. On the Soviet territory, the Obikhum Complex in the North-West Pamir (73) is fully analogous to the Shengan Complex. The absolute ages of the rocks from the Shengan Complex are quoted in Table 19. Table 19
Ser Nos.

Absolute ages of some rock types from the Shengan Complex.

Rock K Content % Radiogenic argon content (ng/g) Age (min years) Sample location (sheet no. of topographic map 1:250,000 scale. 503-A 222-D 222-D 223-A 223-A 223-A 223-A 223-A 218-E 223-A 217-C 211-D

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Plagiogranite Tonalite Granodiorite Granodiorite Granodiorite Granodiorite Leucotonalite Leucotonalite Granodiorite Granite Granite Granite ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto 1.96 0.99 2.94

K-Ar method K-Ar method K-Ar method K-Ar method K-Ar method K-Ar method K-Ar method K-Ar method K-Ar method 23.2 14.1 11.6

360.0 185.0 185.0 186.0 209.0 213.0 127.0 129.0 12.0 107.0 200.0 56.0

Permian Intrusions
Permian intrusive rocks occur within the Afghanistan- North Pamir Folded Region, in the Hazrat Sultan Zone. These are the rocks of the ultrabasic and gabbro-plagiogranitic formations, incorporated in two complexes respectively - Kafir and Madut.

Formation of Ultrabasic Rocks Kafir Complex G.G. Semionov et al. (141) were the first to describe the massifs constituting the Late Paleozoic complex of serpentinites which is a single feature in the whole Afghan Badakhshan. More recently, massifs of this complex have been studied by I.M. Sborshchikov, G.S. Loginov et. al. (154). The complex is represented by a small number of massifs that are lenticular or dike-like, 30 to 100 m wide, and from several dozen metres to 1 km long. Their position is commonly controlled by faults with a northeasterly trend and they dip steeply, at 60 to 75. The massifs occur in Silurian-Devonian and Lower Carboniferous green schist volcanogenic-sedimentary strata. 246

In the Kafir Complex, serpentinites predominate, while peridotites (Lherzolites, schriesheimites) are less common. The serpentinites are dark-coloured and light green massive or schistose rocks with a reticulate, fibrous or lamellar texture. In the reticulate varieties olivine relicts are sometimes preserved. Orthorombic pyroxene with parallel extinction is in most cases replaced by bastite. The rocks display small amounts of tremolite and clinochlore. Dust impregnation of opaque mineral is dispersed throughout the rock. Flaky talc is developed along the minute cracks in the rock. The enstatite-diallage peridotites (lherzolites) have a massive structure and panidiomorphic-granular texture. They consist of coarse allotriomorphic olivine grains and clino- and orthorhombic pyroxene and chromite in apparently lower quantities filling the spaces between the olivine grains. Tremolite, talc and clinochlore are developed after the principal minerals. The hornblendic peridotites (schriesheimites) consist of olivine and clinopyroxene, which are characterized by the presence of pale-green, almost colorless hornblende, which forms coarse grains with abundant inclusions of fine olivine grains. The possibility should not be excluded that the hornblende has resulted from replacement of pyroxene. Carbonate and serpentine occur in cleavage cracks of the hornblende. There are rare accumulations of clinochlore and single muscovite flakes. Finely dispersed insets of opaque ore are found in the hornblende grains. The contact margins of the bodies made up of rocks are usually highly talcose and carbonated. Infrequently, gliding planes are observed. Interrelations between the ultrabasic rocks and younger intrusions of the zone have not been ascertained. In the USSR, analogous to the basic rocks under discussion are ultrabasic rocks and associated with them basic varieties exposed on the southern slope of Darvaz Ridge (the right bank of the Vanch River) described by N.A. Popova (340).

Gabbro-Plagiogranite Formation Nedut Complex This is represented bye number of linearly elongated massifs in a locality adjacent to the watershed area of the Kohe Safedhira and Kohe Hazret-Sultan. They have been described in the works of G.G. Semionov et. al. (141), V.P. Moraliov et. al. (351) and A.Kh. Kefarsky et. al. (153). The biggest massif of the complex is the Madut Massif. It stretches for over 40 km and is 5 km wide. The massif trends north-east concordantly with the strike of Lower Carboniferous greenstone-altered schistose volcanites. The massif is lens-like in shape and composed of olivine and pyroxene- hornblende gabbro, gabbrodiorites, diorites, quartz diorites and plagiogranites. The olivine gabbros are rocks of dark grey colour and fine- and medium-grained massive structure with a typical gabbroid texture. They consist of labradorite-bytownite (60 to 80%), olivine (5 to 10%), clinopyroxene (up to 20%) and an insignificant amount of orthorhombic pyroxene, hornblende, biotite and opaque mineral. Secondary alterations consist in actinolization, serpentinization, talcification, scapolitization and formation of saussurite aggregates. The pyroxene-hornblende gabbros are massive, grey or greenish-grey rocks often coarse and very coarsegrained with a hypidiomorphic, rarely ophitic texture. They consist of labradorite (less frequently bytownite), clinopyroxene (often diallage), subordinate amount of amphibole, and accessory titanomagnetite and apatite. The secondary minerals are actinolite, chlorite, serpentine, calcite, epidote, talc, sphene, and aggregates of saussurite. Locally the rocks are significantly altered, i.e. almost entirely replaced by kuralite and saussurite. The gabbro-dioritesare massive, rarely banded dark grey and greenish rocks, fine- and coarse-grained, often porphyraceous, exhibiting hypidiomorphic, dioritic, ophitic and, rarely, diabase textures. The rocks consist of plagioclase-labradorite occasionally zonal andesine-bytownite, hornblende, subordinate amounts of clinopyroxene, magnetite, ilmenite, apatite, actinolite, chlorite, epidote, talc, serpentine, leucoxene and saussurite. 247

The diorites (microdiorite) are massive and banded rocks, grey, greenish-grey and green in colour. Among them varieties are encountered that differs, in grain size (from fine- to coarse- grained). They are usually hypidiomorphic or dioritic in texture. The most common mineralogical association includes plagioclase (zonal) in the range from oligoclase to bytownite, hornblende showing green. to brownish-red pleochroism, clinopyroxene (in lesser amounts), ilmenite and apatite. Secondary alterations haye resulted in forming of actinolite, chlorite, epidote, calcite, saussurite and leucoxene. The quartz and quaztziferous diorites are massive, occasionally gneissious greenish-grey or green coarseand medium-grained rocks of hypidiomorphic or prismatic texture. They consist of zonal plagioclase (oligoclase-andesine), green hornblende, biotite, quartz (up to 12%) clinopyroxene, and magnetite, sphene, apatite, garnet. The secondary minerals are represented by actinolite, chlorite, sericite, epidetezoisite and saussurite. The plagiogranites. These are grey or greenish rocks macroscopically very reminiscent of those described above, but containing up to 25% quartz. Plagioclase is represented by albite-oligoclase, and amphibole is the most characteristic mafic mineral, which is encountered together with biotite. In individual instances quartz is clearly secondary in origin and its fine-grained aggregates replace the rock-forming minerals. This phenomenon is especially characteristic of the cataclastic varieties of plagiogranite and quartz diorite. A peculiar feature of the complex as a whole is the weak manifestation of the contact alterations. The width of the contact alteration zone does not exceed a few dozen metres. This alteration is manifested in development of hornfels and in marmorization. The contact alterations are evident in a zone several metres wide, where the rocks of banded structure are commonly bleached and their composition corresponds to that of plagiogranite, leucodiorite or leucogabbro. The vein facies of the complex under consideration are very diverse. Most common are dikes of diabases and plagioclases, quartz porphyries and, more rarely, porphyrites, spessartites, pyroxenites, amphiboleplagioclase and pyroxene-plagioclase pegmatites. Usually the dikes are not over 1.5 m thick and 50 to 100 m in strike length. On the territory of the USSR, within Middle Pamir an adequate counterpart of the Madut Massif is the Darvaz massif, occurring in a locality adjacent to the watershed area of the Darvaz Ridga (73).

Late Triassic Intrusions

Intrusive activity of this period complete the Late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic cycle of the magnetic evalution within the Afghan territory associated with the development of Late Hercynian geosynclines. The resultant intrusive rocks represent derivatives of the andesite-liparite formation and the formations of subvolcanic rocks and granite batholiths.

Andesite-Liparite Formation Melak Complex This incorporates Late Triassic subvolcanic bodies exposed in the basins of the Surkhab, Andarab, Balkh, Payandeh and other rivers. The relevant information can be found in the papers by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350), A.Kh.Kafarsky et al. (148, 153), I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). Rocks of the vent and volcanic facies are distinguished in the Nalak Complex. The vent facies is represented by quartz porphyries, diabasic, dioritic and andesitic porphyrites, as well as by agglomerate andesite lavas. Three intrusive phases have been defined. Phase 1 has resulted in quartz porphyries composing wall portions of the necks. Phase 2 produced diabasic, dioritic and andesitic porphyries making up the dikes through Phase 1 rocks, and Phase 3 is represented by the agglomerate lavas of andesites that fill the central portion of necks, as well as acidic rock dikes. The vents of the central type volcanoes made up of these rocks are exposed at the lower reaches of the Vano, Turmush, Jari-Estoma rivers and the upper reaches of the Nawa-i-Kharzar River, where the volcano structures are confined to a fault zone. Rocks of the subvolcanic facies make up sills, stocks and dikes. Most common are sills composed of diorite porphyrites and quartz porphyries. They vary in thickness from a few metres up to 100-200 m. The 248

characteristic features of the rocks in sills are their more pronounced cryatallisation compared with the lavas of similar composition, porphyritic texture and absence of secondary alterations. Subvolcanic stocks (consisting of granite-porphyries, diorite porphyrites) occur near the village of Tale Barfak and in the basins of the Turmush and Wadu rivers. The largest stock (4 x 2 km) made up of dioritic porphyrites has been mapped at the middle course of the Nalak River. Its contacts with the country rocks are cross-cutting and steep. In the apical portion of the stock the rocks display spheroidal jointing. Subvolcanic dikes (consisting of dacite, andesite and diabase porphyries) are for the most part of a nearly EW trend. The dikes vary in thickness from 1-2 to 10 m. Quartz porphyries have a porphyric texture with a microfelsitic, micropegmatitic, micropoikilitic and, more rarely, spherulitic groundmass. Insets (20 to 30%) are represented by quartz, plagioclase and sanidine. The mafic mineral is replaced by chlorite and carbonate, the groundmass consists of quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, chlorite, sericite and leucoxene. The dacite porphyries are analogous to quartz porphyries. In contrast to the latter, the insets in the former are represented by plagioclase, No.30, and rarely by quartz. The groundmass is felsitic. The granite porphyries are fine- grained porphyraceous rocks whose insets are albite-oligoclase and quartz. The groundmass is composed of a microgranitic, locally micropegmatitic aggregates of quartz, orthoclase, and almost wholly chloritized albite. The andesitic porphyrites have a porphyritic texture with andesine Nos.45-80, and orthorhombic pyroxene in phenocrysts. The pyroxene is replaced by serpentine, chlorite, uralite and carbonate. The groundmass is microlitic, highly carbonatized and abounding in leucoxene. The dioritic porphyrites have a porphyritic texture with an allotriomorphic~granular, occasionally microdioritic groundmass. The insets (so to 60%) are represented by plagioclase Nos. 40-50, biotite, clinopyroxene and hypersthene with iddingsite and hornblende developing after the latter mineral. The groundmass consists of plagioclase (30 to 40%), hornblende and occasionally quartz (up to 10-20%) with accessory apatite and zircon. The diabases are aphanatic and fine-grained rocks exhibiting an ophitic, in some places prismatically granular texture and an amygdaloidal or massive structure. The chemical composition of some rock types from the Nalak Complex is given in Table 20. The rocks described are dated as Rhaetian because of their close spatial and genetic association with Rhastian volcanites. The K-Ar absolute ages of 21210.0 - 21610.0 mln years are consistent with the age presumed. Table 20
Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 A12O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5

Chemical composition of some rock types from the Nalak Complex.

1 1 68.81 0.75 12.20 2.88 1.26 0.07 1.62 0.76 4.32 1.84 0.04 1 2 53.38 0.96 18.30 6.35 0.28 0.00 0.65 0.84 6.56 1.20 0.46 2 3 64.96 0.55 16.50 0.50 4.45 0.50 1.78 4.59 2.52 2.98 0.14 2 4 56.29 0.72 17.33 0.93 4.95 0.16 4.47 7.71 0.96 2.62 0.40 1 5 46.10 0.45 17.85 0.58 9.34 0.25 8.50 9.73 0.36 2.36 0.07

249

LI

4.09

10.53

0.60

2.91

3.84

Sum total

99.64

99.51

99.50

100.07

99.59

1 - quartz porphyries; 2 - syenodiorites; 3 granodiorite-porphyporphyrites; 4 - dioritic porphyries; 5 diabasic porphyrites (148, 154). In the USSR the rocks of the Myntekin subvolcanic complex, in North-West Pamir (73), are of similar age and facies to the rocks from the Nalak Complex.

Formation of Subvolcanic Granites This formation comprises massifs of the Murkh, Bamyan, Cheshtesherif and Madraza Complexes. Murkh Complex This incorporates small isometric and linearly elongated massifs of subvolcanic granitoid rocks exposed in the Surkhab Zone and the regions bordering on the North Afghanistan Platform. The relevant information can be found in works by K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (350), V.P. Kolchanov et al. (348), A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153), I.M. Sborshchikov et. al. (154). The massifs of the complex out through sedimentary-volcanogenic formations of differing ages (the Rhaetian including ) and are transgessively overlapped by Lower Jurassic strata. The massifs of the complex were formed during two phases of igneous activity. Phase 1 rocks are represented by diorites and quartz diorites that make up separate massifs in the basins of the Piezkul, Larkhab, Syah Dara and other rivers. The shape of the massifs is commonly elongated or, occasionally, isometric. They vary in size between 4 and 90 sq. km. The diorites and quartz diorites appear as medium- and coarse-grained rocks with a massive, locally banded structure and a prismatic and hypidiomorphic texture; locally the rocks exhibit cryptic or pegmatoid texture. The rocks are composed of plagioclase, Nos. 32-60 (40-45%), hornblende (35%), quartz- (I5 to 20%), microcline (up to 10%), single grains of clinopyroxene and olivine, as well as accessory apatite, sphene, zircon and magnetite. The diorites contain schlieren-like patches composed of hornblendic gabbro-diorites. When Phase 2 biotite granites intruded Phase 1 diorites and quartz diorites, the latter underwent silicification and K-metasomatosis, resulting in metasomatic quartz monzonites. In the endocontact zone, the diorite occasionally contains gabbro-diabase which exhibit gabbroic texture, with ophitic elements and massive structure. Plagioclase is represented by labradorite variety. The mafic minerals (40 to 45%) are represented by clinopyroxene, overgrown with a circular uralite and common hornblende; the accessories are apatite and magnetite. The exocontact alterations of the country rocks appear as a thin zone of cordierite, plagioclasequartz, biotite-plagiogranite-quartz hornfels and pyroxene, pyroxene-garnet and garnetiferous skeins containing also quartz, chlorite, spinel, magnetite and ilvaite insets, as well as lead and zinc sulphides. Prevalent in the complex are Phase 2 rocks, which compose several relatively big massifs in the basins of the Surkhab, Zardcharui, Larkhab, Shergolak, Tundara, Narin and other rivers. The largest massif is that of Surkhab, the area of which is approximately 250 sq km. This massif, 10 km in width, extends for 50 km along the left bank of the Surkhab River from the basin of the Eshpushta River as far as the village of Lutitagay. Phase 2 rocks are medium- and coarse-grained granites, granodiorites, granosyenites, quartz syenites having a massive structure and hypidiomorphic texture with elements of pegmatoid, micrographic, porphyraceous, poikilitic and granoblastic texture. The granosyenites are also characterized by the replacement texture resulting from K-metasomatosis. The granites consist of microcline (35 to 45%), quartz (25 to 35%), plagioclase (Nos.20-28, 10 to 20%), biotite (5 to 10%), hornblende (2 to 6%), pyroxene (up to 2%) and accessory apatite, zircon, orthite, xenotime, magnetite and garnet. Occasionally, plagioclase crystals exhibit the features of phenocrysts. 250

In such cases, the groundmass is made up chiefly of K-feldspar and quartz which form graphic intergrowths. Phase 2 granites are characterized by nonuniform potassium metasomatosis. In addition, albitization, silicification and greisenization have been noted at some sites. Alteration of granites is particularly well pronounced in the south-western part of the massif, at the upper reaches of the Tundara River, where Ordovician deposits enclose an aplogranite body 0.7 sq km in size. Its central part consists of essentially microclinic, albitized and silicified, frequently cataclastic granites which are composed of coarse porphyritic microcline grains embedded in a fine-grained groundmass consisting of sericitized plagioclase, quartz, microcline, albite and mica. The accessory minerals are zircon, xenotime, apatite and orthite. The rocks are blastophyric in texture and in structure. Elements of cataclistic texture can be locally seen. The central part of the massif is made up of fluorite-muscovite-lepidolite-quartz greisens. In the endcontact zones, Phase 2 granites grade into quartz diorites. The exocontact alterations in the country rocks consist in the development of hornfels and zones up to 200 m wide. The hornfels are made up of biotite-quartz-plagioclase, occasionally cordierite; the skeins are garnetiferous pyroxene-garnet and epidotegarnet containing also pyrite, chalcopyrite, galenite, cerussite, arsenopyrite, cassiterite, molybdenite and gold. The chemical composition of some rock types from the Murkh Complex rocks is given in Table 22. The dike series of the Murkh Complex is represented by pegmatites, lamprophyres, granite-porphyries, plagiogranite- porphyries, microdiorites and diabases. The earliest of these rocks are aplites and pegmatites, whereas the granite-porphyries and plagiogranite-porphyries are older. The relationship between the microdiorites and diabases in this series has not been ascertained. Rocks of the Murkh Complex were consolidated in the Late Triassic. The massifs of the complex intrude the Rhaetian volcanics and are overlain by basal horizons of the Lower Jurassic sequence (350). The absolute age of the rocks is 200 to 220 million years. Bamyan Complex Massifs of this complex are confined to the southwestern extremity of the Afghanistan- North Pamir Folded Region and to the southern margin of the North Afghan Platform. The massifs cut through Proterozoic and Carboniferous-Permian strata and are overlapped unconformably by Cretaceous and all younger strata. The complex is described on the basis of the data collected by K.F.Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (142). The available materials prompt the conclusion that the Bamyan Complex was formed owing to two phases of intrusive activity. Phase 1 has produced granites and granodiorites, while Phase 2 is responsible for formation of granites, alaskitic granites, granosyenites, quartz syenites and granosyenite porphyries. The Sherbatu and Nayak massifs can be regarded as typical of the Bamyan Complex. The Sherbatu Massif (150 sq m) is exposed to the West of Bamyan. The enclosing rocks are Upper Permian limestones. The contacts dip steeply towards the Massif, which is composed of Phase 1 granites and granodiorites; less common are veins and stocks of alaskitic granites and Phase 2 granosyenites. The Nayak Massif is located in the watershed area of the Nayak Range which is made up of terrigenouscarbonate rocks of Carboniferous and Permian age. In plan the massif is isometric and it occupies an area of 30 sq km. The contacts of the massif pitch gently towards the enclosing rocks. The massif is built up of granites and Phase 2 granosysnites. Phase 1 rocks are represented by coarse-grained porphyraceous granites and light-grey and greyish-pink granites and granodiorites. The insets (5 to 15%) are made up of microcline- perthite with poikilitic inclusions of other minerals. The groundmass consists of plagioclase (25 to 35%), microcline (25 to 30%), quartz (25 to 32%), biotite (5 to 8%), and accessory apatite, zircon, orthite, sphene, cassiterite and galenite. The texture of the rocks is porphyritic, hypidiomorphic-granular and poikilitic. Phase 2 rocks are represented by granites, alaskitic granites, granosyenites, quartz syenites and syenite porphyries. They are medium-grained, massive light grey and grey-pink rocks with aplitic, graphitic and porphyritic textures. These rocks consist of microcline (up to 65%), oligoclase (10 to 30%), quartz (15 to 30%), biotite (5 to 7%) and accessory zircon, garnet, apatite, sphene, orthite, scheelite, galenite, ilmenite and magnetite. The insets in the porphyritic granites contain microcline (up to 20%), while the groundmass composed of plagioclase (30%), microcline (24%), quartz (23%) and biotite (3%) exhibits a granitic texture with elements of pegmatitic texture. 251

The endocontact alterations of the rocks under discussion consist in the formation of rock types with a finegrained texture and high content of mafic minerals. There also occur syenite series rocks. The contact zones are characterized by development of skeins and marbleization of linestones, actinolization and biotization of volcanogenic rocks, serpentinization of dolomites and the presence of migmatized and hornfelsed rock zones that are up to several hundred metres wide. The dike series of the complex is represented by splits, pegmatite and, less frequently, diorite porphyry and diabase bodies; a few metres thick and a few dozen metres long they are confined the contact zones of the massifs. The chemical composition of some rock types from the Bamyan Complex is given in Table 22; their absolute ages are shown in Table 21. Table 21
Series No

Absolute ages of some rock types from the Bamyan Complex.

Sample No. Rock K content (%) Radiogenic Argon content (ng/g) Age (min years) Sample location (sheet number of topographic map; scale 1:250,000 503-C 503-C 222-E 508-B 508-B 508-B 508-B

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2 3 908 A-21 A-21 I 2651/1

Granite Granite Granite Granite Granite Granite Granite 2.88 49.6 3.18 20.5

155.0 200 95.0 14810.0 1445.0 213 240

Table 22
Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O B2O5 LI Sum total:

Chemical composition of some rock types from the Bamyan and Murkh complexes.
6 1 67.84 0.50 15.52 0.82 2.24 0.11 1.66 2.72 3.51 3.98 0.25 0.92 100.07 4 2 72.37 04.21 14.37 0.27 2.09 0.07 0.37 1.87 4.10 3.01 0.08 0.72 99.53 1 3 70.77 0.34 14.12 1.85 1.56 0.05 0.71 1.48 4.06 3.24 0.07 2.27 100.52 2 4 53.75 0.99 15.43 4.03 3.78 0.20 8..02 5.96 1.86 2.94 0.18 2.34 99.48 12 5 65.21 0.56 15.52 0.37 4.52 0.11 2.27 4.50 2.70 2.88 0.13 0.93 99.70 1 6 71.95 0.33 13.84 0.50 2.20 0.11 0.92 2.89 3.24 3.44 0.07 0.12 99.61

252

Bamyan Complex. Phase 1: granodiorites; Phase 2: 3 - granites; Murkh Complex (148) Phase 1: 4 - diorites Phase 2: 5 - granodiorites; 6 - granites. Chashte-Sharif Complex This incorporates the granitoid rock massifs on the right bank of the Hari Rod River, downstream from the village of Darahe Taht. The pertinent information is available from papers by K.Ya. Mikhilov et al. (347), V.P. Azhipa et al. (5), V.I. Dronov et al. (143, 147). All the massifs of the complex are elongated in E-W and north-easterly directions, concordantly with the general trend of the enclosing strata, which are made up of volcanogenic-terrigenous rocks of CarboniferousTriassic age. The massifs are 25 to 150 sq km in area. The massifs are composed mainly of diorites characterized by a high basicity of plagioclases (locally represented by andesine) and considerable content of mafic constituents (especially amphibole); a gradual transition of these rock types to quartz diorites, plagiogranites and granodiorites has been observed. The characteristic accessory minerals of the Chashte-Sharif Complex are zircon, garnet, apatite, rutile, sphene, orthite and lepidocrocite. The chemical composition of some rocks assigned to the Chashte-Sharif Complex is presented in Table 23. The contact alterations in the enclosing rocks consist in the formation of chlorite-sericite, plagioclase-quartz and quartz-biotite-andalusite hornfels. Plagioclase-actinolite rocks have also been reported. The vein series is represented by numerous dikes and stocks consisting acidic and basic rocks. The older ones are granophyres, while spessartites and less common odinites are younger rocks. Table 23
Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total

Chemical composition of some rock types from the Chashte-Sharif and Madraza Complexes.
1 53.86 0.72 17.05 4.16 5.79 0.26 4.09 8.76 1.08 1.80 0.27 2.16 99.50 2 73.05 0.70 12.92 0.78 0.69 0.1 1.1 2.56 1.88 4.32 0.06 1.76 100.20 3 66.25 0.71 17.05 1.63 2.77 0.1 2.03 3.11 3.01 3.21 0.24 1.33 100.40 4 66.40 0.48 15.60 1.40 2.90 0.21 2.15 3.70 3.00 3.45 0.12 0.62 100.03 5 67.67 0.50 16.00 0.60 3.33 0.18 1.84 3.79 2.32 2.84 0.14 0.94 100.15 6 71.35 0.19 14.76 0.14 2.11 0.10 0.45 2.99 3.98 2.97 0.07 0.43 99.54 7 72.24 0.19 14.46 0.44 1.75 0.09 0.48 1.05 4.20 2.42 0.14 1.03 99.49 8 72.46 0.13 14.21 0.11 2.18 0.09 0.13 1.87 4.40 3.32 0.07 0.60 99.57 9 56.74 1.40 24.20 0.51 0.60 0.06 0.29 8.37 1.30 4.03 0.92 0.40 99.82

Chashte-Sharif Complex (143,147): I - diorites; 2 - plagiogranites; 3 - granodiorites. Madraza Complex (147): Phase 1: 4-5 - granodiorites; 6 - leucocratic granodiorites. Phase 2: 7-8 - granites; 9 - oligoclasite dikes

253

Madraza Complex This complex is distinguished for the first time according to data obtained by V.I. Dronov, S.M. Kalimulin et al., (147). The complex is represented by a number of massifs in the central and eastern parts of the Firozkoh Range. In plan, the massifs are isometric, elongated nearly E-W, and they vary in size from a few to several hundred square kilometres. The country rocks are presumably Middle Paleozoic schists, quartzites, marbles and metovolcanics of various mineral composition, metamorphosed in the greenschist facies and the lower grades of the amphibolite facies. The massifs are with a sharp unconformity overlain by the CretaceousPaleogene Sedimentary Cover and are made up of granodiorites and granites. The rocks have resulted from two intrusion phases. Phase 1 rocks are granodiorites, quartz diorites and quartz monzonites. The granodiorites appear as grey, occasionally pinkish-grey medium- or fine-grained rocks that locally are slightly porphyraceous. The rocks consist of plagioclase (35 to 50%); quartz (20 to 35%-; K-feldspar (15 to 25%) and biotite, which sometimes occurs together with hornblende (5 to 15%); accessory minerals are apatite, zircon, opaque are and sphene. The rocks exhibit a hypidiomorphic and, more rarely, porphyraceous texture. Plagioclase (oligoclase Nos.32-40) forms idiomorphic prismatic polysynthetic twins, which commonly are zonal (represented in the central portions by oligoclase-andesine). Plagioclase invariably shows evidence of a secondary alteration (pelitization, sericitization and sometimes epidotization). Uyrmekitic intergrowths can locally be noted. Quartz occurs either as irregularly shaped grains, with a wavy extinction, or as aggregates with mosaic extinction. K-feldspar is represented by lattticed microcline which is locally perthitized. Biotite occurs in isolated flakes, replaced to a greater or lesser extent by chlorite or chloritopennine. Accessory minerals are usually associated with biotite. Hornblende is pleochroic from green (along to Ng) to light-brown (along to Ng) and is almost invariably associated with biotite. The quartz diorites are characterized by high basicity and content of plagioclase (up to andesine Nos.38-46), as well as by a high content of mafic minerals (up to 15-20%). The rocks practically have no K-feldspar. The quartz monzonites are characterized by a low content of quartz (up to 10%), compensated by an increase of the feldspar constituent and the appearance of elements of panautomorphic- granular and monzonitic textures. Phase 2 rocks are represented by pink and pinkish-red medium-grained and, less frequently coarse-grained leucocratic granites consisting of orthoclase (35 to 40%), quartz (30%), plagioclase (30%), biotite (up to 25%), and accessory apatite. The texture of the rocks is granitic, grading to poikilitic which is characterized by the presence of minute plagioclase prisms is sizable segregations of microcline. Orthoclase or latticed microcline is invariably fresh being characterized by the presence of striated perthites and by occasional large intergrowths of chess-board albite. Plagioclase (oligoclase Nos.20-23) is distinctly idiomorphic and slightly sercitized. Quartz forms aggregates of irregularly shaped grains with undulatary extinction. Biotite is found in single small completely chloritized flakes. Dikes contributing to the complex under discussion are closely associated with Phase 2 rocks and are made up of aplitic granites and oligoclasites, which appear as white rocks consisting almost exclusively of oligoclase (Nos. 28-30), with an insignificant admixture (up to 5%) of sphene. The chemical composition of the rocks from the Madraza Complex is given in Table 23. Their Late Triassic age is highly tentative based on a certain analogy with the rocks from the Bamyan Complex. At the same time, much older age of these rocks (Precambrian including) cannot be ruled out.

Batholith Formation Intrusive rocks of batholith formation constitute large- sized massifs [Footnote: On the geological map (1:500.000 scale) (140), these rocks are shown as Early Triassic, but a more thorough analysis of the geological material, including that from adjacent territories of the USSR, prompted us to reconsider the dating and assign the rocks to the Late Triassic.]. In the Afghan-North Pamir Folded Region, they are isolated as the West Hendukush Complex, while in the Khinduradj- Hazer Folded Region, they are referred to as the Khinduradj Complex. It is assumed that they are composed of almost identical assemblage of rocks, but so far as the Khinduradj Complex has been inadequately studied, only the West Hendukush Complex will be described below.

254

West Hendukush Complex [Footnote: Previously, this complex was known as the Hendukush Complex. A more explicit heading is necessary because the Hendukush Ridge in the broad sense comprises different folded regions.] Granitoids of this complex are widespread in the West Hendukush and Faydzabad zones. Certain massifs of the complex or their portions have been studied by A. Desio et al. (59, 64), G.G. Semionoy et al. (141) and K.Ya. Mikhailov et al (350). All the massifs were studied in the course of geological survey at a scale of 1:500,000 (148, 153,275). The complex incorporates a number of multiphase massifs, the largest of which is the West Hendukush pluton which is 30 km wide and stretches over 300 km from the Sayghan River basin in the west as far as the upper reaches of the Khawak Dare River in the north-west. This interformational pluton occurs at the contact between the Carboniferous-Permian volcanogenic-sedimentary formations and schistose and gneissic strata of Ordovician and Proterozoic ages. The southern contact of the pluton is concordant with the country rocks and in general it lips northwards at 45 to 60. Steeper disconformable contacts can locally be seen. The northern contact of the batholith is likewise concordant with the stratified host sequence, but locally it is complicated by the Andarab Fault zone. Low northward dip of the contact plane (off the massif) have been encountered in the Payandeh River basin. In the endocontact zone of the massif, roof pendants are still in evidence. In the endocontact zone there are isolated discordant veins of granitoids, as well as wide (3 to 4 km) zones of migmatization, which are particularly characteristic of the northern contact. There are also zones where the country rocks are hornfelsed, biotitized and silicified. Apart from the pluton described, there are a number of smaller stock-like massifs located mostly in Proterozoic metamorphic rocks; some of them occur in Lower and Middle Paleozoic sedimentary-volcanogenic rock sequences. In the West Hendukush Complex, the rocks of four intrusive phases and the dike series have been distinguished. Phase 1 rocks are medium-grained hornblende and biotite- hornblende diorites and quartz diorites, that usually form smell xenoliths in Phase 2 granitoids. The diorites and quartz diorites are fine- and mediumgrained rocks consisting of plagioclase No. 40 (50 to 70% K-feldspar (10%), quartz (8 up to 15%), green hornblende (25to 30%), biotite (3 to 5%) and accessory apatite and sphene. The texture of the rocks is hypidiomorphic and prismatic. Phase 2 rocks compose big, elongated massifs in the Western Hendukush (Shekari, Andarab) and are represented by coarse-grained porphyraceous biotite-amphibole granites and granodiorites consisting of microcline (30 to 45%), plagioclase (20 to 50%), quartz (18 up to 35%), amphibole (5 to 10%) and biotite (3 - to 10%). The composition of plagioclase varies from albite-oligoclase Nos.5-15 to oligoclase-andesine, Nos. 28-25. In the granites, biotite predominates over the other mafic minerals (purely biotitic granites. locally occur), whereas in the granodiorites- and quartz diorites, hornblende prevails. Elements of the blastic, porphyraceous, myrmekitic and panautomorphic textures have also been noted. Phase 3 granitoids occur mainly in the Western Hendukush, where small bodies of Phase 3 granites trace the southern contacts of the Shekari and Andarab massifs, and in the Panjsher and Gorband River basins. Phase 3 rocks are represented by medium- and coarse-grained granites, granodiorites and granosyenites. These consist of microcline or orthoclase (10 to 65%), plagioclase (25 to 51%), quartz (l0 to 40%), biotite (3 to 7%) and hornblende (up to 4%). Plagioclase is frequently zonal, its central portions being composed of saussuritized oligoclase-andesine (Nos.30-32), while the peripheral parts consist of albite-oligoclase. Biotite and hornblende are replaced by chlorite. Phase 3 rocks differ from Phase 2 granodiorites in that their content of mafic minerals is lower (2 to 5% on average), the composition of plagioclases is more acidic, myrmekites are more widely developed and the K-feldspar content is higher (up to 65%). The rocks display hypidiomorphic, poikilitic, porphyritic and margination textures; occasionally elements of a graphic texture can be observed. Phase 4 granitoids occur along the northern contacts of the West Hendukush pluton and make up lens-like bodies up to 50 sq km in size. Phase 4 rocks are represented by medium and coarse-grained, occasionally porphyraceous granites, leucocratic granites, granosyenites, quartz syenites and granite- porphyries that exhibit gradual transitions. Locally (the Payendeh River basin), Phase 4 granites enclose granosyanite and quartz syenite vein-like bodies characterized by relatively distinct intrusive contacts in Phase 4 granites. Phase 4 rocks consist of K-feldspar (30 to 65%), plagioclase (15 to 35%), quartz (15 to 40%) and biotite (2 to 5%). The phenocryst form aggregates of idiomorphic crystals of quartz and zonal plagioclase, K-feldspar is 255

perthitized and forms graphic intergrowths with quartz in the groundmass. Biotite is often replaced by chlorite. The rocks exhibit a porphyraceous texture and a hypidiomorphic poikilitic groundmass. One specific feature of Phase 4 granitoids is their aplitic, pegmatitic and granophyric textures. The chemical composition of some rock types from the West Hendukush Complex is indicated in Table 24, while their absolute ages are given in Table 25. Table 24 Chemical composition of some rock types from the West Hendukush Complex.
2 1 57.37 0.62 18.26 2.84 2.96 0.11 2.46 7.49 1.52 3.74 0.07 2.56 100.40 2 2 65.68 0.52 15.80 0.7 4.26 0.12 2.05 3.91 2.57 3.16 0.14 0.68 99.59 9 3 63.75 0.58 16.29 0.87 3.94 0.15 2.23 5.28 2.73 2.45 0.16 0.97 99.40 3 4 62.84 0.95 16.42 1.90 3.39 0.12 2.38 4.75 2.72 2.91 0.18 1.66 100.22 7 5 71.72 0.35 13.76 0.92 2.49 0.08 0.85 2.30 3.60 3.14 0.16 0.66 99.73 3 6 72.56 0.23 14.09 0.17 2.66 0.08 0.49 2.87 2.90 3.05 0.09 0.70 99.89

Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total:

Phase 1: 1 - diorites; 2 - quartz diorites. Phase 2: 3 granodiorites. Phase 4: 6 - granites (146, 153). The accessory elements in the rocks of the West Hendukush Complex are the following: Phase 1 - vanadium (0.038%), chromium (0.027%), cobalt (0.003%), nickel (0.002%), tin (0.001%), antimony (0.005%), lead (0.003%), bismuth (0.0002%). Phase 2: beryllium (0.001%), vanadium (0.0015%), chromium (0.009%), cobalt and nickel (0.003%), tin (0.0009%); antimony (0.008%), lead (0.01%). Phase 3: vanadium (0.095%), cobalt and nickel (0.001%), tin (0.007%), antimony (0.0007%), lead (0.005%). The dike series is represented by bodies of aplites, aplitic granites, pegmatites, granodiorite-porphyries, diabasic porphyrites. Among the vein bodies of the West Rendukush Complex rare-metal pegmatites are of particular significance. In the surroundings of the Tolbuzanak village a stock (1000 x 150 m across) of pegmatites has been outlined. Within the stock there is a zone of small spodumene pegmatites veins (45 to 50 m long and 0.5 to 2 m thick) made up of albite, microcline-perthite, quartz and spodumene. The veins also contain rare beryl and tantalite-columbite crystals. At the upper reaches of the Marga River and in the Salang River basin low-angle veins of rare-metal pegmatites have been encountered. They vary in thickness from 0.5 to 6.0 m and from 5 to 100 m in extent. Three mineral types of pegmatite are distinguished: the spodumene-albite variety with disseminated columbite-tantalite; the spodumene-albite pegmatites with tantalite; and muscovite- cleavelandite variety with cymatolite, cassiterite and tantalite. Rare-metal pegmatites are localized in Proterozoic schists and Lower Paleozoic schists and are spatially related to the Phase 3 granitoids. Phase 2, 3 and 4 rocks carry weighable amounts (a few grams per 1 cu. m) of magnetite, ilmenite, pyrite, garnet and apatite. Phase 2 and 3 rocks also contain the following accessory minerals: cassiterite, cyrtolite, tourmaline, sphene, sillimanite, thorite, orthite, as well as gold, scheelite, oxinite, galenite, chalcopyrite, tourmaline, rutile, monazite, uranothorite, uraninite, tantalite-columbite, and spodumene. 256

The absolute ages of the rocks assigned to the West Hendukush Complex testify that the formation of the complex spanned the period of time from the end of the Triassic through the Jurassic (216 to 132 sili years). Table 25
Ser. Nos.

Absolute ages of some rock types from the West Hendukush Complex.
Rock K content (%) Radiogenic argon content (ng/g) Absolute age (mln years) Sample location (sheet No. of topographic map. Scale 1:250,000.)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Granite Granodiorite Granite Tonalite Granodiorite Granodiorite Tonalite Granodiorite Granite Pegmatite Granodiorite Ditto

3.69 3.25 Rb-Sr Rb-Sr -

32.0 47.5 method method -

124.0 203.0 205 132 135 216 210 216 190 175.5 198.5 20310

223-C 504-E 504-E 217 217 503-E 503-E 503 504-E 504-E 504-E 504-E

In the USSR the counterpart of the West Hendukush Complex is the Kara Kul granitoid complex in the North- East Pamir (73, 272).

Late Mesozoic-Cenozoic Intrusions

In Afghanistan the intrusive rocks of this age are most widespread. These were formed owing to both the geosynclinal development of some regions of the country and the tectono- magmatic activation of the median masses and the platform. Below we shall dwell on the description of Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous, Early Cretaceous- Late Cretaceous-Paleocene, Eocene, Eocene-Oligocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Early Quaternary intrusive rocks.

Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Intrusions

Diabase-Andesite Formation Kankala, Nawzad and Zuri Complex The rocks of these complexes represent subvolcanic facies of the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous volcanogenic series of the same name related to the South Afghanistan Median Mass and exposed in the Kandahar, Khashrod and Zuri zones, where the rocks make up small stock-, lens-, sheet-, and dike-like bodies consisting of gabbro-diabase, diabase, diorite and andesite. The description of them is based on the data presented by Yu.M. Dovgal, M.A. Chaliyn et al. (144), V.I. Dronov et al. (152), V.I. Tarasenko et. al. (168). The gabbro-diabases appear as massive holocrystalline rocks composed of -plagioclase, Nos. 45-55 (60%), hornblende, clinopyroxene, hypersthene (up to 35%) and accessory apatite and magnetite. The rocks display 257

gabbroic, gabbro-ophitic and doleritic textures. Often the rocks exhibit blastic textures due to their greenstone alteration. The diabases (amygdaloidal and aphanitic) have an ophitic or blastophitic texture. They are composed of albitized plagioclase (up to 45%), hornblende (50%) and clinopyroxene, the latter being rather infrequently encountered in the form of grains almost entirely replaced by chlorite, actinolite, biotite and epidote. The accessory minerals are apatite and magnetite. The dioritic and andesitic porphyrites occur as fine-to- medium-grained rocks consisting of plagioclase, Nos. 25-30 (50 to 60%), hornblende (20 to 30%) and biotite (5%). The accessories are apatite and sphene. The rocks have a porphyraceous texture; the groundmass is hypidiomorphic - granular, microdioritic or andesitic. Contact alterations are only slightly pronounced. The subvolcanic rocks and lavas grade to one another and the greenstone alteration impedes their differentiation. The Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous age of the rocks described is based on their close spatial and genetic association with Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous volcanites.

Early Cretaceous Intrusions

The intrusive activity in Afghanistan manifested itself most intensively during the Early Cretaceous period and was largely due to powerful tectonic and magmatic activation of the South Afghan and Nurestan-Pamir median masses resulting in intrusive complexes, of ultrabasic, gabbro-plagiogranite and gabbro-monzonitediorite formation. Magmatism producing the granitoid formation manifested itself in Afghanistan-South Pamir Region during Early Cretaceous time.

Formation of Ultrabasic Rocks Rocks of Ultrabasic formation occur in the Kandahar and Khashrod zones where they are known to form the Tugai Complex and the Mulloyakub Complex-respectively. Tugai Complex Ultrabasic rocks of this complex occur in the Kandahar Zone underlain by volcanogenic and sedimentary strata of the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous Kangala Series dealt with by M.A. Chalyan et al. (144). The massifs of the complex are lenses up to 2 km wide and stretching up to 12 km; they are largely composed of serpentinites originating from pyroxenites and peridotites and, more rarely, dunites; locally there occur relatively weakly serpentinized pyroxenites and wehrlites. The pyroxenites exhibit a panidiomorphic-granular texture with elements of a lattice texture and are composed of clinopyroxene and an insignificant amount of an opaque mineral. Cracks in the rocks are healed with serpentine and carbonate. The wehrlites are made up of olivine (30 to 40%) and clinopyroxene (60 to 70%). The texture of the rocks is reticulate with relics of a panidiomorphic one. The serpentinites have blastoporphyric, microlepidoblastic, reticulate and lattice textures. The insets (40%) are represented by tabular basitic pseudomorpha and relics of orthopyroxene. The matrix is composed of antigorite and chrysotile with pulverized magnetite dissemination. Cracks in the rocks are healed with talc and carbonate. Also present are serpentinites displaying indistinctly latticed, brecciated, pseudomorphic lamellar, decussate-fibrous and radiated textures. They are largely composed of antigorite or chrysotile, serpophyte and antigorite aggregates; other constituents are talc, carbonate and magnetite. The chemical composition of some rock types from the Tugai Complex is shown in Table 26. Table 26
Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 1.18 1.82 4.45

Chemical composition of some rock types from the Tugai and Mulloyakub complexes.
1 39.58 2 38.01 3 40.60 4 38.90 0.06 1.80 5 38.26 0.23 1.59 6 40.21 0.09 2.71 2.21 7 38.20 8 39.66 0.300.49 9 43.93 0.20 2.89 10 40.05 0.14 1.85

258

Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO NO2O K2O H2O P2O5 LI

6.55 0.18

7.24 0.18

6.28 2.05 0.11

8.21 0.43 0.16 32.24 1.77 12.11 0.02 0.29 0.39 96.38.

9.63 0.21 0.05 31.75 2.21 0.81 0.12 11.48 0.09 0.12 4.20 100.74

6.34 0.82 0.18 33.73 1.73 -

6.18 1.35

6.48 0.79 0.01

4.88 1.86 0.17 31.98 0.96 0.40 0.80 12.02 0.02 -

5.38 2.74 0.15 35.38 1.23 0.29 0 0.37 0.05 12.38

37.54 0.92 0.21 0.12 12.83

37.36 2.04 0.09 0.21 13.26

34.32 2.78 0.09 0.41 9.05 0.04

35.91 2.41 0.09 0.14

38.48 0.20 0.20 0.05 12.60 -

13.28 0.02 0.35 0.44 99.90

12.95

0.19 0.33

0.17 0.40 100.78

0.13 0.33 100.64

0.13 0.34 99.91

0.44

Sum total:

99.63

99.68

100.11

100.01

1-9 Tugai Complex (144). 1,4,7,8,9 serpentinized peridotites; 2,5 harburgites; 3,4 lherzolites; 6 pyroxenite. 10 Mulloyakub Complex (148, 152,155,206) serpentinites. The contacts between the massifs consisting of ultrabasic rocks and the country rocks are intrusive or faulted. Where the contacts are faulted, the ultrabasics and serpentinites are talcified, carbonatized, highly fissured and locally have a pseudogneissoid brecciated structure owing to the presence of rolled, elongated fragments of serpentinites cemented with a talc-serpentine matrix. Mulloyakub Complex Massifs of this complex form spatially isolated groups; one is confined to the Khashrod Zone which is underlain by Upper-Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous volcanogenic-terrigonous rocks of the Nawzad Series (the Mulloyakub Pass, the Waras and Kunagh localities, the Astarlay and Nawa-l-Kulbatu river basins), while massifs of the other group occur within the Waras Block in Proterozoic metamorphic rocks (the Kunagh Pass, the Selburda River basin, the Minteg and Safedat localities and in acme other places). The complex has been studied by A.Ya. Kochetkov, K.F.Stazhilo-Alekseev et. al. (142, 206) and D.A. Starshinin et al. (155). The massifs are lens-like in plan and stretch for 1-3 to 18 km being 0.2 to 1 km wide. The contacts with the country rocks are intrusive or faulted. Schist xenoliths (20 x 40 m in size) are occasionally encountered in the endocontact zones. All the massifs are composed of dark-green fine- and medium-grained -brecciated ultrabasic rocks altered to serpentinites. Most frequent are serpentinites with a blastoporphyric (bastitic) texture and with a microlepidoblastic reticulate or latticed groundmass made up of antigorite, chrysotile, magnetite, talc, carbonate and relics of orthorhombic pyroxene crystals. The slightly serpentinized varieties of ultrabasic rocks are identified as the lherzolite-type peridotites containing clino- and orthopyroxene and olivine; spinel (picotitic) peridotites and dunites are also found. The chemical composition of some rock types from the Mulloyakub Complex is shown in Table 26.

Gabbro-Plagiogranite Formation Like the massifs of the two formations described above the rocks of the formation under discussion are spatially and genetically related to Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary rocks of the Kanqala and Nawzad series, being confined to the Kandahar and Khashrod zones. In the Kandahar Zone the assemblage of these rocks is known as the Hodjan Complex, while in the Khashrod Zone it is referred to as the Ksrabah Complex. In the Kandahar Zone they are dated as Early Cretaceous based on the fact that they 259

intrude the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous rocks of the Kanqala Series, as well as the rocks of the Tugai Complex, and that they are overlain by the Barremian- Aptian Anogay sequence, whose basal conglomerates contain pebbles of gabbro-diorites and plagiogranites (144). According to M.A. Chalyan, the absolute age of the rocks from the Hodjan Complex determined by the K-Ar method is 137 mln years, which is consistent with the Late Jurassic or Early Cretaceous. Hodjan Complex This complex has been distinguished and studied by Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144) in the Kandahar Zone. Its massifs occur in the areas underlain by Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous volcanics of the Kanqala Series. Rocks of this complex have also been found to make up large inliers inside the massifs of Oligecene granitoids of the Argandab Complex. In plan, the massifs are of lens- like, irregular or stock-like shape and up to 20 sq km in size. The massifs consist of gabbros, gabbro-diorites, gabbro-diabases, diorites, quartz diorites and plagiogranites. The gabbros, gabbro-diabases and gabbro-diorites have hypidiomorphic, allotriomorphic and diabasic texture and consist of plagioclase, Nos. 50-60 (up to 70%), green hornblende, clinopyroxene and, occasionally, biotite. The diorites and quartz diorites are made up of oligoclase- andesine (45 to 70%), hornblende (20 to 35%) and quartz (up to 10%) with up to 5% orthoclase. They exhibit a panautomorphic- granular texture, sometimes with elements of a graphic texture. A distinctive feature of them is their high content of quartz (25 to 35%) and more acidic plagioclase (Nos. 15-20). All the rock types are characterized by a uniform assemblage of accessory minerals, such as apatite, magnetite and sphene, while in the plagiogranites zircon is also encountered. A common characteristic of all these rock types is their greenstone alteration consisting in chloritization, albitization, epidotization and calcitisation. Not infrequent are feldapathization and silicification (at the contact with younger granitoids). The same type of alteration is characteristic of the dikes of pegmatoid gabbros, gabbro-diabases, diabases and dioritic porphyrites that accompany the massifs of the complex. The dikes are 1 to 3 m thick and 20 to 50 m in strike length. The chemical composition of some rocks from the Hodjan Complex is presented in Table 26. The contact alterations around the massifs of the complex have resulted in the formation of marbles and shams (epidote- garnet and magnetite-epidote-garnet-pyroxene) after the carbonate rocks, and hornfels (amphibole-biotite, quartz-plagio- clase), after the terrigenous rocks. The alteration zones in the country rocks do not exceed 50-150 m in width. Karabah Complex The massifs of this complex occur in Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous volcano-terrigenous rocks of the Khashrod Zone and can be followed up from the Nawzad village in the southwest as far as the Pushte Rod village in the north-east. Contacts with the country rocks are usually abrupt, but indistinct interrelations may also be encountered, owing to the intensive greenstone alteration of both the intrusive and effusive rods. The complex has been identified and studied by K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev (152). It includes gabbro-diorites, diorites, quartz diorites and diabases that form sills, stocks, lenticular bodies and dikes. In plan the massifs 0.2-0.3 to 2-5 sq km large and occasionally even larger. The dikes are 0.5 to 4.0 m thick, extending for 70 to 100 m. The internal structure of the massifs is composite and differential. The rocks, different in the composition, are interrelated through gradual transitions and form conformably elongated schlieric units or big bands. Such plutons are especially characteristic of the Nawzod, Karabah and Khunuk localities. The Karabah Massif is a sill consisting of fine-grained diorites and gabbro-diorites that locally grade into aphanitic diabases. Isolated leucocratic schlieric units are encountered in the diorites. The diorites and diabases are out through by a series of dikes to 3 m thick and composed of pegmatoid dioritic porphyrites, diabasic porphyrites, felsites and fine-grained plagiogranites. The petrographic composition of the rocks from the Karabah Complex is, on the whole, similar to that of the rocks that make up the Hodjan Complex. The gabbros, gabbro-norites and gabbro-diabases are fine- and medium-grained rocks with a gabbroic texture; locally the rocks exhibit elements of ophitic and doleritic textures. The rocks consist of plagioclase, Nos. 42-45 (45 to 65%) hornblende and clinopyroxene (up to 3540%), and accessory apatite and magnetite. The dioritic porphyrites, diorites and quartz diorites are medium- and fine-grained rocks made up of plagioclase, Nos.28-32F. (45 to 70%), hornblende (20 to 30%), as well as chlorite, epidote, quartz and sphene. The texture of the rocks is panautomorphic- granular, porphyric, microdioritic, hypidiomorphicgranular and, occasionally, micrographic. 260

The alterations at the contacts are rather indistinct. The chemical composition of some rock types of the complex is given in Table 27.

Gabbro-Monzonite-Diorite Formation The rocks of this formation are widespread in the Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass and in the AfghanistanSouth Pamir Folded Region. In the former, they have been identified as the Nilaw Complex and in the latter as the Paghman Complex. They are only provisionally dated as the Early Cretaceous. The massifs occur in the Proterozoic metamorphic sequence and are Cut through by Oligocene granites. It is presumed that the rocks of this formation originated during the Early -Cretaceous tectono-magmatic activation. According to K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (275) the absolute age of quartz diorites from the Paghman complex, as determined by K-Ar method, is 103 mln years, which corresponds to the late Early Cretaceous. Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass, Nilaw Complex This was identified and described by L.N. Rossovsky, V.P. Feoktistov (146); it had been-studied earlier by V.M. Narodny and S.L. Shvarkov (309). The complex incorporates masaifs of gabbroids and diorites occurring in the Proterozoic metamorphic sequence of the Nurestan Fault Block. The biggest massifs are exposed on the right bank of the Darrahe Pech River (Darrahe Pech massif, 200 sq km) and along the upper reaches of the Alingar River (Pustiqol massif, 150 sq km; Nilaw, 120 sq.km; Bandal - 40 sq. km and others). The minor massifs occur on the left bank of the Panjsher River and along the upper reaches of the Tagaw, Alisang, Alingar and Munjan rivers. In plan the major massifs are of complex, almost isometric outlines. The contacts with the country rocks are complicated by tectonic disruptions or are conformable, dipping steeply under the massifs. The minor bodies are often elongated concordantly with the strike of the country rocks and lenticular in shape. Table 27
Oxides Oxides SiO2 TiO2 A12O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O H2O P2O5 LI Sum total:

Chemical composition of rocks from the Hodjan and Karabah Complexes.

1 47.25 2 46.73 3 55.00 4 58.85 5 59.77 6 58.04 7 68.87 8 75.00 9 49.92

2.34 15.13 5.72 7.10 0.19 7.93 10.83 1.30 0.80 0.41 0.57 99.57

1.25 17.98 1.33 7.90 0.21 6.81 12.10 1.81 0.81 0.16 2.85 100.50

0.76 18.70 0.40 3.85 2.90 9.37 3.88 3.00 0.44 0.45 0.89 99.64

0.86 16.00 2.60 4.18 0.16 2.21 5.50 4.00 3.66 0.77 0.37 0.77 99093

0.69 15.62 1.62 5.11 0.21 2.22 4.20 5.00 4.25 0.37 1.10 100.16

1.53 17.16 3.03 4.60 0.13 2.47 5.50 4.00 1.20 0.59 1.29 990.54

0.42 14.99 4.44 1.70 0.11 1.89 0.89 3.50 2.50 0.21 0.07 1.09 100.68

0.30 11.95 1.66 1.60 0.03 0.20 0.86 4.00 3.25 0.22 0.53 99.60

1.28 16.07 2.39 5.71 0.19 7.28 8.88 1.30 3.08 0.21 0.04 3.55 99.99

261

The massifs of the Nilaw Complex are composed of-gabbros, gabbro-norites, uralitized gabbros, gabbrodiorites, diorites and quartz diorites. Locally there occur olivine gabbros and gabbro-norites (the massif at the upper reaches of the Munjan River), as well as monzonites, granodiorites and plagiogranites. The transitions between the rocks different in the composition are gradual. The gabbros, gabbro-diorites and uralitized gabbros are medium- and coarse-grained rocks which have gabbroic occasionally subophitic textures and a massive structure. They are made up of plagioclase (5 to 60%), hornblende (20 to 30%), clinopyroxene (10 to 40%) and orthorhombic pyroxene (in gabbros up to 5% and in gabbro-norites from 10 to 40%), olivine (2 to 30%) and biotite (up to 10%). Some rock varieties contain microcline (up to 5%) and quartz with accessory apatite, sphene and titanomagnetite. Plagioclase Nos. 45-70 is frequently replaced by an aggregate of epidote, zoisite, saussurite and sericite; in places albitization can be noted. Clinopyroxene (augite) is replaced by green hornblende; orthopyroxene (hypersthene) is sometimes encircled by a fringe of clinopyroxene, or is replaced by hornblende. Apart from green hornblende, uralitic colourless or faintly coloured hornblende is developed after the pyroxene. Along the cracks in olivine, serpentine and talc are developed. Biotite, K-feldspar and quartz have been noted in gabbroids near the contacts with Oligocene granite bodies. The diorites and quartz diorites are massive, occasionally gneissoid rocks consisting of plagioclase, Nos. 3050 (50 to 80%), hornblende (20 to 50%), biotite (5 to 10%), quartz (5 to 10%) and accessory sphene, apatite and titano-magnetite. They have a panautomorphic-granular texture with elements of ophitic and hypidiomorphic-granular texture. Granodiorites and plagiogranites are clearly subordinate in the Nilaw Complex massifs. They form small bodies in the central part of the Darrahe Pech massif, as well as in the endocontact and central parts of the Pushgol massif and appear as fine- and medium-grained, occasionally porphyritic rocks. They have a hypidiomorphic-granular texture and massive structure. The rocks are composed of plagioclase (oligoclaseandesine) (50 to 70%), quartz (20 to25%), hornblende and biotite (10 to 20%). Microcline (10 to 15%) is present in the granodiorites. The vein series of the Nilaw Complex is represented by thin dikes of microgabbros, miorodiorites and granodiorite-porphyries. Table 28 Average chemical composition of some rock types from the Nilaw and Paghman Complexes.
2 1 55.60 2.56 17.20 2.07 5.39 0.14 4.25 6.83 1.69 3.38 0.25 0.63 99.99 4 2 55.71 0.37 16.59 2.66 2.47 0.13 7.77 9.11 1.12 3.04 0.07 1.16 100.20 10 3 51.19 2.04 15.9 4.69 5.82 0.21 5.65 8.93 0.71 2.76 0.30 1.33 99.53 1 4 48.48 0.75 17.02 0.94 5.58 0.08 12.44 9.10 0.90 1.36 0.37 0.88 100.10 4 5 57.77 0.35 16.05 2.53 5.05 0.03 3.59 10.35 1.26 1.92 0.06 0.88 99.84 1 6 62.66 0.36 15.30 1.37 4.32 0.01 2.07 7.61 2.82 2.48 .0.06 0.61 99.67

Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total:

262

1-3 Nilaw Complex (146): 1 - diorites, 2 gabbro-norites 3 - gabbros, 4-6 - Paghman Complex (156, 381): 4 gabbro, 5 - diorites, 6 - granodiorites Endocontact alterations in the rocks of the Nilaw Complex consist in intensive saussuritization, sericitization and albitization of plagioclases; these is also silicification. The rocks are often gneissose and cataclastic. In the endocontacts of big massifs, xenoliths of the country rocks represented by schists, marbles and quartzites varying in size from 10 x 30 up to 100 x 40 m are often encountered. The rocks are strongly hornfelsed, albitised, epidotized and skarnified. In the exocontacts the country. schists are horn- felsed in strips up to 100-200 m wide. Afghanistan-South Pamir Region, Paghman Complex This complex was isolated by K.F.Stazhilo-Alekseev et. al. (152, 275) and later studied by Yu.I. Shcherbina et. al. (381) and Y.G. Silkin et al. (384). The massifs of the complex occur in the rocks provisionally dated as the Proterozoic on the eastern slope of the Paghman Ridge, where they form a number of lenticular bodies, elongated in parallel to the Mukur-Chaman Fault Zone along a stretch from the Maydan River basin in the south-west to the Estalef area in the north-east. The rocks of the Paghman Complex have originated from two intrusive phases. Phase 1 has resulted in gabbroids and diorites, and Phase 2 largely produced granitoids. Phase 1 rocks were discovered in the basins of the Maydan, Kabul, Paghman, Estalef and other rivers, where they form intrusive bodies 0.45 x 2.3 km, 1 x 0.5 km, 0.2 x 0.9 km in size. Macroscopically, these are massive or slightly gneissose fine- and medium-grained gabbros, gabbro-norites, gabbro-monazites, gabbro-diorites, diorites and quartz diorites. It is the gabbro-diorites and diorites that predominate and make up considerable portions of the massifs. They consist of plagioclase, pyroxene, olivine, amphibole, biotite, chlorite, microcline and quartz. The rocks have gabbroic, gabbro-ophitic and prismatic hypidiomorphic-granular textures. Elements of a monzonitic texture are occasionally present. Plagioclase (50 to 80%) in the gabbroids has the numbers 40-55, in diorites 30-35, and is replaced by microcline. Pyroxene (15 to 25%) is represented by the monoclinal variety and hypersthene. Hypersthene content in gabbro-diorites amounts to from 5 to 15%. Sometimes with it olivine is associated. Hornblende (15 to 60%) is replaced by chlorite and actinolite. Biotite forms flaky aggregates and isolated poikilitic plates with pyroxene. The quartz content in the rocks fluctuates from 0 to 15-25%. Overall, Phase 1 rocks are subject to albitization, amphibolitization and chloritization. Superimposed K-metasomatosis is frequent resulting in monzonite-bearing and biotite varieties of. the gabbroids. The most characteristic accessory minerals for the Phase 1 rocks are zircon, apatite, ilmenite and magnetite. In addition, sphene, orthite, monazite, thorite and cassiterite have been found. The contact alteration of the country rocks consist in the development of hornfels and in a slight silicification. Phase 2 rocks make up lenticular massifs and stretch for several hundred metres to several kilometres at a width of dozens to hundreds of metres or, more rarely, kilometres. The biggest massifs occur in the basin of the Shakardara, Argandeh and Bale rivers, where they have an area of 2 to 5 sq. km. A peculiar feature of the massifs is the absence of clear-cut contacts with the crystalline series; mostly they are surrounded by injection zones and, in the endocontact parts they contain numerous xenoliths of the country rocks. The internal structure of the massifs is variegated. They consist of granites, granodiorites, plagiogranites, tonalites and quartz diorites interrelated by gradual transitions. The granites and granodiorites are medium- and coarse-grained, massive or weakly gneissose and light grey in colour. The texture of the rocks is hypidiomorphic-granular, clastic and blastomortar, less frequently lepidogranoblastic and nematole- pidogranoblastic. The rocks consist of quartz (25 to 39%), plagioclase (40 to 45%), K-feldspar (15 to 20%), biotite (5 to 10%), muscovite (2 to 3%) and garnet. The plagioclase is represented by oligoclase-andesine, replaced by muscovite, sericite and K-feldspar. K-feldspar segregations suggest their metosomatic origin. The plagiogranites and tonalites are composed of plagioclase (50 to 65%), quartz (15 to 35%), biotite (5 to 15%), hornblende (5 to 10%), K-feldspar (up to 10%), and accessory sphene, apatite, zircon, ilmenite and leucoxene. The plagioclase is represented by albite-oligoclase and, less frequently, andesine (No. 40). 263

At the exocontacts of the Phase 2 massifs hornfels as well as garnet-staurolite and garnet-epidote skeins are formed in crystalline schists, whereas in gneisses porphyroblastic textures appear. The veins and dikes of the Paghman Complex are made up of aplitoid granites. Rarely, dikes of quartz porphyries and diorite porphyries are found, as well as thin aplitic and pegmatitic veins. Quartz-tourmaline veins are also encountered. The chemical composition of some rock types of the complex is shown in Table 28.

Granitoid Formation Intrusions of this formation occur in the South Afghanistan, Median Mass, in the Afghanistan-South Pamir and Afghanistan-east Iran folded regions. Afghanistan-South Pamir Region, Hazarsang and Bande Bayan Complex The massifs assigned to these complexes are much the same in their make up, but they occur in different structural environments. The Hazarsang Complex is more thoroughly studied. The complex has been identified by A.Ya. Kochetkov, V.I. Dronov et. al. (143). The biggest massif of the complex is exposed in the Hazarsang and Kohe Safed ridges, where it outs through Proterozoic metamorphics and phyllites with Late Trias- sic-Middle Jurassic flora. The contacts are steep (60 to 70) dipping towards the country rocks. In shape the massif is a hemisphere convex to the south and elongated in E-W direction. It is established that the granitoids making up the complex have resulted from two intrusive phases. Phase 1 rocks are represented by diorites and quartz diorites that constitute sizable portions in the northern and northwestern parts of the massif. These are massive medium-grained rocks, consisting of Nos. 25-30 plagioclase (60 to 70%), hornblende and biotite (10 to 30%), quartz (up to 20%), epidote (up to 5%.) and accessory sphene, apatite and magnetite. The rocks have a hypidiomorphic-granular and panautomorphicgranular texture, with elements of blastocataclastic texture. Phase 2 rocks, being predominant in-the complex, make up the major part of the Hazarsang massif and the smaller bodies east of it. Coarse-grained, occasionally porphyritic granodiorites, granosyenites, adamellites and granites are reported. The granites and granodiorites are composed of plagioclase (Nos.25-30) - 40 to 60%, microcline - 25 to 30%, quartz 20 to 40%, and biotite - 5 to 10%. Microcline content in the granosyanites is as high as 50 to 55%, while that of quartz is 10 to 15%; the accessories are sphene, magnetite, orthite and apatite. Veins and dikes, up to 1 m thick, are made up of primarily acidic rocks, namely, granites, aplites and granite porphyries. Occasionally diorite porphyry and diabase dikes are encountered. Endocontact alterations in the rocks of the massif are rather poor. The contact with the Proterozoic metamorphics is complex, of injection type, while granitoids in the endocontact strip, up to a few kilometres wide, become largely gneissose and often cataclastic. The contact with Trias-Jurassic rocks is different: Upper Triassic-Jurassic siltstones and shales are converted into quartz-mica hornfels (in a zone a few hundred metres wide) transitional to mottled shales. The data on the age of the rocks from the Hazarsang Complex are as follows. The Hazarsang massif cuts through Upper Triassic and Lower to Middle Jurassic rocks, thus suggesting the lower age limit of the complex. The upper age limit, is unknown. G.Blmel (25) has described granite pebbles in agglomerates of the Middle-Upper Paleogene and compared them to the Hazorsang granites. If these granites are correlatable, the Hazorsang granites must be dated as post-Middle Jurassic, but pre-Middle Paleogene. Their Early Cretaceous age is provisional. Most similar to these rocks on the territory of the USSR are granitoids of the Vanch-Yazgulem Complex in the Central Pamir (73).

264

Afghanistan-East Iran Folded Region and South Afghanistan Median Mass, Kaleysrak and Sehteg Complexes The massifs assigned to these complexes are roughly similar in make up, but they occur in different areas. The Kalsyarak Complex has been studied in greater detail. It was identified by V.I. Dronov, S.M. Kalimulin et al. (152) and is represented a number of minor granitoid massifs cutting through the terrigenous-carbonate rocks of Early-Middle Jurassic age that compose the lower portion of the sequence within the Kishmaran Uplift. The largest massif occurs near the Kalsyarak frontier fortress. The massifs extension in plan is 15 km and its width is 2 km. The massif is composed of rocks resulted from two phases of igneous activity. Phase 1 rocks are represented by medium- and coarse-grained light grey leucocratic biotite granites exhibiting blastogranitic, blastomortar and cataolastic textures and consisting of plagioclase (10 to 30%), microcline (30 to 35%), quartz (30 to 50%), biotite (3 to is15%), muscovite, and accessory magnetite, sphene and apatite. The plagioclase forms completely sericitized, slightly zonal crystals. The miorocline is noticeably perthitized. Cataclasis and silicification are typical features of the rocks. Phase 2 rocks form veins and minor cross-cutting lenticular bodies in Phase 1 granites. Like Phase 1 rocks, they exhibit evidence of cataclasis, recrystallization and sericitization. Rocks from the Kaleysarak Complex are considered to be Early Cretaceous. They cut through Lower-Middle Jurassic as well as tentatively Neocomian strata and are round in pebbles of Upper Jurassic basal conglomerates (152).

Late Cretaceous-Paleocene Intrusions

Intrusive rocks of this age have been distinguished within the South Afghanistan Median Mass.

Gabbro-Monzonite-Syenite Formation, South Afghanistan Median Mass Intrusive rocks of this formation make up small, stock-like bodies within the Helmand-Argandab Uplift. Two isolated areas with the massifs belonging to this formation are distinguished and considered here as independent intrusive complexes: the Zarkashon and Surkhabad. The rocks of these complexes are dated according to the fact that they cut through all strata from the Proterozoic, through the Lower Cretaceous, the Zarkason complex being seemingly overlain by EcoeneOligocene volcanics. Thus, the invasion of the massifs of this complex must have taken place during Late Cretaceous-Pliocene time. The absolute age of the rocks assigned to the complexes corresponds to the Early Late Cretaceous (85-123 mln years), Table 30. Table 30
Series 1

Absolute ages of some rock types from the Zarkhashon and Surkhabad Complexes.
Laboratory Rock K content (%) Radiogenic argon content (ng/g) Absolute age (mln years) Sample location (sheet No. of topographic map, scale 1:250.000) 417-C 417 412-E 421-D 508-F 508-F

1 2 3 4 5 6 35 2792-5 2799/1 2 3

Diorite Granodiorite Quartz syenite Granosyenite Quartz diorite Granodiorite

4.17 3.02 -

30.4 26.1 -

100.0 99.01.5 103.0 123.0 97.06.0 85.05.0

265

7 8 9

2647-2 2885-1 1

Quartz diorite Granite Granosyenite

2.99 2.65 -

24.1 20.2 -

115.0 103.0 1060.8

509-C 508-F Kandahar area

10

Granosyenite

98.02.9

Zarkashon area

Zarkashon Complex This has been isolated by Yu.M. Dovgal, M.A. Chalyan, A.N. Diomin et al. (144). Massifs of the complex occur in the Tirin, Argandab and Kandahar Zones, within the Anguray, Mukur, Kundalan, Tugarak, Char Su and Chenar areas. The rocks of the complex have originated owing to two phases of igneous activity: Phase 1 has resulted in gabbros, diorites and quartz diorites, and Phase 2 has produced granodiorites, moozonites, syenites and granosyenites. The rocks that predominate in the complex are those assigned to Phase 1; they form small stock-like bodies and veins or are encountered as big xenoliths inside Phase 2 rocks of the Zarkashon and Kundalan massifs. The contacts with the country rocks are sinuous and steep, or, more rarely, subconformable and gentle (10 to 30). The gabbros consist of Nos.55-70 plagioclase (50 to 60%), clinopyroxene (25 to 35%), hornblende plus biotite (up to 20%), magnetite (up to 10%) and accessory apatite, sphene and zircon. The rocks have a gabbroic texture with elements of ophitic texture. The diorites have been found to exhibit a panautomorphicgranular and hypidiomorphic-granular texture, with elements of a poikilitic texture. They consist of Nos.3545 plagioclase (50 to 60%), diopside, hornblende and biotite (35 to 40%), with accessory sphene, apatite, zircon, magnetite, ilmenite, cassiterite, scheelite and fergusonite. In quartz diorites, a hypidiomorphicgranular texture is prevalent; the content of quartz varies from 10 to 15%, and that of K-feldspar reaches 6%. Phase 2 rocks form lenticular massifs covering an area from a few sq. km up to 60 sq km. These rocks are represented by monzonites, syenites, quartz syenites, granosyenites and granodiorites. The granodiorites have a hypidiomorphic-granular texture and their constituents are Nos.35-40 plagioclase (35%), microcline (20%), quartz (20%), hornblende, pyroxene and biotite (up to 10-20%); apatite, zircon, sphene and magnetite are accessories. The monzonites have monzonitic, poikilitic and hypidiomorphic-granular textures and consist of Nos.32-50 plagioclase (30%), microcline (30 to 40%), clinopyroxene, hornblende plus biotite (10 to 20%), and accessory sphene, apatite, zircon and magnetite. The syenites have a hypidiomorphic-granular and porphyraceous texture and consist of microcline (55 to 60%), plagioclase Nos.35 (15 to 20%), augite, hornblende plus biotite (15 to 20%), and accessory apatite, zircon, sphene, thorite, magnetite and ilmenite. In addition these minerals the quartz syenites and granosyenites contain from 10 to 20% quartz, the content of mafic minerals does not exceed 10%. The chemical composition of some rock types from-the Zarkashon Complex is indicated in Table 29. The formation of the complex was completed by the emplacement of diverse dikes of diorites, syenites, granosyenites, granite porphyries and lamprophyres. The dikes are up to 250 m long and up to 30 m thick. The lamprophyres are represented by odinites, malchites and spessartites. The odinites are made up of clinopyroxene (up to 70%), labradorite (up to 20-25%) with accessory sphene, apatite and magnetite. The texture is panidiomorphic-granular. The malohites have a hypidiomorphic-granular texture and the following composition: No.45 plagioclase (up to 60%), hornblende (25 to 50%), biotite (10 to 25%), clinopyroxene (up to 2%), and accessory zircon, apatite and magnetite. The spessartites have a panautomorphic-granular texture and consist of No. 40 plagioclase (up to 60%), hornblende (35 to 40%), as well as quartz, magnetite, chlorite and epidote. The endocontact alterations can be followed in a strip 0.5 to 1.5 wide where the rocks are hornfelsed and skarnified. The zones of skarns vary from 2-3 to 10 m in width and from 10 to 100 m, less frequently up to 150-200 m extent. There occur magnesian skarns of spinel-forsterite, diopside-phlogopite- forsterite, 266

diopside-phlogopite, phlogopite-diopside and other varieties, as well as calcareous skarns of garnet, diopsidegarnet-vesivianite, garnet-tremolite, garnet-wollastonite, garnet-epidote and epidote varieties. More rarely, magnetite and ludwigite-magnetite skarns are found. The skeins bear Cu-Pb-Zn, Sn and Au mineralizations. Table 29
Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total:

Chemical composition of some rock types from the Zarkashon Complex.

8 6 6 2 3 5 5

1 50.56 1.13 16.25 5.00 4.60 0.16 4.66 11.98 1.70 2.04 0.19 1.60 99.87

2 57.34 0.86 16.90 3.38 3.07 0.10 4.04 6.51 2.56 2.69 0.23 1.97 99.65

3 59.93 0.80 16.93 3.02 2.73 0.09 2.28 6.17 2.66 3.04 0.19 1.76 99.60

4 49.57 1.33 18.45 5.52 3.85 0.26 3.83 10.17 3.00 2.51 0.30 0.98 99.77

5 59.00 0.77 16.70 3.09 2.97 0.12 2.40 6.40 4.64 3.10 0.17 0.45 99.81

6 64.19 0.41 18.02 2.10 1.15 0.08 1.16 2.14 4.82 4.39 0.74 1.19 100.39

7 65.17 0.47 15.61 2.45 2.12 0.09 3.71 2.49 3.60 3.22 0.14 1.03 100.10

Phase 1: 1 - gabbro, 2 - diorites, 3 - quartz diorites; Phase 2: 4 - monzonites, 5 - syenites, 6 - quartz syenites, 7 - granosyenites Surkhabad Complex This complex was distinguished by K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (142) and later studied by D.A.Starshinin et al. (155). The massif of the complex occur in the Helmand Zone, close to the Surkhabad, Karez, Baremak, Nili and Shekhristan villages. The massifs are stock-like and lenticular; less frequently narrow tabular bodies and fissure-type veins are encountered. In plan the area of the massifs ranges from 10-15 to over 100 sq km. Most of the massifs occur in Proterozoic terrigenous-carbonate sequence, whereas, along the upper reaches of the Logar River, they are present in Carboniferous- Lower Permian strata. The contacts with the country rocks are discordant and steep, the contact planes dipping off the massifs. The complex comprise rocks of three intrusive phases. Phase 1 rocks are represented by gabbros, gabbro-syenites, diorites, monzonites, quartz-monzonites and granosyenites that are massive, fine- and medium-grained, of grey-green and light grey colour. The mineral composition of the gabbros is as follows: plagioclase (45 to 70%), pyroxene (3 to 18%), amphibole (5 to 20%), biotite (0 to 20%), K-feldspar (1 to 2%), and accessory sphene and apatite. The texture is gabbroic. The gabbrosyenites are composed of Nos.27-30 plagioclase (20 to 50%); K-feldspar (10 to 45%), clinopyroxene (2 to 18%), barkevikitic hornblende (5 to 45%), biotite and accessory sphene, apatite and, occasionally, tourmaline. Pyroxene is monoclinal, being occasionally represented by aegirine-augite. The diorites and quartz diorites are composed of Nos.25-30 plagioclase (60 to 80%), amphibole and pyroxene (20 to 40%), quartz (up to 15%), and accessory apatite and sphene. The texture of the rock is panautomorphic-granular and hypidiomorphic-granular. The quartz monzonites and monzonites contain up to 40-45% microcline and have a poikilitic, locally monzonitic texture; occasionally, elements of graphic textures (in quartz monzonites) are noted. The 267

granosyenites have a granitic texture and are composed of microcline (65 to 70%), plagioclase (15 to 20%), quartz (7 to 10%), amphibole (3 to 5%), and accessory orthite, zircon and apatite. Phase 2 rocks are represented by syenites composing the massifs, which are up to 20 sq km in area, as well as veins, dikes and minor stocks occurring within Phase 1 rocks. Phase 2 rocks are light grey, coarse-grained, often porphyritic, consisting of microcline-perthite (50 to 70%), Nos. 15-20 plagioclase (10 to 30%), hornblende (up to 15%), augite (up to 10%), biotite (up to 6%), and accessory zircon, monazite and apatite. In the contacts with schists and marbles, syenites appear as peculiar fine-grained rocks which contain 35 to 40% melanite-type garnet. Locally Na-syenites are encountered. The syenites contain schlieren-like veinlets and isolated pegmatoid segregations of quartz syenites that consist of microcline-perthite (65 to 70%), plagioclase (10 to 15%), quartz (7 to 8%) and barkevikite-type hornblende (12 to 15%). Phase 3 rocks are represented by granites, granodiorites, granosyenites, quartz syenites and quartz monzonites composing stocks and sheet-like, as well as dike-like bodies, 1 to 5 km long and 20 to 200 m thick. The contacts with the country rocks and the Phase 1 gabbro- syenites are abrupt and discordant, while those with Phase 2 syenites are not clear-out; locally the rocks exhibit gradual transitions. The granosyenites, granites and granodiorites are medium-grained grey and grey-pink rocks composed of microcline (45 to 70%), oligoclase (10 to 50%), quartz (15 to 30%), biotite (1 to 8%), hornblende (1 to 7%), pyroxene and accessory spatite, zircon, monazite, orthite, garnet and sphene. Barkevikite-type amphibole is found in the alkalic granites. The rocks have granitic, hypidiomorphic-granular and porphyritic textures. Isolated stock-like bodies to the east of the Qonak Pass and in the Espygaw River valley have been tentatively assigned to Phase 3 rocks. These bodies are characterized by rather indistinct contacts. In the schists close to the contacts with the intrusion there occur feldspar metacrysts, whose idiomorphism improves and the amount increases in the direction of the massifs. The rocks consist of approximately equal amounts of microcline-perthite, plagioclase and quartz, with an admixture of biotite and muscovite and, rarely, pyroxene; the composition is similar to that of granites and granosyenites. The following accessory minerals are characteristic of Phase 1 rocks: magnetite, zircon, sphene, barite, apatite, orthite and ilmenite; scheelite, rutile, anatase, monazite, thorite, uraninite and pyromorphite are also encountered. Weighable concentrations of magnetite, sphene and apatite have been determined in Phase 3 granosyenites. The chemical composition of some rock types from the Surkhabad Complex is presented in Table 31. The vein rocks of the Surkhabad Complex are represented by diabasic porphyrites, aegirinic albitites, monzonites, syenite porphyries, keratophyres and granite porphyries. Table 31 Chemical composition of some rock types from the Surkhabad and Gareba complexes.
2 1 51.30 1.58 14.80 3.42 8.74 0.02 3.62 8.82 2 2 51.00 1.20 20.90 2.40 4.70 0.11 3.47 9.02 3 3 59.75 0.39 17.95 1.55 4.52 0.19 0.96 4.49 2 4 71.52 0.16 14.19 1.39 1.94 0.03 0.55 2.16 2 5 66.30 0.59 15.90 0.68 3.52 0.12 1.68 3.86 2 6 73.75 0.18 13.25 1.42 1.16 0.03 0.58 0.48

Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO

268

K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total:

2.66 3.47 0.45 0.85 99.73

2.86 2.70 0.30 0.75 99.41

2.96 5.96 0.14 0.87 99.73

3.56 3.88 0.06 1.00 100.45

4.12 2.56 0.16 0.58 100.07

4.66 3.75 0.07 0.60 99.93

Phase 1: I - essexite gabbro, 2 - gabbro-monzonites; Phase 2: 3 - syenites; Phase 3: 4 - granites, 5 granodiorites, 6 - alaskitic granosyenites

Eocene Intrusions
Intrusive rocks of this age occur in the regions of Middle Alpine folding where diabase-diorite formation and formation of ultrabasic rocks have been identified. The former is recognized in the Turkieno-Horasan Area and the latter in the Suleiman-Kirthar Area.

Formation of Subvolcanic Diabases and Diorites Turkmeno-Khorasan Area Chaghoharan Complex This has been identified by V.I. Dronov and S.M. Kalimulin (96, 147) in the Chaghoharan and Tanurtagh troughs. The constituent rocks form small (up to 10 sq km) stocks and sheet-like bodies that are spatially related to Eocene volcanites, being their subvolcanic counterparts. Predominant in the massifs are diabases, diorites and quartz diorites. The diabases are dark green, medium-grained rocks consisting of intermediate plagioclase (about 60%), augite (20 to 25%), hornblende (5 to 10%) and opaque mineral (up to 5%). Serpentinite pseudomorphs, developed possibly after olivine, are also encountered. The texture of the rocks is ophitic and partly poikilophitic. The diorites and quartz diorites are--fine- and medium-grained rocks with a massive structure and panautomorphic-granular texture, locally with elements of ophitic and poikilophitic texture. The rocks are composed of andesine (60 to 70%), hornblende (30 to 35%), biotite (up to 5%), quartz (15%), and accessory apatite and zircon. Locally (middle course of the Sare Maydan River), granodiorite veins and schlieren-like segregations are found in diorites. The chemical composition of some rock types from the complex under discussion is indicated in Table 32. Table 32 Chemical composition of some rook types from the Mir Ali and Chaghcharan Complexes.
Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO 6 1 74.10 0.10 13.53 0.93 0.91 0.05 0.19 1 2 74.98 0.25 12.27 0.58 1.09 0.07 0.47 1 3 65.00 0.70 16.12 0.98 2.43 0.15 2.04 1 4 71.80 0.45 9.86 5.25 2.24 0.13 0.86 7 5 48.74 1.72 15.48 3.00 5.96 0.12 7.42 4 6 60.05 0.96 16.99 1.90 3.75 0.20 2.55

269

CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total:

0.69 6.15 1.88 0.13 1.26 99.92

2.22 0.60 6.80 0.11 0.59 100.03

4.97 1.72 3.76 0.17 1.41 99.45

1.40 3.00 3.90 0.92 0.09 99.90

8.70 1.21 3.25 0.32 3.65 99.57

5.32 2.56 3.20 0.22 2.56 100.26

1 - 4 - Mir Ali Complex: I - Alguchak quartz porphyries 2 - Mir Ali quartz porphyries 3 - Mir Ali dacitic porphyries; 4 - Kohe Molla Esthani alkalic granite-porphyries 5,6 - Chaghcharan Complex: 5 - diabases, 6 diorites The endomorphic alterations consist in insignificant reduction in rock granularity while the exomorphic alterations consist in the development of narrow skein zones. The close spatial and genetic association of the intrusions described with Eocene volcanites suggests Eocene age of the related rocks.

Formation of Ultrabasic Rocks, Suleiman-Kirthar Area Matun Complex The complex incorporates three spatially disconnected groups of massifs, namely, the Logar, Altamur and Khost-Matun. M. Kaever (191), Sh.Sh. Denikayev, V.P. Feoktistov et al. (145), I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (371) and Yu.I. Shcherbina at ml. (381) have been concerned with studying of these massifs. Logar group The Logar group of massifs is identified within the Kabul Stable Mass and includes a major Logar Massif and minor bodies on the left bank of the Kabul River. The massifs occur in volcano-terrigenous and carbonate rocks of Proterozoic, Late Palaeozoic and Early Mesozoic ages. The best studied Logar massif is a laccolith. It appears as a tabular body 65 km long and 40 km wide. This E-W-trending body is over 1,000 m thick. The laccolith is made up of harzburgites, dunites, pyroxenites, lherzolites and serpentinites. Its lower horizons are made of peridotites and dunites, the middle horizons consist of harzburgites and subordinate dunites, and the upper ones are composed of pyroxenites with insignificant amounts of lherzolites. Chromite ore bodies are associated with the ultrabasic rocks. Tho contacts between the dunites and peridotites are discernible but not clearly pronounced, while those between the pyroxenites and peridotites are clear-cut. Pyroxenite veins are also encountered that are a few centimetres to 5-10 m thick and 300-500 or more metres long. Serpentinization is well pronounced in the massif. The zones of serpentinized rocks are from dozens of centimetres to 1-200 m and, more rarely, up to 700 m wide, and from 5 to 10 km long. The contacts between the ultrabasic rock bodies and country rocks are frequently faulted, but locally one can see serpentinite apophyses in the country rocks as well as the country rock in the serpentinites. Altamur group The Altamur group of massifs is confined to the western and north-western margins of the Katawaz Trough. The massifs of ultrabasic rocks form a narrow discontinuous chain from the Tarnak River basin in the south in a northeastern direction across the Altimur Pass as far as the Tangi-Chary Canyon. A characteristic feature of this chain which is referred to as the "Coloured Melange Zone" is the close association of the ultrabasic rocks with basic volcanics and siliceous rocks. Most of the massifs encompassed by this chain was described earlier by Sh.Sh. Denikayev (145) and Yu.I. Shcherbina (381) who considered the massifs as the Late Paleogene Gardes Complex, whereas the massifs from the Tarnak River basin were assigned by Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144) to the Early Cretaceous Tugai Complex. The massifs are lenticular with dimensions varying from 3 x 5-8 m up to 3-10 km. They consist of serpentinites, peridotites and dunites and occur in carbonate-terrigenous Paleozoic sequence and terrigenous-volcanic rocks of Triassic and Early Paleogene ages. 270

Khost-Matun group The Khost-Matun group of massifs lies within the uplift of the same name and is a part of the East Baluchistan Belt of ultrabasic rocks (303) studied by M. Kaever (191), O.A. Nikitin et al. (355) and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (371). The massifs are isometric, stock-like or lenticular (3 to 6 km wide and 8 to 10 km long); elongated tabular bodies (2.5 to 3 km wide and up to 25 km long) are also encountered. The intrusions occur in volcano-terrigenous carbonate formations of Late Palaeozoic-Mesozoic age. The contacts with the country rocks are faulted and intrusive. Xenoliths of the massifs of the country rocks are present in the contact parts of the massif, while in the exocontact zones peridotite apophyses are encountered. The massifs are composed largely of serpentinites, serpentinized peridotites, dunites and, more rarely, of pyroxenites. Pegmatoid pyroxene-feldspar schlieren-like segregations can be locally encountered too. Bodies of ultrabasic rocks along the zones of heavy jointing bear evidence of asbestization. The dunites are massive, light and dark green rocks of pandiomorphic-granular texture, in the serpentinized varieties it is reticulate with some relics exhibiting a panidiomorphic-granular texture. The rocks consist of olivine (up to 95%) and chrome-spinellids (up to 3%); often orthorhombic pyroxene is present (5 to 10%). Cherry-red dunite varieties containing up to 20% chrome-spinellids have been also encountered. The harzburgites appear as medium- and coarse-grained rocks of a light and dark green colour and hypidiomorphic- granular texture. Highly serpentinized varieties exhibit reticulate texture. These rocks consist of olivine (60 to 87%), enstatite (12 to 40%), chrome-spinelids (up to 3%), and serpentine (from 3-5 up to 40-50%). Among the harzburgites there are olivinized rocks represented by light pistachio-green nonserpentinized varieties containing 85 to 90% olivine and 8 to 15% orthorhombic pyroxene. The lehrzolites are dark green massive rocks with a reticulate-lattice texture. Locally the rocks have relics of panidiomorphic texture. The mineral composition is as follows: olivine (60 to 70%), monoclinal and orthorhombic pyroxenes (up to 25%), and serpentine. The pyroxenites are massive coarse-grained, dark green rocks consisting largely of orthorhombic pyroxene and exhibiting a hypidiomorphic-granular texture. The serpentines are dark green, occasionally greenish-black rocks with a massive and schistose structure and interwoven fibrous lamellar mesh or lattice, less frequently blastoporphyric textures. The groundmass consist of antigorite plus chrysotile aggregates; more rarely the aggregates include serpophyte with up to 10% magnetite. Thin calcite and dolomite veinlets are present in the carbonatised serpentinite. The listwanites have a brecciaous-ataxic structure and a spotted greenish-grey and brownish colouration. In some places, listwanites consist of serpentinite strongly pervaded by carbonate veinlets, while in others they are composed of carbonates containing relict accumulations of serpentine, chromite and talc. The chemical composition of the rocks from the Matun Complex is different in different areas. For instance, ultrabasic rocks of the Khost-Matun Complex correspond in most cases to dunites and harzburgites, whereas lherzolites, hornblende peridotites and websterites are encountered more often in the Logar Area. In comparison with the Khost-Matun ultrabasics the content of titanium, alumina and feldspathic lime is higher in the websterites. The chemical composition of the ultrabasics from the Khost Matun area is similar to that of the ultrabasics from the Kwatta Area (162). Table 33
Number of analyses 1 SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3

Chemical composition of some rock types from the Matun and Kwatta Areas.
5 2 37.47 0.18 1.38 4.73 2 3 39.32 0.04 1.72 6.13 5 4 39.53 0.06 0.92 4.72 5 5 48.10 0.37 3.54 4.16 3 6 43.72 0.29 4.60 3.71 3 7 41.14 0.72 5.17 0.69 37.95 0.11 2.06 4.01 3

271

FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total:

5.05 0.06 35.46 1.16 0.14 0.17 0.03 14.53 100.3

1.53 0.15 31.22 0.86 0.29 0.14 0.90 18.00 100.3

2.32 0.14 37.78 1.66 0.02 12.65 99.80

2.88 0.07 21.83 12.43 0.53 0.66 0.10 4.96 99.63

3.39 0.13 31.95 2.18 0.53 0.19 0.28 8.78 99.75

3.1 0.13 30.5 5.27 0.37 0.52 0.35 7.02 99.98

3.86 0.05 39.30 1.45 0.03 0.16 0.06 10.46 99.50

1,2 - Khost-Matun; 3 - Bagram; 4,5 - Logar; 6 - Gardez; 7 - Kwatta (145, 146, 162, 371, 381) In the contact zone between the Logar; ultrabasics of the Matun Complex and the country rocks, the latter are often brecciated, schistose and serpentinized exhibiting numerous gliding planes; carbonatization, talcous alteration, asbestization and silicification are also apparent. The rocks from the Matun Complex are tentatively dated as Eocene. The massifs encompassed by the complex cut through all pre-Paleogene strata, seemingly intruding also the Eocene. Additional checks on this are required.

Eocene-Oligocene Intrusions
The intrusive rocks of the Eocene-Oligocene subvolcanic, vent and extrusive facies are associated closely both spatially and genetically with coeval volcanic rocks. Mir-Ali and Tangai Complexes Subvolcanic Eocene-Oligocene rocks are widespread in the Farah Rod Trough and in the area of HelmanArgandab Uplift. In the Farah Rod Trough they have been isolated as an independent Mir-Ali Complex (143, 152), while in the Helmand-Argandab Uplift they have been described as the Tangai Complex which bears its name after Tangai Series (144). Because the constituent rocks are of the same type, the two complexes are described together. Subvolcanic facies Subvolcanic facies includes two rock groups: 1) basalt, andesite, diorite and, less frequently, syenite-diorite porphyries; 2) liparite, liparite-dacite, dacite porphyries and granite porphyries (alkaline porphyries included). Rocks of the first group are younger. They form thin (2-3 up to 10 m) dikes extending for several hundred metres and small (100 to 150 m across) stocks. The rocks have a massive or amygdaloidal structure and porphyritic texture. The insets are intermediate and basic plagioclases, hornblende and clinopyroxene. The matrix is panautomorphic-granular, pilotaxitic or intersertal in texture and is composed of plagioclase, hornblende and clinopyroxene with an occasional admixture of olivine and glass or quartz; the accessories are apatite, sphene and magnetite. In the endocontacts the rocks exhibit a slighter crystallization and appear as subvitreous and vitreous varieties. Rocks of the second group from stocks, laccoliths and irregularly shaped bodies measuring from 50-100 up to 1000 m across. They also form dikes from 0.2 to 1.5 km long and 10 to 20 m thick. The rocks are creamcoloured and light-brown, or, less frequently, grey-violet; such rocks are aphyric and porphyric, with the insets represented by feldspars, quartz and biotite. The groundmass is made up of the same minerals and exhibits micropoikilitic, graphic, spherulitic and granitic textures. The accessory minerals are represented by apatite, titanomagnetite, sphene and zircon. The contact alterations consist in the formation of narrow chilled zones in the exocontact parts of the massifs and a slight silicification of the country rocks. Parallel banding as well as 272

xenoliths of the country rocks can be observed at the exocontact parts of a number of bodies. Autobreccia zones up to 100 m wide have also been found within the Qqla-i-Mir Daod area. According to G.K. Yeriomenko the alkaline granite porphyries in the Shindand Area on the eastern slopes of the Kohe Molla Eashtani Ridge, form a sheet-like body (2.0 x 0.2 km in size) and an isometrically shaped stock (0.7 to 0.8 km across) intruding andesite-basalts, diabases and felsites. These rocks are grey and brown-grey with a porphyritic texture. The phenocrysts are quartz (8 to 12%), K-feldspar (15 to 20%), and alkaline amphibole (2 to 2%). The matrix has a microgranitic texture and consists of quartz, K-feldspar, alkaline amphibole (5 to 10%) and acidic plagioclase. Apart from arfvedsonite-type alkaline amphibole, the alkaline porphyries contain fluorite and a Th-Tr-bearing mineral. The alkaline quartz porphyries are characterized by quite a high content of Be (0.01%), Sn (0.02%), Co (0.1 to 0.3%), La (0.04 to 0.08%), Y (0.06 to 0.08%), Va (0.008 to 0.01%) and Zr (0.05 to 0.08%) with Zr/Ti ratio exceeding 1. The rocks also contain 0.003 to 0.005% tantalum. Vent facies Rocks of the vent facies have been found in rare exposures close to the towns of Kandahar, Farah and Adraskan, where they occur in the zones of faults intersection. These are volcanic cone-shaped structures with bases 100 to 400 m in diameter. The lavas and tuffs are predominantly dacites and liparite-dacites. A distinctive feature of the rocks is their variegated coloration, showing violet and, more rarely, greenish hues; they have fluidal, brecciated, porous and amygdaloidal structures and porphyritic texture. The insets are represented by oligoclase-andesine, quartz and, less frequently, K-feldspar and biotite. The groundmass is felsitic, micropoikilitic and spherulitic. The clastic material consists of fragmentary andesitic porphyries, glass, felsitic porphyries, quartz and feldspar crystals. The fragments measure 1 to 3 mm across. Extrusive facies The extrusive facies rocks are closely associated both spatially and genetically with the vent facies rocks. They form extrusive pillars and plugs. Bodies consisting of extrusive rocks are ellipsoid or isometric, measuring 30 to 120 m in diameter. Columnar jointing, vertical flow or occasionally flabellate flow structures are characteristic of the rocks. Near-dome breccias are also typical. The petrographic composition of the liperite-dacite extrusive rocks is the same as that of the vent facies rocks. Extrusive rocks with a liparitic composition and porphyritic texture are characterised by a predominance in the insets of K-feldsparperthite and oligoclase and minor content of quartz. The groundmass exhibits spherulitic, micropoikilitic and microgranitic textures. At the base, the bodies of extrusive rocks are usually pervaded with numerous dikes composed of acidic rocks. The contact alterations in the bodies of the vent and extrusive facies are only faintly pronounced. A certain degree of compaction and the development of narrow hornfels zones in the country rocks has been reported. The average chemical composition of the rocks from the Mir Ali Complex is shown in Table 32.

Oligocene Intrusions
Intrusive rocks of this age are widespread in Afghanistan where the formations of gabbro-diorite, subvolcanic granite and granitic batholiths hare been distinguished.

Gabbro-Diorite Formation Intrusive rocks of this formation are identified as three spatially disconnected complexes within the South Afghanistan Median Mass, namely the Gareba, Farali, and Chagay complexes.

273

Gabbro-Diorite Formation, Farah-Rod Trough Gareba Complex This was distinguished by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142) and later studied by A.Ya. Kochetkov et al. (152) and G.A. Orlov et al. (354). Intrusive rocks of the Gareba Complex occur in Lower Cretaceous terrigenouscarbonate rocks within the Harut Rod Zone near the villages of Gareba, Taywara and Sogar. They form small stock-like bodies with en area of up to 20-30 sq km, as well as veins and dikes 4 to 15 m thick and 500 to 800 m long. The contacts of the stocks and dikes with the country rocks are abrupt and steep. The complex incorporates medium and coarse-grained diorites, monzonites and quartz monzonites. The rocks exhibit panautomorphic-granular, hypidiomorphic-granular and monzonitic textures and consist of oligoclase-andesine (20 to 45%), augite (20 to 22%), hornblende (5 to 6 %), K-feldspar (10 to 22%), quartz, biotite, sericite, chlorite, apatite and magnetite. The chemical composition of the rocks from the Gareba Complex is shown in Table 34. Dikes are made up of dioritic porphyries, diabases, dolerites and lamprophyres. The dikes of syenite porphyries, plagioporphyries and quartz-syenite porphyries encountered in the area have been provisionally included in the Gareba Complex though some of these rocks may be of Miocene age. Most widespread are diorite porphyry dikes. Farah Complex This complex was identified by K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (152) in the Anardara Zone close to the villages of Farah, Khurmalaq, Duzdabav, Khayrabat, Gerdani and others. The complex comprises small (up to 3-4 sq km), stock-like massifs cutting through Lower Cretaceous terrigenous- carbonate rocks. Rocks of three intrusive phases have been identified. Phase 1 rocks make up independent massifs, whereas Phase 2 and 3 rocks occur together in the same intrusive bodies. The massifs are slightly eroded, their contacts with the country rocks being subconcordant and gentle (15-25). Phase 1 rocks are gabbros, gabbro-diabases, gabbro-diorites, diorites and quartz diorites. They consist of Nos. 40-55 plagioclase (60 to 85%), hornblende, clinopyroxene and biotite (up to 40%), quartz (up to 10%), K-feldspar (up to 20%), and accessory zircon, apatite, sphene and magnetite. The texture is panautomorphicgranular, and hypidiomorphic-granular or more rarely, gabbroic and ophitic. Phase 2 rocks are the most widespread and compose considerable portions of the massifs. They are represented largely by medium- and coarse-grained, light grey granites and granodiorites transitional to granite and granodiorite porphyries; quartz monzonites, granosyenites and tonalites are also found. The rocks consist of oligoclase-andesine (20 to 60%), microcline (15 to 40%), quartz (15 to 35%), biotite, hornblende plus clinopyroxene (up to 10%), muscovite, saussurite, sillimanite, and accessory apatite, zircon, orthite and sphene; magnetite and pyrite represent the opaque minerals. The rocks display a hypidiomorphic-granular and frequently porphyritic texture; characteristic textures of the matrix are granulitic and graphic; elements of poikilitic, myrmekitic and perthitic textures are also encountered. Phase 3 rocks form small (up to 1 sq km) stocks and veins (10 to 15 m thick) and are represented by light grey medium-grimed alaskites, quartz syenites and quartz-syenite porphyries. They consist of K-feldspar and albite (70 to 80%), quartz (up to 30%), biotite (up to 2%), and accessory apatite, zircon, sphene and magnetite. The texture is allotriomorphic-granular, with elements of porphyritic, pegmatitic, granulitic and perthitic textures. The following accessory minerals characterize the rocks of this complex: Phase 1 - magnetite, zircon, sphene, apatite; Phase 2 - magnetite, sphene, zircon, apatite, ilmenite, orthite, garnet, cyrtolite, rutile, anatase, augite, thorite and pyromorphite; Phase 3 - magnetite, orthite, sphene, zircon, garnet, axinite, cyrtolite, anatase, thorite, gold, ilmenite, chalcopyrite, rutile, fergusonite and pyromorphite. Specific chemical features of the rocks assigned to the complex are indicated in Table 34.

274

Table 34
Number of samples Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Total:

Chemical composition of some rock types from the Farah, Chagay and Gareba Complexes.
3 1 4 1 6 6

1 50.02 0.79 18.90 3.54 5.42 0.17 5.66 10.37 0.61 2.71 0.16 1.12 99.47

2 62.24 0.61 17.18 1.72. 4.28 0.10 2.47 5.91 2.06 3.33 0.18 0.16 100.24

3 70.80 0.42 14.37 0.70 2.45 0.06 0.80 2.38 3.29 3.52 0.06 0.50 99.85

4 75.45 0.18 12.39 0.21 1.65 0.03 0.20 1.28 4.00 3..8 0.04 0.74 99.75

5 52.50 1.35 19.10 4.24 2.82 0.07 8.77 3.71 2.08 3.96 0.34 0.63 99.57

6 48.93 0.99 16.67 4.63 5.36 0.12 7.84 10.98 0.96 2.43 0.24 0.46 99.66

7 56.43 1.12 16.21 2.70 3.92 0.12 3.90: 5.78 1.77 4.40 0.14 3.04 99.53

8 66.43 0.75 15.99 0.87 2.80 0.75 2.56 2.61 3.62 2.57 0.28 1.44 100.54

Farah Complex (152). Phase 1: 1 - gabbro, 2 - quartz diorite; Phase 2: 3 - granite; Phase 3: 4 - alaskite; Chagay Complex (222, 371): 5 - dioritic porphyrites, 6 - gabbro; Gareba Complex (152): 7 - gabbromonzonites, 8 - granodiorites In terms of the composition of the vein rocks three groups are recognized in the Farah Complex. One group comprises granosyenite porphyries, syenite porphyries and aplitic alaskites with porphyritic, aplitic, granulitic and pegmatitic textures. The second group includes veins made up of keratophyres and quartz keratophyres. Dikes of altered diabases, diabasic and dioritic porphyrites belong to the third group. Spatially they are associated with the massifs of the Farah Complex. The exomorphic alterations around the massifs of the Farah Complex consist in development of hornfels in the terrigenous rocks and skarns in the limestones. Garnet, garnet- pyroxene, garnet-epidote and garnetvesuvianite varieties were ascertained among skarns.

Gabbro-Diorite Formation, Dari Rod Trough Chagay Complex Rocks of this complex have been described by Yu.M. Koshelev et al. (222), V.I.Slavin et al. (149), V.S.Drannikov et al. (371) in the southern part of Afghanistan, on the northern slope of the Chagay Ridge and in the adjacent areas, where they make up small (up to 30 sq km) bodies which appear as isolated hummocks rising over the Regestan Desert. The massifs are entirely composed either of gabbroids or diorites, yet massifs are also encountered that are complex in structure while the predominant diorite porphyries contain irregularly shaped bodies of gabbro porphyries. Transitions between these rocks are usually gradual. The gabbro-porphyries are coarse-grained rocks with nevaditic texture and a microgabbroic and micropanautomorphic- granular matrix. The phenocrysts are represented by plagioclases (50 to 55%) and diopside (40 to 45%). Labradorite-bytownite phenocrysts are invariably surrounded by an albitic fringe. 275

Pyroxene is replaced by hornblende. In the ground mass plagioclase, amphibole and magnetite are found in roughly equal proportions. The hornblendic gabbros appear as coarse-grained rocks consisting of hornblende and plagioclases; the rocks exhibit gabbroic and mioropegmatitic textures with elements of ophitic. Plagioclases are replaced by sericite, hornblende and chlorite. Locally the rocks are silicified. The diorite and quartz-diorite porphyries are massive rocks of dark and greenish-grey colour and porphyritic texture. The phenocrysts in these rocks are represented by zonal andesine(Nos.45), hornblende and biotite. The groundmass is fine-grained and consists of plagioclases, amphibole, chloritized biotite, quartz, sphene, apatite and magnetite. The chemical composition of some rock types from the Chagay Complex is represented in Table 34. The endomorphic alterations in the gabbros and diorites are manifested in a reduction of the granularity of the rocks, and the exomorphic alterations consist in the development of skarns as well as in epidotization of the country volcanites. The K-Ar absolute age of the rocks under description is 80 and 85 mln years (371).

Formation of Subvolcanic Granites The intrusive rocks of this formation are spatially and paragenetically associated with Eocene-Oligocene volcanics. In the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region they have been identified as Hajigak and Yarkh Complexes. In South Afghanistan Median Mass they are known as the Bulghaja and Spin Boldak complexes. The absolute ages of the rocks from these complexes have been placed at 89 m.y. (Hajigak), 41 m.y. (Yarkh), 75 a.y. (Spin Boldak) and 38 m.y. (Bulghaja).

Formation of Subvolcanic Granites, Afghanistan-South Pamir Region Hajigak Complex This complex in the Kohe-Baba Ridge was identified by A.Ya. Kochetkov, S.S. Karapetov et al. (206) and later studied by K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (142). The biggest massif of the complex is the Hajigak. In plan the massif is lenticular, 5 to 7 km wide and over 25 km long. It is closely associated with the EoceneOligocene volcanics of the Kohe Baba Ridge, both spatially and paragenetically. Southeast of the massif, Proterozoic schists and quartzites are exposed. The contact with these rocks is sinuous having a nearly E-W strike and a steep (up to vertical) dip. Locally the contact is of injection type. Granite veins occur 6000 to 7000 m off the contact, where intrusion effects on the country rocks are also seen. West of the massif there occur Eocene-Oligocene volcanics. In the Sadborgh River basin, north of the Qal, in the watershed area of the Kohe Baba Ridge, the massifs contact is gentle, exhibiting the south-westerly dip. In places, on single peaks, where the roof pendants are present, the contact is subhorizontal. To the north-east, the massif is bounded by the Unai Fault, which is accentuated by a zone (600 m wide) of limonitization, crushing, chloritization and silcification of the granites and the country rocks. The internal structure of the Hajigak massif is simple. Medium-grained biotitic granites, alaskitic granites, granosyerdtes and granite porphyries representing the apical facies of the intrusion are widespread in its north-eastern part. These rocks consist of microcline (40 to 50%), Nos.6-12 plagioclases (20 to 30%), quartz (25 to 40%), biotite (3 to 8%), and accessory zircon, orthite, apatite and magnetite. In general, all the rock types are characterized by albitization, replacement of biotite by chlorite and epidote, and by perthitization of miorocline. They are hypidiomorphic-granular in texture, which exhibits frequent transitions to allotriomorphic and granulitic textures. A poikilitic texture is also encountered. Porphyritic textures with an allotriomorphic-granular matrix are characteristic of the endomorphic zones. Deeper facies are exposed in the southern portion of the massif. The composition of the rocks of these facies is identical to that of the rocks making up the apical portion of the massif, exhibiting, however, a coarser granularity and, locally, a porphyritic texture. Most widespread are granosyenites. In the endocontact zones these are bands (up to 20 m wide) of completely albitized rocks consisting of albites (80 to 90%) and quartz (up to 10%). They contain relics of miorocline-perthite transitional to chess-board albite. Of the accessory minerals, sphene and ilmenite have been noted. 276

The rocks of the Hajigak Complex have the following accessory minerals (according to analysis of II samples): magnetite, orthite, apatite, zircon, galenite, uranothorite, scheelite, cassiterite, molybdenite, fluorite, cerussite, sphalerite, cyrtolite, chalcopyrite, monazite, thorite, uraninite and fergusonite. Table 35 Chemical composition of some rock types from the Yarkh and Hajigak Complexes.
1 3 2 2 1 5 9

Number of samples

Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total:

1 54.69 0.16 16.8 3.06 5.37 0.16 4.10 8.2 1.32 2.32 0.09 3.26 99.53

2 69.9 0.52 14.13 1.59 1.75 0.07 1.24 2.66 2.65 4.67 0.17 0.92 100.2

3 71.78 0.41 13.78 3.01 1.0 0.02 0.68 0.89 2.16 6.19 0.1 0.26 100.2

4 61.09 0.49 14.65 4.03 1.19 0.08 1.70 1.8 4.24 4.7 0.23 5.36 99.5

5 63.44 0.80 14.8 5.27 0.61 0.01 0.49 1.28 5.60 5.2 0.16 2.04 99.70

6 72.99 0.17 13.35 0.23 1.89 0.03 0.43 1.41 4.33 4.13 0.07 0.72 99.8

7 70.88 0.50 14.54 1.32 1.63 0.05 0.85 2.37 3.10 3.8 0.09 0.73 99.8

1-4 Yarkh Complex (154, 351): 1I - Phase 1 gabbro-diorites, Phase 2 granites, 3 - Phase 3 granites, 4 - Phase 4 syenites; 5,7 - Hajigak Complex: 5 - granosyenites, 6 alkaline granites, 7 - granites (154). Widespread in the massif are vein rocks. Particularly characteristic are dikes of granodiorite porphyries and quartz- diorite porphyries, 5 to 15 m thick and over 1 km long. It should be noted that these dikes have much in common with the Miocene dikes exposed in the vicinity of the Garsi and Karabab villages. In addition, there are quartz-albite-tourmaline pegmatites and veins of fine-grained biotitic and two-mica granites, up to 2.5 m thick and several dozen metres long. These granites are highly albitized and are 10-20 cm. to 2 or more metres thick. The contact alterations around the massif can be briefly described as follows: hornfels are formed in schists, while volcanites exhibit actinolitization, biotitization and sericitization. The contact zones of the massifs are pervaded with xenoliths of the country rocks which are highly metamorphosed. Locally, the xenoliths are garnet-pyroxene skarns. Yarkh Complex This complex is identified in the Nakhchir Par Zone, where it exhibits a spatial and paragenetical association with the Maestrichtian-Paleocene volcanics occurring in the Kohe Tishal Dara Ridge. The complex has been described by V.M. Moraliov et al. (351) and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). The intrusive bodies of the Yarkh Complex are lenticular, linearly elongated; sheet-like plutons are less common. The complex was formed owing to four phases of igneous activity. 277

Phase 1 rocks are gabbros and gabbro-diorites that compose several small massifs, One massif, 2 to 2.5 km wide, can be traced along the Panj River for 8 to 10 km from the Yarkh River-as far as the Pajvar village. Another gabbro-diorite stock-shaped body (6 sq km in area) occurs as the upper reaches of the Krunoh River. A number of gabbro diorite massifs up to 1 sq km in area are also encountered. Phase 1 gabbros and gabbro-diorites appear as coarse- and medium-grained grey-green rocks with gabbroic texture. Locally elements of prismoid and hypidiomorphic-granular textures can be seen. Pyroxene and biotite-amphibole gabbros are recognized. The pyroxene gabbro is composed of diopside- type pyroxene and plagioclases (Nos. 37-42) the abundance ratio of which is rather variable. Locally the rocks contain orthorhombic pyroxene and become transitional to gabbro-norites. Biotite- amphibole gabbro is composed of No. 68 plagioclase (30 to 45%), hornblende (38 to 42%), biotite (10 to 12%), end accessory ilmenite, magnetite, sphene and apatite. The gabbro-diorites are made up of No. 47 plagioclase (60 to 64%), pyroxene plus biotite (25 to 30%), and accessory magnetite, ilmenite, apatite, zircon and tourmaline. Phase 2 rocks are granites, granodiorites and quartz diorites that compose the relatively big Sohcharaw massif and a number of minor bodies 5 to 6 sq km in area. The Sohcharaw massif at the Yarkh and Pani interfluve is a fissure-type pluton oriented N-W across the strike of the country rocks of Late Triassic-Middle Jurassic age. The pluton extends for 20 km from the Ron Darah village as far as the Chasnud-i-Bolo area and is 5 to 12 km wide. Bodies with an identical composition have been mapped on the left bank of the Panj River in the surroundings of the Rabate Bala village, where they out through Maestrichtian-Paleocene volcanics, as they do in the basin of the Sududj Dara River. In the endocontact portion of the massif there occurs a large number of country rock xenoliths. In the exocontact zones apophyses branch off the massif and there are single disconformable sheet-like granitoid veins from a few metres to 100-150 in thick. The granites and granodiorites appear as medium- and coarse-grained massive rocks composed of K-feldspar (20 to 35%), Nos. 20-36 plagioclases (20 to 45%), quartz (20 to 30%), biotite (up to 12%), and accessory apatite, zircon and magnetite. The rocks exhibit hypidiomorphic, porphyritic, locally poikilitic and micropegmatitic textures. The quartz diorites and diorites are green-grey, fine- and medium-grained compact rocks made up of andesine (60 to 65%), biotite plus hornblende (20 to 25%), quartz (up to 12%), and accessory apatite, zircon, magnetite and sphene. The rocks are hypidiomorphic-granular in texture with elements of panautomorphic-granular texture. Plagioclases are weakly sericitized and saussuritized, and hornblende is replaced by actinolite and biotite. Quartz monzonites with monzonitic and micropegmatitic textures can be locally encountered. These rocks consist of plagioclases (40 to 42%), pyroxene (16 to 18%), K-feldspar (18 to 23%), quartz (15%) and accessory sphene, apatite and zircon. Plagioclases are strongly saussuritized and sericitized. Clinopyroxene is replaced by amphibole. K-feldspar is pelitized. Phase 3 rocks are the granites, alaskites and granite- porphyries that make up the Yarkh massif which appears as a sheet-like body, 20 km long and 7 to 8 km wide, oriented nearly N-S and cutting through Upper Triassic-Middle Jurassic strata. The granites are coarse- and medium-grained rocks composed of microcline-perthite (35 to 40%), Nos..25-38 plagioclases (15 to 25%), biotite (3 to 8%), and accessory apatite, zircon and sphene. The rocks are of hypidiomorphic-granular, granitic and, more rarely, poikilitic textures. In the south-western part of the massif, alaskitic granites have been found. These are light pink rocks with porphyroblastic, in places granoblastic texture. They are made up of big albite metablasts (30 to 40%) with poikilitic quartz ingrowths in the inequigranular quartz-feldspar matrix which is composed of microcline (25 to 30%), albite and quartz (20 to 30%). Along the fissures there occur accumulations of ferruginous carbonate with associated leucoxene, anatase and minute magnetite crystals. The granite porphyries occupy considerable portions of the Yarkh massif. They are yellow-grey, white and pinkish-grey and porphyritic in texture. The phenocrysts (5 to 15%) are represented by quartz and, less frequently, andesine. The groundmass is microfelsitic exhibiting a quartzo-feldspathic composition, with an admixture of sericite flakes and an opaque mineral. The accessories are apatite and sphene. Phase 4 rocks are predominantly granosyenites making up an isolated massif on the left bank of the Safar Darrah River. The massif extends for 15 km, is 2 to 7.5 km wide and outs through Upper Triassic-Middle Jurassic terrigenous strata. Its contacts are abrupt dipping off the massif. Its constituent granodiorites are coarse-grained pink-grey rocks with a hypidiomorphic-granular, and locally micropegmatitic texture. They consist of K-feldspar (40 to 50%), oligoclase (15 to 25%), biotite (7 to 10%), amphibole (5 to 8%), and 278

accessory sphene, zircon, apatite and magnetite. The chemical composition of the rocks assigned to the Yarkh Complex is given in Table 35. The influence of the granodiorites on the country rocks has resulted in the formation of andalusite-biotite and garnet-biotite hornfels in a zone up to 1.2 km wide. Numerous dikes and small sheet bodies of granites, granodiorites, granite and diorite porphyries, pegmatites and spilites cutting through the intrusive rocks of all phases are assigned to the Yarkh Complex. The dikes extend for few dozen metres and are 2-3 in thick. Their contacts with the country rocks are abrupt. The massifs of the Yarkh Complex stretch directly on to the territory of the USSR to form the Sokhcharaw, Barhuf and other massifs on the right bank of the Panj River (Central Pamir).

Gabbro-Diorite Formation, South Afghanistan Median Mass, Farah Rod Trough Bulghaja Complex This was identified by A.Ya. Kochetkov, V.I. Dronov and S.M. Kalimulin and later studied by K.F. StazhiloAlekseev et al. (143, 152). The massif encompasses the intrusive bodies of granites, granodiorites, quartz diorites and less frequently diorites and monzonites occurring within or adjacent to the areas underlain by Eocene- Oligocene volcanics in the Farah Rod Trough. The bodies are stock-like, occupying areas from a few square metres to 10-15 sq km large; the contacts with the country volcanics dip gently off the massif (30 to 35). Some of the massifs retain roof pendants. Among the rocks of the Bulghaja Complex, ones formed owing to three phases of igneous activity have been distinguished, as well as Stage I and Stage II dikes. Phase 1 rocks locally compose independent massifs, but sometimes they occur as xenoliths in the later phase rocks. They are represented by medium-grained, pink-greenish-grey biotite-hornblende granodiorites and quartz diorites of a hypidiomorphic-granular texture. The rocks consist of Nos. 25-30 plagioclases (45 to 50%), K-feldspar (10 to 15%), quartz (15 to 25%): biotite and hornblende (15 to 20%) and accessory zircon, apatite and monazite. Perthitization of K-feldspar, sericitization of plagioclase and chloritization of the mafic minerals have been noted. Phase 2 rocks are biotitic and alaskitic granites and granosyenites composing considerable portions of the massifs. These are medium- and coarse-grained pinkish-grey rocks with the following mineral composition: plagioclases (Nos. 23-30) in granites - 23 to 30% , in granosyenites and alaskitic granites -5 to 10% , Kfeldspar -30 to 60% , quartz (in granites - 30 to 50%, in granosyenite - 15 to 20%), biotite-up to 2-5% ; the accessories are zircon, orthite, sphene, magnetite and hematite. Their texture is hypidiomorphic-granular, while the structure is massive and, locally, microlitic; in microlitic cavities quartz and feldspar have been found. The rocks are strongly feldapathisated and close to the contacts there is silicification and tourmalinization that produce quartz-tourmaline pockets and streaks. Phase 3 rocks form small bodies (100 to 200 m across) invading the early-phase granitoids. They are similar in composition to the Phase 2 rocks. These are porphyritic, fine-grained and aplitoid granites, granosysnites and quartz syenites. The Bulghaja Complex is characterized by abundant dikes. Stage I dikes are aplites, granite porphyries, microgranites, fine-grained biotitic and biotite-hornblende granites. The absence of pegmatitic dikes is notable. The Stage II dikes can be classified into two groups. The earlier ones are composed of pink granite porphyries with a microgranitic and microspherulitic groundmass. Their insets are represented by quartz, Kfeldspar and oligoclase-andesine. The younger dikes are lamprophyres (spessartites, malaysianites) and diorite, diabase and basalt porphyries. The dikes are no more than a few metres thick, while they vary in length from several hundred metres and to a few kilometres. The relative age of the numerous dikes consisting of intermediate rocks is not always clear; this applies to augite, diorite, gabbro-diorite and andesite porphyry dikes. As a rule, the dikes are highly altered, being sericitized, carbonatized and epidotized. The rocks of the Balghaja Complex are characterized by the following accessory minerals: Phase 1 - zircon, sphene, orthite, apatite, cassiterite, fluorite, galenite, rutile, naegite, scheelite, garnet, vanadinite; Phase 2 magnetite, sphene, zircon, orthite, apatite, ilmenite, cassiterite, scheelite, fluorite, galenite, rutile, 279

uranothorite; Phase 3 - zircon, orthite, magnetite, galenite, scheelite, pyrite, sphalerite, garnet, naegite, rutile, ilmenite, cassiterite. The chemical composition of the rocks from the Balghaja Complex is indicated in Table 36. Table 36
Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 A12O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total:

Chemical composition of some rock types from the Balghaja Complex.

2 4 1 4 2

1 60.82 0.95 16.39 1.59 4.37 0.14 2.86 5.98 2.99 2.42 0.10 1.05 99.66

2 64.41 0.87 15.3 1.46 3.70 0.11 1.68 4.37 3.80 2.98 0.19 0.77 99.64

3 62.18 0.89 16.05 1.35 5.61 0.17 1.85 3.35 3.66 4.28 0.25 0.82 100.4

4 73.32 0.2 13.12 1.31 1.77 0.06 0.31 1.36 4.65 3.13 0.04 0.51 99.78

5 72.64 0.25 13.9 0.09 1.97 0.09 0.22 1.72 4.80 3.46 0.00 0.49 99.63

Phase 1: 1 - diorites, 2 - granodiorites, 3 - syenites; Phase 2: 4 - granites; Phase 3: 5 - granites (152) Granite porphyry veins have been found in the volcanics close to their contacts with the intrusions. In the exocontact parts of the massifs, there occur plagioclase-quartz, quartz- pyroxene and quartz-diopsideplagioclase hornfels which contain biotite and hornblende. The carbonate rocks in contact with the intrusions are marbled, skarnified and contain clinopyroxene, garnet, apatite, vesuvianite, epidote, magnetite, sulfides, amphiboles, scapolite and mica.

Gabbro-Diorite Formation, South Afghanistan Median Mass, Dari Rod Trough Spin Boldak Complex This complex is identified for the first time. It includes spatially isolated groups of massifs consisting of rocks similar in composition and found in identical structural-geological environments. The first group massifs occur near the eastern boundary of the trough stretching from the Shuravak area as far as the Spin Boldak village. The stock- and lens-like massifs are up to 25 km long and up to 10 km wide. Their contacts with the country rocks of Cretaceous age are discordant and steep. This group of massifs had been studied by Yu.M. Koshelev (222). The massifs consist of the rocks produced by two phases of igneous activity. Phase 1 rocks are granites, granodiorites and quartz diorites. The granites and granodiorites are medium- grained rocks with a massive structure and a hypidiomorphic- granular texture. They consist of Nos.16-25 plagioclases (30 to 45%), microcline (30 to 35%), quartz (20 to 30%), hornblende (10%), biotite (5%) and accessory apatite, sphene, orthite and tourmaline. The quartz diorites are medium-grained rocks with a hypidiomorphic-granular texture, consisting of andesine (50 to 55%), biotite 280

plus hornblende (30 to 35%) and quartz (up to 15%). Garnet skarns and hornfels occur in the exomorphic contact zone 60 to 100 m wide. Phase 2 rocks are medium- and coarse-grained porphyritic granites with a granitic groundmass. The insets (15 to 50%) are microcline, quartz and more rarely, oligoclase. The groundmass consists of albite-oligoclase (25 to 30%), quartz (30 to 35%), microcline (40 to 45%) and biotite (5%). The accessory minerals are orthite, apatite, sphene, zircon, garnet, magnetite, ilmenite and thorite. Dikes and vein rocks are widespread. The oldest dikes (Stage I) consist of granites, aplites and pegmatites confined to the internal portions of the massifs and, less frequently, to their exocontacts. The dikes are 100 to 500 m long and 2 to 3 m thick. They strike mainly north-southwards. The group of younger dikes (Stage II) consists of granite porphyries, quartz porphyries, andesite and diorite porphyries, diabases and spessartites. The granite porphyries, quartz porphyries and lamprophyres prevailing in the endocontact zones are 1.5 to 2 m thick and 20 to 300 m long. The dikes of diabase, andesite and diorite porphyries confined to the exocontact zone occur at a distance of 1.5 km from the massifs. They are 5 to 8 in thick and up to 3 km long. The massifs that are assigned to the second group of the Spin Boldak Complex occur at the northern slopes of the Chagay Ridge. They have been studied by V.I. Slavin et al. (149) and V.S. Drannikov et al. (371). These massifs are composed of rocks of two intrusive phases: Phase 1 - granites, granodiorites, quartz diorites, diorites; Phase 2 - granosyenites, quartz syenites. Most widespread are Phase 1 rocks exposed along the upper reaches of the rivers Loy Dor Vandeh, Zabra, Parwan, Parode-Khurd and Parode-Kalon, where they form moderately big (up to 3.5 sq km) isometric bodies in the volcanogenic Cretaceous rocks. The contacts between the intrusions and the country rocks are usually steep, sometimes vertical, discordant. Small xenoliths of the country rocks (andesite and dacite porphyries) are fairly often encountered at the endocontacts. Phase 1 granodiorites and granites are grey and pink-grey fine- and medium-grained rocks with a hypidiomorphic-granular, occasionally micropegmatitic, texture. These rocks consist of K-feldspar, oligoclase-andesine, quartz, biotite, amphibole and accessory orthite, zircon, apatite, sphene and magnetite. Porphyraceous granite varieties which have an aplitic groundmass are also encountered. These consist of quartz (20 to 25%), plagioclase (30 to 35%), K-feldspar (30 to 35%), biotite (5%), and amphibole (2 to 3%). The phenocrysts are represented by plagioclase and microcline-perthite. Phase 1 quartz diorites and diorites represent the contact facies of the granites and granodiorites considered above. Phase 2 granosyenites and quartz syenites form small (up to 15 sq km) isometric and oval, stock-like bodies in Cretaceous volcanites that occur in valleys of the Parwan, Shah Esmail, Parode-Kalon and other rivers. Spatially, they are closely associated with Phase 1 granite intrusions. Their contacts with the enclosing volcanites are steep, discordant. Granosyenites are the predominant rocks of Phase 2. These are pink-grey, medium- and fine-grained, exhibiting hypidiomorphic-granular texture, occasionally with elements of micropegmatitic texture. The rocks consist of microcline (55 to 75%), Nos.30-32 plagioclases (10 to 30%), quartz (10 up to 15%), biotite (2 to 3%) and low amounts of amphibole, sphene and an opaque mineral. The average chemical compositions of some rock types from the Spin Boldak Complex are presented in Table 37. Table 37 Chemical composition of some rock types from the Spin Boldak Complex.
3 3 3 3

Number of analyses

Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3

1 59.48 0.89 15.88 3.45

2 63.04 0.66 15.55 2.60

3 68.9 0.36 13.55 1.82

4 73.46 0.18 12.77 1.10

281

FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total:

3.81 0.08 3.82 5.83 1.53 3.12 0.24 1.41 99.54

2.96 0.07 2.52 3.56 3.29 3.47 0.22 1.36 99.30

1.66 0.03 1.68 2.86. 4.25 3.31 0.09 1.28 99.79

1.86 0.01 1.05 1.84 4.29 2.82 0.06 0.90 100.36

1 - diorites, 2 - quartz diorites, 3 - granodiorites, 4 -granites (222, 371). The contact alterations in the intrusive bodies and the country rocks are very faint. In the endocontact zone, granites and granodiorites are gradually replaced by quartz diorites and diorites, while granosyenites grade into quartz syenites. Alteration of the country rocks consists in the development of narrow hornfels zones, as well as in epidotization and silicification. Dikes and vein rocks of the Spin Boldak Complex occur both in the internal parts of the intrusions and in the country volcanics, close to the intrusions. The dikes and veins are 0.5 to 10 m thick and several hundred metres long. They commonly strike almost E-W, more rarely N-S, and dip steeply. The dikes and veins are made up of leucocratic and aplitoid granites, granosyenites, quartz syenites, alkali-syenites, granodiorite porphyries, liparite and dacite porphyries and diorite porphyries. Extensive dikes of basalt porphyries and conga diabases have been found at a considerable distance from the intrusive bodies. Their relationship with the rocks of the complex has not been ascertained.

Granite Batholith Formation Granitoids of this formation occur in the South Afghanistan and Nurestan-Pamir median masses, as well as in the Afghanistan-South Pamir and Suleiman-Kirthar folded region. It is assumed that the granitoids have been intruded during the Paleogene tectono-magmatic activisation.

Granite Batholith Formation, South Afghanistan Median Mass In this region granitoids of the batholithic formation compose two groups of big, spatially disconnected massifs within the Helmand-Argandab Uplift. One group is confined to the Argandab, Kandahar and Tirin zones and the other to the Helmand Zone. Two respective complexes have been distinguished

Granite Batholith Formation, South Afghanistan Median Mass, Argandab and Helmand Argandab Complex This has been isolated by Yu.M. Dovgal, M.A. Chalyan, A.N. Diomin et al. (144). The massifs of this complex occupy the Tirin-Argandab interfluve and the territory north-west of the town of Chazni. They extend in an almost continuous belt from the town of Kandahar in the southwest to the Maydan River basin in the north-east. The complex comprises the rocks produced by three phases of igneous activity. Phase 1 resulted in amphibole-biotite granites, granodiorites, diorites and quartz diorites. Phase 2 was producing porphyraceous leucocratic granites, alaskites, granosyenites and quartz syenites, while Phase 3 was responsible for the 282

intrusion of leucogratic granites. Clear-cut intrusive contacts were found between the rocks of the three phases. The Argandab Batholith is 300 km long and 40 to 50 km. Wide. It consists of a number of plutons: Darazgol, Akazo, Pada, Salamaq, Zarak and others. The biggest of them is the Darazgol, 250 km long and 3 to 40 km wide. The north-eastern half of the pluton occurs in the Paleozoic carbonate-terrigenous strata and the southwestern one in the Mesozoic rocks. The contacts with the country rocks are gentle, uneven, sinuous, rarely steep and rectilinear. The contact planes invariably dip towards the country rocks. The internal structure of the pluton where Phase 1 granodiorites predominate is complex. The central portion of the massif is pervaded with Phase 2 and 3 granitoids which form narrow lenses and stocks. In the south-western part of the pluton, xenoliths of Early Cretaceous diorites and gabbroids are widespread. The pluton also contains a large number of relics of the sedimentary country rocks. The Akazo massif occurs in the surroundings of the Akazo village. It is stock-like and somewhat elongated, the contacts outline is sinuous. The massif cuts through the flat-laying Upper Triassic carbonate beds. The massif is composed mainly of Phase 1 rocks. Only its marginal portions are composed of Phase 2 granites. The Pada massif occurs east of the Akazo intrusion. It is lens-shaped, 8 to 10 km wide, and 25 to 27 km long. The massif consisting mainly of Phase 2 granitoids cuts through Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous carbonateterrigenous rocks and is oriented in E-W direction. The Salama and Zarak massifs north-west of Kandahar are made up primarily of Phase 2 granitoids. In addition to the massifs named, the Argandab batholith includes several minor intrusive bodies. A particular position in this complex is occupied by the group of intrusive bodies to the north-east of the Dashte Nawer plateau. It includes the Ghazni, Bado Ghar and Ghawkush massifs. The Ghazni massif is located west of the Ghazni town. The intrusion is 10 to 15 km wide and up to 40 km long. The northwestern contact of the massif with the Carboniferous-Lower Permian beds is faulted. In the southeast and south, the granites intrude the Proterozoic metamorphic rocks, where the contact is sinuous, often suggesting an injection-type intrusion. Phase 1 granodiorites cut through by rare small stocks of Phase 2 granites predominate in the massif. Locally (Balakogh Ridge) veins of the Phase 3 muscovites are identified. The Bado Ghar massif is located to the north-east of the Bande Sultane reservoir, extending for 30 km at a width of 5 to 10 km. The massifs outline is strongly sinuous, but overall it is elongated in a north-easterly direction, cutting through Proterozoic metamorphic strata and Carboniferous-Lower Permian slates. The contacts with the Proterozoic rocks are blurry and indicative of injection, while these with the Carboniferous-Permian slates are abrupt and discordant. The massif comprises rocks of all three phases. The Ghawkush massif occurs near the mountain pass of the same name and appears as a narrow sheet-like body 20 km long, confined to a fault contact between Proterozoic metamorphics and Carboniferous-Lower Permian slates. The western contact of the granites and gneisses is blurry as the gneisses grade into amphibole grey-pinkish granites through a strip of granite-gneiss. The eastern contact with the slates is abrupt and steep. Most widespread among Phase 1 rocks are medium- and fine-grained, occasionally porphyritic, granites and granodiorites. Endomorphic facies are represented by diorites, quartz diorites and leucocratic granites. They are granitic in texture, sometimes with elements of allotriomorphic and porphyraceous texture, and have the following mineral composition: Nos.25-32 plagioclase (25 to 30%), microcline (30 to 35%), quartz (25 to 30%), hornblende plus biotite (5 to 10%), and accessory apatite, zircon, scheelite, magnetite and pyrite. In the porphyritic granites the phenocrysts are represented by oligoclase (10 to 20%). The granodiorites are mainly allotriomorphic-granular in texture and have the following mineral composition: high basicity plagioclase (45 to 50%), microcline (8 to 10%), quarts (15 to 20%), and hornblende (10 to 15%). Sometimes they contain up to 15% clinopyroxene. Apart from the accessory minerals listed above, the granodiorites contain sphene, garnet, orthite and rutile. The diorites are massive fine- and medium-grained rocks, panautomorphic-granular in texture with features of allotriomorphic-granular texture. They consist of Nos. 35 plagioclase (so to 55%), biotite and hornblende (20 to 35%), clinopyroxene (up to 8%), quartz and Kfeldspar (2 to 3%). In the quartz diorites, the quartz content increases up to 15% and that of K-feldspar up to 510%; the accessory minerals are apatite, sphene, orthite, zircon and scheelite. Phase 2 rocks are predominant porphyritic granites and alaskites with minor leucocratic granites, granosyenites and syenites. The porphyritic granites appear as coarse-grained, locally giganto-grained, 283

pinkish-grey rocks with granitic matrix. The insets represented by microcline and oligoclase vary in size between 1 and 4 cm. and make up 25 to 30% of the rock volume. The groundmass is composed of microcline (up to 50%), oligoclase (10 to 15%), quartz (25%), biotite and hornblende (up to 5%), muscovite (up to 3%) with the accessory apatite, sphene, zircon, garnet, tourmaline, topaz, orthite, cassiterite and fergusonite. The alaskites are pinkish rocks with a porphyritic texture and granitic groundmass. They are composed of oligoclase (25 to 30%), microcline (up to - 45%), quartz (25 to 30%), biotite plus muscovite (up to 1%), and accessory apatite, sphene, zircon, garnet, monazite, cassiterite and scheelite. The granosyenites are fine- and medium-grained pink and reddish rocks with a hypidiomorphic-granular texture. They consist of microcline (50 to 60%), oligoclase (10 to 15%), quartz (10 to 15%), biotite and hornblende (up to 2%). The leucocratic granites are pinkish-grey, fine- and medium-grained, having a granitic texture. They are composed of microcline-perthite (35 to 40%), oligoclase (20 to 25%), quartz (up to 30%), biotite plus hornblende (up to 6%), and accessory magnetite, zircon and apatite. The following accessory minerals have been found in Phase 1 and 2 rocks: magnetite, apatite, zircon, garnet, sphene, orthite, pyrite, fluorite, cassiterite, ilmenite, scheelite, rutile and anatase. In addition, naegite, barite, thorite, uranothorite, uraninite and gold have been identified in Phase 1 rocks. Phase 3 rocks are represented by pink-coloured fine- and medium-grained leucocratic granites that have a massive structure, a granitic or, more rarely, porphyritic texture and a granitic groundmass which is aplitic in the fine-grained varieties. The rocks consist of microcline-perthite (55 to 60%) No. 25 plagioclase (10 to 25%), quartz (25 to 39%), biotite, hornblende and, rarely, clinopyroxene (up to 5%). The accessories are apatite, zircon, magnetite and orthite. The average chemical compositions of the rocks assigned to the complex are given in Table 38. Endomorphic alterations in granitoids of the Argandab Complex are most characteristic of the Phase 1 rocks. Close to the contacts of the massifs there occur hybrid diorites and quartz diorites which locally exhibit porphyric textures and schlieren-like concentrations of mafic minerals. The width of the zones of the endomorphic alteration may attain several hundred metres. The endocontact zones are pervaded by numerous xenoliths of the country rocks. The exomorphic alterations manifest themselves in the formation of hornfels and skarns, the former having quartz-plagioclase-amphibole composition. More rarely, cordieritic skarn varieties are encountered. The hornfels zones are up to 800 m wide. The carbonate rocks are marbled and skarned, forming epidotic and garnet-epidote skarns that sometimes contain magnetite, ludwigite and iron sulfides. The forming of the Argandab Complex was accompanied by invasion of vein rocks of varying composition. The group-of older bodies (Stage I dikes) consist of diorites, granodiorites, granites, pegmatites, aplites, syenites and granosyenites. The younger (Stage II dikes) bodies consist of syenite porphyries, granite porphyries, quartz porphyries, diabasic porphyrites and spessartites. Among the Stage I rocks, the oldest are diorites. They are cut through by granodiorites which in turn are intruded by syenites and pegmatites. The thickness of the dikes varies from dozens of centimetres to 50-60 m, and their length from a few metres to 500-800 m. Most widespread among the Stage II dikes are diabase, andesite, diorite, quartz, and granite porphyries. Andesite and granite porphyries cut through diabases. Stage II dikes are concentrated mainly in the apical and endocontact parts of the intrusions and very rarely occur in the country rocks. The dikes are 0.2 to 30 m thick, and from 3-10 to 7 km in length. The Argandab Complex is considered to be of Oligocene age on the basis of the following data. The granitoid rocks assigned to the complex cut through pre-Paleozoic, Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks, including Lower Cretaceous, and through the volcanogenic rocks of the Eocene-Oligocene Tangai Series. The interrelationship of the intrusion with the Tangai Series volcanics has been noticed in the Saraw and Katalagh areas (144). The upper age limit of the complex is defined by the presence of Argandab granite pebbles in the Neogene conglomerates. The absolute ages of the rocks from the Argandab Complex are shown in Table 39. Helmand Complex This complex was identified by A.Ya. Kochetkov and S.S. Karapetov (206) and later studied by K.F. Stazhilo-Alekaeev et al.(142) and D.A.Starshinin et al. (155).It is found in the tectonic zone of the same 284

name. Three intrusive phases are isolated in the complex: Phase 1 - coarse-grained, often porphyritic granites and granodiorites; Phase 2 - medium- and fine-grained granites; Phase 3 - leucocratic and two-mica aplitic, occasionally pegmatoid granite. Granitoids of the complex form big batholith-like massifs: Beheud, Garinaw, Gizab, Nih and a number of minor stocks up to 20-25 sq km in area. These massifs are either lenticular or stock-like exhibiting complex contacts. They have a northwestern trend concordant with the general strike of the structural features of the area. Table 38
Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum Total

Chemical composition of some rock types from the Helmand and Argandab Complexes.
7 1 64.17 0.70 14.51 3.04 2.82 0.12 2.69 4.09 3.70 3.29 0.17 0.78 100 4 2 65.25 0.72 15.57 1.75 3.14 0.13 2.99 3.72 2.36 2.59 0.32 1.24 99.78 2 3 68.07 0.53 14.95 1.57 2.4 0.08 1.54 3.22 3.17 3.06 0.15 1.02 99.76 13 4 74.04 0.17 12.95 0.88 1.15 0.08 0.86 0.99 4.33 3.69 0.05 0.62 99.81 12 5 71.61 0.29 13.83 1.03 1.70 0.05 1.06 1.95 4.12 3.28 0.07 0.78 99.87 11 6 74.54 0.10 12.88 1.10 0.75 0.03 0.55 1.47 4.53 3.19 0.04 0.52 99.7 6 7 61.1 0.52 16.02 202 3.21 0.14 2.92 5.45 3.61 2.8 0.37 0.75 99.71 25 8 69.85 0.32 13.93 0.88 2.46 0.07 1.31 2.48 3.62 3.54 0.16 0.79 99.41 10 9 71.54 0.10 14.01 0.64 1.40 0.07 0.74 2.30 3.92 3.65 0.16 1.29 99.56 10 10 74.45 0.07 13.00 0.76 1.27 0.06 0.60 1.61 4.24 3.40 0.15 0.68 100.29

1-6 Argandab Complex (144). Phase 1 diorites, 2 quartz diorites, 3 granodiorites; Phase 2: 4 porphyritic granites, 5 granites; Phase 3: 6 leucocratic granites; 7-10 Helmand Complex (152). Phase 1: 7 quartz diorites, 8 granodiorites; Phase 2: 9 granites; Phase 3: 10 granites. Table 39
Series No.

Absolute ages of some rock types from the Argandab Complex.

Sample No. Rock Structure Age (mln years) Sample location (sheet no. of topographic map, scale 1:250,000

1 2 3 4 5 6

A-20a A-20b

Granite Granodiorite Granite Granite Granite Granodiorite

Bulk sample Bulk sample biotite Biotite Biotite biotite

106.90.8 69.01.5 89.420 66.010.0 142.012.0 153.020.0

606-B 515-C 515-C 515-C 515-C 509-F

285

A-4

Granite Granite

bulk sample biotite 365.0 61.0 515-C 515-C

A-5

Granite

A-5

Granite

K-feldspar

5310

10

A-5

Granite

biotite

665

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

A-19 A-19 3 T-5 1 2 3 4

Granite Microgranite Granite Granite Granite Granite Granite Granite

bulk sample biotite K-feldspar K-feldspar Bulk sample Bulk sample Bulk sample Bulk sample

213.010 69.02.0 53.010.0 50.0 75.0 71.0 78.02.3 83.02.4

514-F 514-F 515-C 514-E 519 519 Argandab Batholith Argandab Batholith

Behaud massif The Behaud massif occurs near the Behaud village on the left bank of the Helmand River and partly in the Logar River basin. It is exposed in two outcrops separated by a narrow barrier of the country rocks. The massif is 50 km long and 15 km wide. The southern portion of the massif intrudes Carboniferous-Permian quartziteschist and carbonate terrains, while in the Tezak area it cuts through the Eocene-Oligocene red volcanites, The northern contact of the massif with Proterozoic metamorphics is of injection type, sinous and steep. Garmaw massif The Garmaw massif in the basin of the Garmaw River is 70 km long and 7 to 12 km wide. The major portion of the massif lies in Proterozoic terrigeno-carbonate strata, and the smaller portion (at the upper reaches of the Garmaw River) in Carboniferous-Permian sandy-schist-carbonate strata. The northwestern contact of the massif is faulted, the south-eastern intrusive, dipping at 15-200 southeastwards. The Shekhristan massif is close to the village of the same name. Its extent is 40 km, its width - up to 16 km, and its area about 500 sq km. The massif cuts through Proterozoic terrigenous and Permian carbonateterrigenous strata. The intrusion is discordant and in place subconformable; the contacts dip at 20~60 off the massif. Gizab massif The Gizab massif, 450 sq km in area, occurs to the south of the Shekhristan massif. It mainly cuts through Proterozoic schists, but occasionally through Lower Permian quartz sandstones and schists. The contacts of the massif are low-angle (20-60), cross-cutting or subconformable. A section of the contact between the granite and Lower Permian quartz sandstones in the area of the Galpakhal village is of interest. S.S. Karapetov (206) depicted it as tranagressive, but according to D.A. Starshinin (155) it is intrusive. Here the massifs apophyses appear as embayments in the Permian quartz sandstones that locally have cavities with rock crystals. Andalusite has been found in the schists. Locally, the schists have been altered to form cordierite hornfels. Nili (Sangemon) massif The Nili (Sangemon) massif, 27 km long and up to 13 km wide, occurs in the valleys of the Hurdak and Tamazan rivers where it intrudes Upper Permian strata. Its contacts, apart from the western and southwestern ones, dip gently (25-30) beneath the massif -It is of interest, that the massif is surrounded by a fringe, 286

between 10 m and 1 km wide, of Upper Permian limestones. Locally this fringe is missing and the granites come into contact with Proterozoic sandstones and schists. The internal structure of the massifs from the Helmand Complex is comparatively simple: Phase 1 granites and granodiorites, forming lenticular bodies, stocks, veins and dikes, predominate in the area. The Nili massif is an exception in having a ring structure. Its central portion (40 sq. km) is a round stock composed of Phase 2 granite, while the marginal portion is composed of Phase 1 granodiorites. The veins, dikes and stocks of Phase 3 granites cut through the rocks of these two phases. Phase 1 granites and granodiorites are grey, light grey and pinkish porphyritic coarse-grained rocks consisting of K-feldspar (30 to 45%), quartz (25 to 35%), plagioclase (15 to 25%), biotite (5 to 8%, hornblende (1 to 3%), and accessory zircon, apatite, orthite, magnetite, with minor tourmaline and sphene. The rocks have a porphyritic hypidiomorphic granular texture with elements of poikilitic and granulitic texture. Microcline phenocrysts, a few millimetres to 10-15 cm. across, constitute as much as 40% of the rock volume. The groundmass is composed of microcline, oligoclase- andesine, quartz, biotite and. hornblende. Characteristic of the mafic minerals is their non-uniform distribution in the rocks; moreover, their accumulations, as well as magnetite grains, exhibit a subparallel arrangement, resulting in a kind of gneissose structure of the rocks. The granodiorites differ from the granites described above in their higher content of hornblende (up to 10%), composition of plagioclase (up to andesine - Nos 32-38) and their smaller amounts of quartz (up to 20%) and. K-feldspar (up to 15%). The granodiorites often grade into granosyenites with a granitic texture. They are composed of quartz (15 to 17%), oligoclase (20 to 25%), K-feldspar (35 to 40%), biotite (10 to 15%), hornblende (5 to 8%), sphene, apatite and zircon. Phase 2 granites compose stock-like bodies (15 to 80 sq. km in area ) inside the Shakrestan, Gizaw and Nili massifs. These are light grey, mediuin-grained rocks consisting of microcline (35 to 40%), Nos 12-24 plagioclase (15 to 40%), quartz (20 to 30%), biotite (3 to 7%), muscovite, and accessory orthite, zircon, apatite, sphene, magnetite and, sometimes, tourmaline. Quartz content in the granodiorites is lower (10 to 15%), while plagioclase is of Nos 22-30. The rocks have granitic and hypidiomorphic granular textures, locally with elements of micropegmatitic texture. In the Phase 1 rocks, the accessory minerals are: magnetite, zircon, apatite, garnet, sphene, orthite, ilmenite, pyrite, tourmaline, scheelite, cassiterite, rutile, anatase and thorite. In the Phase 2 rocks, the accessories are represented by magnetite, zircon, orthite, ilmenite, scheelite, cyrtolite, apatite, garnet, sphene, pyrite, cassiterite, tourmaline and thorite. Phase 3 leucocratic and two-mica granites make up stocks and veins. The biggest bodies (with an area up to 10 sq. km) have been found in the western portion of the Shakhrestan massif. To Phase 3 we have also assigned. the mica pegmatoid granites identified by D.A. Starshinin et al. (155) in the Uzmak Complex. The Phase 3 granites are light grey and grey-pinkish, fine- and medium-grained, occasionally pegmatoid rocks exhibiting granitic, hypidiomorphic granular, poikilitic and aplitic textures and consisting of microcline (40 to 50%), Nos 22-25 plagioclase (15 to 35%), quartz (20 to 30%), biotite (1 to 5%), muscovite (1 to 8%) and accessory apatite, zircon, magnetite, with minor sphene, tourmaline and cassiterite. The chemical composition of some rock types from the Helmand Complex is indicated in Table 30. Stage I and II dikes and veins assigned to the complex under consideration are rather numerous. Stage I veins and dikes are composed of pegmatites, aplites, fine-grained leucocratic and aplitic granites. As a rule, they are confined to the internal part of the intrusive bodies, except for the veins of rare-metal pegmatites which occur in the exocontact parts of the intrusions. The dikes are from 0.1-3 up to 10 or more metres thick and dozens to hundreds of metres long. They trend in a northeastern and northwestern direction and for the most part dip steeply. Of particular interest among the vein rocks are rare-metal pegmatites in the Tagawlor Field. Stage II dikes are granite porphyries, granodiorites, quartz diorite porphyries, plagiogranite porphyries, granosyenite porphyries, quartz albitophyres and lamprophyres (kersantites, spessarites, vogesites). A great number of dikes have been found. near the Tamazan village, and in the valleys of the Eskan, Safed Ghaw and other rivers. They are 2 to 5, more rarely 10 to 18 m thick, and vary in extent from several hundred metres to a few kilometres. 287

The exomorphic alterations of the country rocks consist in skarnization, silicification and the development of hornfels. The skein zones are up to several hundred metres long and up to 90 m wide. The skeins contain vesuviantite, garnet, pyroxene, chlorite, epidote, zoisite, carbonate and occasionally up to 6-8% scheelite. The Proterozoic schists are altered to quartz-plagioclase-biotite hornfels, while the Permian sandstones are altered to form quartzites. The cement in the sandstones is sericitized and muscovitized, and contains the newly-formed biotite, chlorite, tourmaline, apatite and zircon. Muscovitized. and scapolitized quartzandalusite rocks are encountered as well. Cordierite and. chiastolite appear in intercalations of coaly shales. Eocene-Oligocene effusive rocks lose their redstone features and acquire the green hue in the contact zone. They retain only the remnants of their porphyritic texture, whereas the groundmass is altered to form lepidogranuloblastictic aggregates of quartz, plagioclase, biotite and amphibole. Locally the volcanics underwent tourmalinization and quartz and potassic metasomatosis resulting in the micrographic texture of the groundmass. Rocks of the Helmand Complex are considered to be of Oligocene age since their massifs cut through all the formations, Eocene-Oligocene including. The absolute ages of some rock types from the Helmand Complex are given in Table 40. Table 40
Series No.

Absolute ages of some rocks types from the Helmand Complex.

Sample No. Phase Rock K-content Radioge nic argon content (ng/g) Age (mln years) Sample location (sheet No. of topographic map, scale 1:250,000)

1 2 3

991 3241 986

1 1 1

Quartz diorite Porphyritic granite Granodiorite

2.15 3.65 2.66

13.5 17.6 26.6

90 71 142

513-A 513-C 513-A

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

1005 T-3 2870/3 2894/6 T-4 1374 823 995 3 3121 1410 2548 94/1 3603

1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3

Porphyritic granite Granite Granite Granite Biotitic granite Biotitic granite Biotitic granite Biotitic granite Granite Granite Granite Granite Granite Granite

1.42 3.68 4.13 3.38 4.05 2.63 0.7 2.98 3.66 4.94 3.51 2.79

7.0 21.0 22.6 25.6 22.2 7.3 15.0 8.0 8.4 9.9 10.0 5.94

70 97 79 79 775 108 78 40 59 38 33 29 42 305

513-B 513-B 509-C 509-C 513-B 513-A 513-A 513--A 513-B 513-A 513-A 513-D 513-B 509-D

288

Granite Batholith Formation, Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass In this region Oligocene granitoids of the batholith formation constitute four complexes - Laghman, Bagharak, Wakhan and Mustag. Laghman Complex This is located in the Nurestan Fault Block and has been identified by V.P. Feoktistov and Sh.Sh. Denikayev (145). It has been studied by B.M. Narodny and S.L. Shvarkov (309) and later by L.N. Rossovsky (363) and O.N. Kabakov (186). The Laghman Complex comprises rocks of three intrusive phases: Phase 1 - diorites, quartz diorites, granodiorites and plagiogranites; Phase 2 - porphyritic biotite, amphibole- biotite granites and granodiorites; Phase 3 - two-mica and. biotitic granites, granite porphyries, aplitic and pegmatoid granites. Granitoids of the Laghman Complex make up big massifs that are elongated in a northeasterly direction and localized within Proterozoic and Carboniferous-Triassic gneiss-schist sequence. The biggest is the Alingar Batholith, which is a typical interformational body extending for 250 km from the Kabul River as far as the Zebak village. Its southern portion is 20 to 30 km wide, the middle portion is up to 50 km and the northern one - 10 to 20 km in width. The contacts of the massif are cross-cutting, sinuous and locally faulted. The eastern contact of the massif is of injection type with numerous apophyses. Generally, the contact plane dips at 5-70 off the massif or, more rarely, under the intrusion at a lower angle. Southeast of the Alingar Pluton two more big massifs are exposed - the Zebak and Langhar. The Zebak massif, about 400 sq. km in area, occurs almost entirely in Upper Triassic quartzite-shaly sequence. The massif is nearly isometric in shape and its contacts are sinuous. The Langhar massif (500 sq. km) is on the left bank of the Panj River, 7 to 15 km to the north of the Zebak massif. It cuts through Upper Triassic shales, and its northern portion is overthrusted by the gneissic strata of the South-West Pamir. In the area between the Zebak and Langhar massifs, the shale sequence is pervaded with numerous minor granite bodies and pegmatite veins. West of the Alingar Pluton on the right-hand bank of the Alingar River, there outcrops the Chomar massif, approximately 500 sq. km in area. It is 60 km long and 5 to 15 km wide. The Tor Ghar massif (about 350 sq. km) on the right- hand bank of the Kabul River has also been assigned to the Laghman Complex. In addition to the big massifs a large number of minor granitoid bodies are encountered, whose area varies from several square kilometers to 50-60 sq. km. According to their shape and structural position three types can be distinguished among them: (a) elongated, lenticular massifs confined to fractures; (b) stock-like isometrically shaped massifs; strongly elongated tabular bodes trending in parallel with the country rocks. These bodes are from a few kilometres up to 20-30 km long and from a few dozen metres to 5 km wide. They are grouped to form extensive injection-type zones of a northeasterly strike and occur mainly in Proterozoic metamorphic rock sequence, as well as in Upper Triassic strata. Phase 1 rocks compose a major portion of the Alingar Plutons northern half. They are diorites, quartz diorites, plagiogranites, tonalites, granodiorites and granosyenites. The diorites and quartz diorites occur primarily within the northern portion of the massif, on the right bank of the Sanglech River. In the Munjan River basin and on the right bank of the Anjoman River, granodiorites are the dominating rocks. Along the Munjan River, in the contact zones with roof pendants composed of limestones, hybrid granosyenites are often encountered. The diorites, quartz diorites and tonalites are middle-and coarse-grained. greenish-grey rocks exhibiting a panautomorphic-granular texture and a massive structure. They consist of Nos 20-25 to 40-50 plagioclase (60 to 70%), hornblende (10 to 30%), biotite (5 to 20%), quartz (5 to 20%), and accessory sphene, orthite, apatite, with less frequent zircon, and titanomagnetite. The granodiorites appear as fine- and mediumgrained, occasionally porphyritic rocks whose phenocrysts are composed of plagioclase. The rocks have a hypidiomorphic texture and the following mineral composition: Nos 25-40 plagioclase (50 to 60%), quartz (15 to 20%), K-feldspar (10 to 15%), biotite (10 to 15%) and hornblende (up to 5-10%, rarely up to 30%). The accessory minerals are represented by sphene, orthite, zircon, apatite, and cassiterite.

289

Plagioclase is fringed by albite and replaced by sericite, saussurite, epidote and clinozoisite. Microcline is perthitized, while biotite is chloritized. Phase 1 rocks are often~ highly microclinized and to a varying degree, silicified. Microcline is developed in the form of sizeable porphyroblasts enclosing quartz, biotite and plagioclase. The microcline content in some rocks is as high as 30 to 40%; in composition they correspond to granites, granosyenites and monzonites (depending on the quartz content), often undergoing intensive cataclasis which is accompanied by strong chloritization, sericitization and in places by carbonatization, epidotization, silicification and albitization. Phase 2 rocks compose the southern half of the Alingar pluton, as well as the numerous minor bodies in its northern part. They likewise almost entirely compose the Zebak, Langhar and Tor Ghar massifs. The rocks are coarse and medium-grained often porphyritic granites, granodiorites and plagiogranites. The granites with 10 to 30% microcline phenocrysts have hypidiomorphic and porphyritic textures. The matrix consists of quartz (25 to 30%), microcline (30 to 40%), Nos. 15-25 plagioclase (20 to 30%), biotite (5 to 15%) and hornblende (up to 5%) with accessory orthite, sphene, zircon, apatite, cassiterite and titanomagnetite. In contrast to granites the granodiorites contain similar amounts of K-feldspar and quartz, more basic plagioclase and are characterized by a somewhat higher biotite and amphibole content. The plagiogranites make up small massifs on the left bank of the Panjsher River. The rocks have a hypidiomorphic-granular texture and the following mineral composition: plagioclase (50 to 60%), quartz (30 to 40%), biotite (10 to 15%), and accessory sphene, apatite and less common zircon. Along fault zones, Phase 2 rocks have undergone intensive cataclasis (Tor Ghar, Langhar massifs) and exhibit mortar, cataclastic and blastoclastic textures and augen-schistose, occasionally coarsely augen structures. The orientation of the feldspar insets is subparallel resulting in a characteristic gneiss appearance of the rocks. Silicification, chloritization and sericitization of the rocks were noticed. Phase 3 rocks make up small elongated injection bodies (10-15 x 2 km), dome-shaped massifs (lxl.5-10 km) and interformational intrusions. Granites appear as fine- and medium-grained rocks with massive or gneissose structures. These rocks are characterized by transitional textures (from granoblastic to granitic); metasomatic textures similar to aplitic and poikilitic are quite common too. The rocks consist of microcline (30 to 50%), quartz (25 to 30%), plagioclase (up to 20%), biotite plus muscovite (5 to 10%), and accessory apatite, zircon, monazite, orthite, cassiterite, tourmaline and garnet. The pegmatoid granites are inequigranular fairly often of banded structure. They are composed of alternating fine- to medium- and coarse-grained quartz and feldspar aggregates that contain schorl, garnet and, occasionally, beryl. The granites are often albitized. The granite porphyries appear as light grey rocks exhibiting a porphyritic texture and a microgranitic, aplitic, graphic, in places spherulitic texture of the groundmass. Phenocrysts are represented by plagioclase and, more rarely, by quartz and K-feldspar. The groundmass consists of quartz, Kfeldspar, plagioclase, chlorite, epidote and clinozoisite. Phase 3 rocks have undergone strong potassic metosomatosis, silicification and muscovitization. The presence of the following accessory minerals has been ascertained in the rocks of the complex: Phase 1 - apatite, orthite, zircon, garnet, cassiterite, galenite, spherulite, pyrite, monazite, barite and sillimanite; Phase 2 - magnetite, apatite, orthite, zircon, garnet, ilmenite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, barite, sillimanite, cassiterite, galenite, spherulite, tantalito-columbite, rutile, sphene and monazite; Phase 3 - tourmaline, apatite, orthite, zircon, garnet, barite, sillimanite, magnetite, ilmenite, cassiterite, galenite, spherulite, sphene and monazite.. A characteristic feature of the Laghman Complex is its association with numerous pegmatite veins, some of which show evidence of rare-metal mineralization. The rare-metal pegmatites are genetically related to the Phase 3 granites (364, 365). Spessartite and diorite porphyry dikes, 3 to 20 m thick and of a roughly N-S strike, are confined to Phase 1 intrusions and occur on the right-hand bank of the Munjan and Sangleh rivers. The average chemical composition of the rocks assigned to the Laghman Complex is given in Table 41.

290

Table 41
Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O5 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total:

Average chemical composition of the rocks from the Laghinan and Bagarak complexes.
9 4 4 19 15 1 5 4 6

1 60.80 0.98 13.57 2.88 4.54 0.13 4.15 4.54 2.69 1.99 0.22 2.30 99.79

2 68.02 0.58 14.58 0.99 2.72 0.09 1.94 3.77 3.34 2.81 0.12 1.02 99.98

3 68.60 0.67 16.60 0.69 3.11 0.06 1.11 3.37 1.94 2.12 0.82 0.75 99.84

4 69.53 0.55 14.32 0.61 2.86 0.08 1.35 2.46 3.70 3.28 0.22 0.5 99.50

5 70.78 0.38 14.36 0.46 2.43 0.06 1.43 2.12 3.72 3.34 0.2 0.62 99.90

6 58.89 1.44 15.32 1.38 5.32 0.15 4.80 6.72 1.92 2.64 0.02 0.76 99.36

7 68.01 0.44 14.65 2.43 2.72 0.06 1.08 2.88 4.04 3.32 0.12 1.21 99.75

8 72.12 0.42 13.74 0.06 2.05 0.03 1.15 1.8 4.43 3.14 0.09 0.42 100.96

9 73.38 0.16 14.26 0.51 0.9 0.0 0.40 1.14 4.85 3.87 0.05 0.47 100.00

Laghman Complex (146, 151). Phase 1: 1 - diorites, 2 - granodiorites; Phase 2: 3 - granodiorites, 4 - granites, Phase 3: 5 - granites. Bagarak Complex (154, 173). Phase 1: 6 - diorites; Phase 2: 7 - granodiorites; Phase 3: 8 - granites, 9 granite veins. The exomorphic alterations become apparent in different ways, depending on the features of the country rocks. Proterozoic quartzite-gneiss beds have undergone strong microclinization, silisification, muscovitization and migmatization resulting in metasomatic rocks with a granitic composition. In the carbonate-terrigenous sequence knotted schists as well as hornfels containing andalusite, garnet, staurolite, epidote, albite and biotite of Carboniferous- Triassic age are developed. The carbonate rocks become marbled and skarnified. Locally the rocks exhibit strong tourmalinization. In the endocontact and, frequently, the central portions of the big massifs, numerous country rock xenoliths as well as roof pendants are encountered. The rocks of the Laghman Complex are provisionally dated as the Oligocene, with due regard for the majority of the absolute ages (Table 42). Some investigators consider them to be Early Cretaceous (151). In the USSR, a group of the Namangut massifs on the southern margin of the Archean sequence of the South-West Pamir is a direct extension of the massifs assigned to the Laghman Complex.

291

Table 42
Series No.

Absolute Complex ages of some rock types from the Laghman.

Sample No. Rock Type of sample K content (%) Radiogenic argon content (ng/g) Age Sample location (sheet no. topographic map scale 1:250,000)

2 1 D-19b

3 Granodiorite

4 Bulk sample

5 RubidiumStrontium method

7 93

8 224-C

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

D-.19a

Granodiorite Granite Hematite Granite Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite

Bulk sample biotite microcline biotite muscovite muscovite muscovite muscovite biotite bulk sample bulk sample Muscovite Muscovite Muscovite spodumene, quartz, albite 4.24 3.38 8.46 8.59 8.45 0.19 14.6 33 45.2 57.0 47.8 1.61

86.0 30.70.4 26.4 33.00.4 39.30.8 21.00.3 24.50.6 26.60.7 119.0 50.0 140.0 75.0 95.0 81.0 120.0

224-C 511-C 511-C 511-C 511C 510-C 510-C 510-C 510-C 319-A 224-C 224-D 224-D 224-D 504-D

2365 2930/1 204 4042 4043 4034

Granite Granite Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite

17

4201

Pegmatite

spodumene, quartz, albite

8.57

13.6

23.0

504--F

18 19

4062 4200

Greisen Pegmatite

spodumene, quartz, albite spodumene, quartz, albite

8.11 8.31

31.8 19.6

57.0 35.0

511-A 510-D

292

20 21 22 23

4073 4071 4033 4035

Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite

spodumene, quartz, albite spodumene, quartz, albite microcline lepidolite

5.02 4.86 10.5 7.98

10.25 9.09 17.2 11.1

29.0 27.06.0 23.0 21.0

511-C 505-A 505-E 511-B

24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

4042 4071-1 526 4047 4037 4073-1 542 4043 4040 4144 4060 4062 4200 4035 513a

Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite Pegmatite Greisen Pegmatite Pegmatite Granite

lepidolite lepidolite, albite lepidolite, albite microcline lepidolite lepidolite Microcline Lepidolite bulk sample bulk sample bulk sample bulk sample muscovite spodumene, albite bulk sample

5.12 4.08 3.78 9.69 8.74 5.0 11.65 7.54 2.63 0.57 1.83 5.66 8.0 0.29 3.21

5.71 7.8 11.9 40.5 16.0 20.0 21.4 27.4 18.7 6.3 51.7 31.2 33.6 3.79 9.0

16.5 28.0 46.0 60.0 26.0 57.0 26.0 52.0 102.0 153.0 375.0 91.0 60.0 183.0 40.0

505-E 505-A 505-A . 511 511-B 511-0 505-E 505-E 505-E 224 511-A 511-A 510-D 505-C 505-F

Bagharak Complex This complex was identified by G.G. Semionov et al. (141) and described in the papers by V.M. Moraliov et al. (351), L.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154), Sh.Sh. Denikayev et el. (151), L.N. Rossovsky et al. (363). It is represented by the sizeable interformational pluton which occurs in between the Nakhchirpar Zone and the Babakbshan Fault Block.The pluton is 120 km long and 10 to 30 km wide with a north-westerly strike. In the west and northwest it cuts through the Upper Triassic-Middle Jurassic sandstones end shales, in the east and northeast it intrudes the Archean metamorphites. The northwestern contact of the pluton is intrusive and dips S-E at 55-60 in the drainage basins, of the Pile and Shakhdarrah river; and at 45 near the Bagharak village. The south-eastern contact of the pluton is of injection type. The Bagharak Complex comprises rocks of three intrusive phases: Phase 1 - gabbros, gabbro-diorites and diorites; Phase 2 - granites, granodiorites; Phase 3 - two-mica granites. Phase 1 rocks compose several small lenticular bodies, up to 7 km long and 150 to 700 m wide which occur in the granites, Gabbros and gabbro-diorites are medium-grained massive rocks consisting of variable amounts of clinopyroxene and plagioclase (Nos 34-43) with accessory ilmenite, titano-magnetite and apatite. The texture is gabbroic and allotriomorphic-granular. The diorites are composed of No. 30 plagioclase (up to 45%), amphibole (40%), biotite (10%) and accessory sphene and apatite. The rocks have a hypidiomorphic and panautomorphic-granular texture. Phase 2 granites and granodiorites compose a considerable portion of the Bagharak massif. These are grey medium-and coarse-grinned rocks with a porphyritic texture and granitic groundmass. The rocks consist of 293

No.s 18-38 plagioclase (15 to 45%), microcline (35 to 40%), quartz (20 to 30%), biotite (8 to 10%), and accessory apatite, sphene and zircon. Plagioclase is replaced by sericite, saussurite, zoisite, epidote and carbonate, and biotite is replaced by chlorite, epidote and zoisite. Some of the rock varieties contain hornblende. In places, the rocks have undergone mylonitization and recrystallization. In such cases, they have a gneissoid and augen structure and a mortar, blastomylonitic and blastogranitic texture. Phase 3 two-mica granites are not widespread. They form irregularly shaped massifs and isometric stocks confined to the northern portion of the batholith and occupy an area of 30 to 40 sq km. Macroscopically, these are gneissose or massive rocks. They differ from biotitic granites in their somewhat higher K-feldspar content (40 to 50%), in the presence of large (up to 4 mm.) muscovite flakes and smaller amounts of biotite (up to 4-5%). The rocks exhibit microperthitic and myrmekitic textures. The following accessory minerals have been identified in the rocks of this complex: Phase 1 - ilmenite, zircon, apatite, sphene, sillimanite, orthite, cassiterite, galenite, pyrite, garnet, rutile, uranothorite; Phase 2 ilmenite, zircon, apatite, orthite, sillimanite, cassiterite, magnetite, galenite, sphalerite, pyrite, garnet, rutile, sphene, uranothorite; Phase 3 - ilmenite, zircon, apatite, cassiterite, pyrite, magnetite, galenite, tourmaline, and garnet. In the chemical composition (Table 41) the rocks from the Bagharak Complex have much in common with the rocks of the Laghman Complex. Aplite, pegmatite, granodiorite porphyry, and microdiorite veins and dikes, up to 0.5 in thick and changeable along the strike, are associated with granitoids of the Bagharek Complex. Fields of rare-metal pegmatites are associated with the Phase 3 two-mica granites of the Bagharak Complex (364, 365). The exomorphic alterations of the country rocks have resulted in staurolite and quartzchlorite schists. The emplacement of granitoids assigned to the Bagharak Complex was stimulated by the Oligocene tectonomagmatic activation. The absolute ages of the rocks from the Bagharak Complex have been placed at 19.5, 23.0 and 32.0 m.y. by Rb-Sr determinations. These ages correspond to the Oligocene or even Miocene. The Khorog massif occurring in the USSR inbetween the Archean sequence of the South-West Pamir and Carboniferous-Triassic strata of the Central Pamir and Rushan-Pshart Zone, is a direct continuation of the Bagharak massif. Wakhan Complex This complex has been distinguished by A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (200) within the zone of the same name. On the territory of the Soviet South-East Pamir, it is known as the Alichur Complex (73, 295). The massifs of the complex, whose area totals 300 sq. km, occur in Carboniferous-Triassic terrigenous sequence. Their contacts with the country rocks are universally intrusive and steep; only in places where the massifs retain relics of their roof the contacts are subhorizontal. The Wakhan Complex comprises rocks of predominantly granodioritic composition locally transitional to diorites and quartz diorites. Granodiorites of a hypidiomorphic texture are composed of plagioclase (40 to 50%), quartz (15 to 20%), K-feldspar (20%), biotite (5 to 10%), amphibole (up to 5%), and accessory zircon and apatite. The plagioclases (Nos. 23-40) are zonal, being slightly sericitized and saussuritized, and frequently overgrown with K-feldspar. Microcline forms large crystals containing poikilitic inclusions of other minerals and it is slightly perthitized. Biotite is replaced by chlorite, and hornblende by actinolite. The quartz diorites and diorites are characterized by a panautomorphic-granular texture and consist of plagioclase(60%), amphibole (10%), biotite (10 to 20%), quartz (5 to 20%), K-feldspar (1 to 3%), with accessory sphene, magnetite, apatite and zircon. Characteristic of the metasomatic quartz rnonzonites, quartz syenites and granosyenites are elements of a monzonitic texture and a rather high (up to 50-60%) content of K-feldspar. The accessory minerals identified. in the rocks of the Wakhan Complex are ilmenite, sphene, apatite, fluorite, pyrite, magnetite, pyrrhotite, zircon, garnet, scheelite and molybdenite. The formation of the Wakhan Complex was completed with the emplacement of diorite, syenite, granosyenite, granite porphyry and lamprophyre dikes, which occur mainly in the intrusive massifs. The diorite dikes, up to 250 m long and up to 30 m thick, are occasionally encountered in the exocontact zone, at 294

a distance of several hundred metres from the contact. The chemical composition of some rock types from the Wakhan Complex is shown in Table 43. The contact alterations in shales gave rise to hornfels which farther from the contact grades into spotted slates. The Wakhan granitoid massif on the territory of the USSR, and the group of Aidynkul, Dzhamansura and other massifs, which intrude not only Carboniferous-Triassic strata, but Jurassic beds as well, represent direct continuation of the massif assigned to the Wakhan Complex. Mustag Complex Mustag Complex has been described by A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (200). The complex comprises a number of massifs in the Wakhan Zone (the Wakhan-Pamir interfluve). The biggest massif composes the western spurs of the Mustag Range and is the western extension of the pluton which occurs on the territory of the USSR and China. The massif intrudes carbonacete teterrigenous sequence of Carboniferous-Triassic age. The contacts are intrusive, steep, locally conformable and relatively gentle (<60). The complex is made up of coarse- and medium-grained porphyritic granites and granodiorites that have hypidiomorphic- granular, blastogranitic and porphyritic textures. These rocks consist of microcline-perthite (25 to 35%), Nos 23-33 plagioclase (25 to 35%), quartz (20 to 30%), biotite (7 to 10%), muscovite (2 to 3%) and accessory apatite and sphene. Plagioclase is chloritized and replaced by K-feldspar, sericite and biotite. The granosyenites, quartz syenites and monzonites have apparently been formed owing to a more recent potassic metasomatosis. They have a blastogranitic texture and consist of K-feldspar (55 to 60%), plagioclase (10 to 15%), quartz (12 to 20%) biotite (5 to 85%), muscovite (3 to 5%), apatite, monazite, zircon and tourmaline. It is noteworthy that these rock types are confined to the zones of a profound cataclasis. The vein rocks are represented by granodiorite porphyries, granite porphyries, pegmatites and aplites which occur in the exocontact zones of the massif. Table 43
Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total: 1 73.48 0.15 13.19 0.77 1.36 0.01 0.78 1.74 4.45 3.08 0.67 0.56 100.20

Chemical composition of some rock types from the Mustag, Shewa and Wakhan complexes.
4 1 2 4 14 2

2 68.40 0.63 14.11 0.95 3.10 0.02 1.27 4.58 2.50 2.39 0.43 1.61 99.99

3 70.8 0.32 13.48 0.53 2.29 0.01 1.11 2.96 4.40 3.05 0.52 0.67 100.10

4 53.37 1.2 14.26 7.49 1.92 0.10 5.88 9.55 2.00 2.55 0.76 1.06 100.10

5 53.91 0.85 17.5 7.37 0.6 0.07 2.40 1.70 5.35 2.89 0.45 6.65 99.74

6 70.75 0.35 14.4 1.82 1.06 0.02 0.72 2.55 2.91 4.81 0.12 0.52 100.03

7 69.12 0.39 14.33 0.47 2.42 0.03 1.72 4.12 3.56 2.93 0.34 0.87 100.30

8 62.27 0.57 14.08 0.65 5.05 0.03 4.02 6.47 2.68 2.72 0.31 0.97 99.83

295

Mustag complex (200): 1 - granites, 2 - granodiorites, 3 -granites, 4 - monzonites; Shewa Complex (154, 351): 5 -syenodiorites, 6 - granites; Wakhan Complex (200): 7 - granodiorites, 8 - quartz diorites. The exomorphic alterations of the country rocks have resulted in the formation of hornfels and knotted schists. On the territory of the USSR, the Ortokaraldzhilgin massif of the South-West Pamir is a direct extension of the massifs assigned to the Mustag Complex. It invades the Eocene-Oligocene volcanics of the Tashiktash Series and is thus referable to the Oligocene. Thus there is every reason to assume that all the massifs of the Mustag Complex are of Oligocene age. The available absolute ages of the rocks from the Mustag Complex are 39, 69 and. 64 mln years. The age of 39 m.y. is consistent with the Oligocene, while the other two are indicative of the Paleocene.

Granite Batholith Formation, Afghanistan-South Pamir Region Shewa Complex This complex incorporates the granitoid massifs of the Shewa Zone. The relevant information on them can be found in the papers by A. Dezio et al, (59, 64), G.G. Semionov et al. (141), V.M. Moraliov et al. (351) and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154). Two spatially disconnected groups of massifs, namely the southern and the northern groups are distinguishable. The southern group includes several massifs, the largest of which are the Syah Jar and Tagarcha. The Syah Jar massif in the watershed area of the Syah Jar and Tagarcha rivers covers over 50 sq km and is stockshaped. The Tagarcha massif occurs in the surroundings of the Tagarcha village. Being lenticular and elongated, the massif is oriented in a north-southerly direction. It is 12 km long and 2.5 to 3 km wide. The intrusions of the southern group cut through the carbonate and terrigenous deposits of Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic and Jurassic ages. The massifs are composed of rocks of two phases. Phase 1 is represented by diorites, quartz diorites and granodiorites of the Tagarcha massif. These are medium- occasionally coarsegrained, light grey, massive rocks consisting of plagioclase (40 to 65%), K-feldspar (5 to 18%), quartz (5 to 25%), biotite (8 to 15%), hornblende (5 to 15%), and accessory apatite, zircon and magnetite. The rocks of the Syah Jar massif are assigned to Phase 2. These are mainly porphyritic amphibole-bearing granites, as well as medium-grained biotitic granites and granodiorites. The porphyritic granites are grey mediumgrained rocks whose insets are plagioclase, quartz and, less frequently, microcline. The groundmass is hypidiomorphic-granular and consists of microcline-perthite (up to 45%), quartz (up to 30%), albiteoligoclase (up to 35%), hornblende (up to 8%), and accessory apatite, sphene, zircon and titanomagetite. It may well be that the biotitic granites represent the exomorphic facies of the massif. They are not porphyritic and instead of hornblende contain biotite. The northern group of massifs from the complex under consideration encompasses these near the Shewa River mouth. The massifs are oriented northeasterly, concordantly with the general strike of the geological structures and extend for a few hundred metres to several kilometres. The massifs are made up of biotitic and two-mica granites. The biotitic granites are medium- end fine-grained grey rocks consisting of K-feldspar (40 to 45%), plagioclase (15 to 25%), quartz (25- to 30%), biotite (4 to 5%), and accessory apatite and zircon. The rocks have a hypidiomorphic granular texture. The two-mica granites appear as fine-grained, occasionally aplitic light grey rocks with the following mineral composition: K-feldspar (30 to 35%), quartz (30%), plagioclase (20 to 25%), biotite (3 to 4%), and muscovite (2 to 3%). K-feldspar is represented by anorthoclase, replaced by chessboard and striated albite. Plagioclase is represented by oligoclase and more rarely, andesine (Nos 2937), the accessories being sphene and apatite. The chemical composition of the rocks from the Shewa Complex is indicated in Table 43. The dikes and veins are made up of aplites, pegmatites, granite porphyries and granites. Pegmatites occur on the left bank of the Shewa River within the exocontact zones of the granitic massifs, which cover an area of about 5 sq km. The thickness of individual pegmatite veins varies from several centimetres to 5 metres, while 296

the length is between 200 and 300 m. The pegmatite veins have a complex, zonal structure and contain a considerable amount of black tourmaline and. muscovite. The exomorphic alterations have resulted in the development of hornfels in the terrigenous rocks and skarns in the limestones. The terrigenous rocks have been altered to form quartz-biotite-andalusite and quartz-biotitecordierite types of hornfels. The skarn bodies are up to 3 m thick and up to 100 m long. The thickness of skarn zones amounts to several dozen metres, Skarns are composed of garnet, actinolite, plagioclase, pyroxene, quartz, magnetite, carbonate and chlorite. Purely garnetiferous or magnetitic skarns are quite common. Rocks of the Shewa Complex are provisionally dated Oligocene by analogy with the Paleogene granites in the basins of the Wanch and Yazgul rivers in the Central Pamir (73).

Granite Batholith Formation, Suleiman-Kirthar Area Within this area granitoids of the Oligocene batholithic formation have a restricted distribution, being associated with uplifts of the old basement. Baraki Complex This is identified in the southern portion of the Kabul Stable Mass and has been described by Sh.Sh. Denikaev et al. (145) and Yu.I. Shcherbina et al. (381). The massifs of the Baraki Complex cut through Proterozoic, Carboniferous-Permian and. Eocene strata and have the northeasterly trend. The biggest Awdarakh massif occurs within the meander of the Maydan River, south of the Awdarakh village. The massif is 11 km long and 1.7 km wide. The country rocks are pervaded by granite veins 0.2-2.0 up to 15-20 m and, more rarely, 50-100 m thick and a few dozen metres to several kilometres long. The internal structure of the massifs is rather uniform: all are made up of granites and granodiorites which locally contain xenoliths of quartz diorites and the country rocks. The granites and granodiorites appear as medium- and coarse-grained porphyritic rocks, sometimes with a gneissose structure. The texture is porphyritic and the groundmass hypidiomorphic granular and blastocataclastic. The insets (0.5 to 7.0 mm in size) are plagioclase, microcline and, less frequently, quartz. The matrix consists of plagioclase (30 to 40%), quartz (20 to 40%), microcline (up to 30%), biotite (10 to 15%) and muscovite (up to 5%). Plagioclase (Nos 8-25) is replaced by carbonate, saussurite and sericite. The rocks contain microdine poikiloblasts with plagioclase inclusions. Biotite is replaced by muscovite. The accessory minerals are: sphene, apatite, xenotime, cordierite and garnet. Generally, rocks of the Baraki Complex are characterized by features of cataclasis and recrystallization to the extent that the rocks are transformed into blastomylonites. The rocks are highly albitized and microclinized; epidotization and. chloritization can also be noted. The vein rocks form thin, relatively rare veins and dikes of granite porphyries, aplites, pegmatites and lamprophyres. The exomorphic alterations are manifested in the development of hornfels in the country schistose rocks. The rocks of the Baraki Complex have been provisionally dated as the Oligocene by correlating them with the Oligocene intrusions of other complexes.

Miocene Intrusions
The intrusive rocks of Miocene age occur all over Afghanistan. They form small intrusions which may be traced back to the period of the general tectono-magmatic activity in the country end within the adjacent territories of the Central and West Asia. The Miocene intrusions exposed in Afghanistan have been assigned to seven regional complexes, viz., the Share Arman, Marguzor, Barkar, Ghurdzanak, Dobandi, Naserqu and Lora Rod. These have been dated as the Miocene due to the fact that their massifs cut through all stratified and intrusive formations of the country, inducing the Oligocene.

297

Platform of Northern Afghanistan Within the Northern Afghanistan Platform, two complexes of the Miocene intrusions - Share Arisen and Marguzor have been identified. Their interrelationships have not so far been ascertained. The Share Arman Complex is tentatively considered to be older than the Marguzor. Share Arman Complex This complex has been identified by V.I. Dronov and S.M. Kalimulin (94, 147) and. later studied by Yu.I. Shcherbina et al.(382). It includes a group of small massifs cutting through the Sedimentary Cover of the platform and consisting of rocks produced by two intrusive phases. Phase 1 is represented by diorite and quartz diorite porphyries, granodiorite porphryries, monzonite porphyries, syenite porphyries, grancayenites and quartz syenites. Phase 2 is represented by granite and quartz porphyries which sometimes become transitional to granodiorite porphyries and plagiogranite porphyries. The massifs of the Share Arman Complex are grouped. together in a fairly narrow elongated belt stretching for 150 km from the south-west to the northeast. Structurally, these intrusions are confined to the gently sloping rampart-like uplift of the Folded Basement that runs diagonally through the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block. Within the Sedimentary Cover of the platform, the massifs appear as small (3-6, rarely up to 30 sq.km) isometric stocks accompanied. by the resultant dome-shaped anticlinal folds. In the Folded Basement (the Share Arman and other areas), the morphology of the intrusive bodies is more varied. In addition to stocks there occur lenticular and sheet-like slightly disconformable bodies a few dozen metres thick. In the Hari Rod and Darrah-i-Takht interfluve, a big (over 30 km long) sheet body is exposed. In most massifs of the Share Armen Complex, Phase 1 rocks predominate. These are diorite and quartzdiorite porphyries, granodiorite porphyries, as well as monzonite and syenite porphyries interrelated by gradual transitions. The diorite porphyries have a porphyritic texture and a microprismatic, occasionally microallotriomorphic granular texture of the groundmass. The insets constitute from 20-25% up to 60% of the rock volume and are represented by plagioclase, amphibole and, more rarely, pyroxene. Plagioclase (Nos 35-40) is replaced by sericite, calcite, epidote and albite. Hornblende is strongly or completely replaced by chlorite or carbonate. The groundmass consists of plagioclase (up to 60-70%) mafic minerals, quartz, Kfeldspar and accessory sphene, apatite and zircon. The granodiorite porphyries are very similar to the diorite porphyries described. Unlike the diorite porphyries, they contain large amounts of K-feldspar and quartz; of the mafic minerals either biotite or amphibole predominate The plagioclase is represented by Nos 25-30 variety. The accessory mineral assemblages are the same as in the diorite porphyries. The granosyenites and quartz syenites are medium-grained, hypidiomorphic or, occasionally, slightly porphyritic pinkish-grey rocks composed predominantly of plagioclase and K-feldspars with minor quartz (5 to 15%), clinopyroxene, common hornblende and biotite (15-20 up to 35%). K-feldspar either predominates over plagioclase or its percentage is almost equal to that of plagioclase. The accessory minerals are represented by sphene and apatite. The monzonite and syenite porphyries appear as medium- grained grey pinkish rocks whose phenocrysts are K-Ra-feldspars. The rocks are characterized by the predominance of red- brownish hornblende over green hornblende. In the endocontact parts the groundmass of the rocks is very poorly crystallized and the resultant textures are micro-felsitic and spherulitic. The rocks are very similar to quartz porphyries. Phase 1 rocks from the Share Arman Complex contain the following accessory minerals: magnetite, apatite, sphene, orthite, zircon, columbite, rutile and monazite. The exomorphic alterations in the country rocks resulting from emplacement of Phase 1 intrusions are Rather indistinct and manifest themselves as the formation of quartz-biotite and quartz-hornblende hornfels, epidotehematite skarns and marbles after limestones. The width of the contact metamorphism zone varies from a few metres to 80-150 is. 298

Phase 2 rocks make up the southern portion of the Okhankoshan massif, as well as the minor sheet-like bodies in the Rakhna, Haftod Chashma and other massifs. Most widespread among Phase 2 rocks are granite porphyries and quartz porphyries, while plagiogranite porphyries and granodiorite- porphyries are less frequently encountered. All these rock types exhibit gradual transitions of one into another. Macroscopically the granite porphyries and quartz porphyries are light grey, compact rocks with a porphyritic texture and microfelsitic and mioroallotriomorphic granular groundmass. Their phenocrysts are plagioclase (up to 65%), K-feldspar (up to 15%) and quartz (30 to 60%). Nos 10-28 plagioclase is saussusiritized and sericitized. K-feldspar is almost entirely replaced by kaolin. Amphibole phenocrysts completely replaced by carbonate and chlorites are very rare. The groundmass is a fine- grained aggregate of quartz, plagioclase and K-feldspar subject to intensive kaolinization, sericitization, carbonatization and chloritization. Most widespread opaque, minerals are pyrite and, less frequently, hematite and magnetite. In composition, the granodiorite and plagiogranite porphyries are similar to quartz porphyries and granite porphyries, but they differ from the latter in their lower content of quartz and K-feldspar and higher- content of Nos 25-30 plagioclase. Among the mafic minerals, amphibole is most frequent, being commonly completely replaced by epidote and chlorite. A specific feature of Phase 2 rocks is a1bitization- silicification, chloritization, sericitization, kaolinization, as well as hematitization and pyritization. The contact metamorphism of the country rocks is very slight resulting in the development of hornfels, a slight biotitization and silicification of sandstones and conglomerates, as well as marmorization and weak silicification of limestones. Xenoliths are altered to quartz, biotite and other hornfels varieties, and also to epidotic, garnet-epidote and magnetite-haematite skeins. The composition of the vein rocks is indistinguishable from that of the Phase 1 and 2 rocks. The veins consist of diorite porphyries, granodiorite and granosyenite porphyries and are 0.5-1.0 m, locally up to 100 m thick and from a few metres to 600 m long. In addition to the dikes mentioned above there are also diabase and lamprophyre tabular bodies and dikes occurring in Triassic terrigenous strata. Table 44 Chemical composition of some rock types from the Share Arman, Lola Rod and Naserqu Complexes.
Number of analyses 11 1 2 1 1 1 3 2 4

Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total:

1 62.35 0.50 16.22 1.44 2.73 0.21 2.19 4.51 3.57 3.66 0.24 2.05 99.67

2 59.10 0.42 12.50 1.98 2.07 0.13 8.00 3.82 2.75 2.35 0.22 6.19 99.53

3 62.70 0.43 16.50 1.70 2.70 0.19 1.50 3.80 3.40 4.80 0.19 1.90 99.81

4 66.55 0.27 15.01 1.62 0.42 0.03 0.04 0.76 11.88 1.58 0.81 0.65 99.62

5 60.58 0.66 15.85 1.43 2.29 0.21 1.40 4.47 3.12 7.36 0.23 3.10 99.60

6 53.02 0.60 15.01 5.20 2.82 0.21 2.82 6.47 3.98 3.44 0.44 5.53 99.54

7 68.22 0.18 15.42 1.65 2.01 0.02 1.88 2.88 1.08 4.44 0.07 1.65 99.50

8 63.96 0.85 14.09 0.08 3.58 0.07 2.35 3.52 2.96 5.60 0.02 2.42 99.50

9 47.84 1.24 11.45 2.58 7.17 0.14 15.95 5.83 2.3 0.72 0.21 4.07 99.50

299

Share Arman Complex (147, 382): 1 - granodiorite porphyries, 2 - diorite porphyries, 3 - granosyenite porphyries, 4 - granosyenite porphyries, 5 - syenite porphyry dikes, 6 - monzonite porphyries; Lola Rod Complex (222, 371): 7 - plagioporphyries; Naserqu Complex (88): 8 - granodiorite porphyries; 9 - gabbrodiabases Marguzor Complex This has been isolated by V.I. Dronov and S.M. Kalimulin (94, 147). The complex includes numerous dikes of diabase and diorite porphyries, from a few centimetres up to several metres thick and several dozen to hundreds of metres long. These dikes strike in different directions cutting through the pre-Neogene cover of the Northern Afghanistan Platform. They represent the youngest intrusives of Northern Afghanistan. So far they have not been thoroughly studied.

South Afghanistan Median Mass In the South Afghanistan Median Mass two igneous complexes Barkar and Gursalag - of Miocene age have been recognized. As yet their interrelationships have not been ascertained. Barkar Complex This complex was distinguished by A.Ya. Kochetkov and S.S. Karapetov (206) and later studied by D.A. Starshinin et al. (155). It is represented by a single stock-like Barkar massif which is exposed in the Helmand Zone. The Barkar Massif of isometrical outlines and 50 sq km in area intrudes Upper Proterozoic sandy-schistic sequence and Permian beds that overlie it unconformably. The massif comprises rocks resulted from two phases of igneous activity. Most widespread are Phase 1 rocks represented by trachytoid medium-grained hornblende and biotite-hornblende syenites with characteristic banded structure. The content of mafic minerals is variable: in the leucocratic varieties, it amounts to 3 to 5%, whereas in the melanocratic it reaches 10-15%. The rocks consist of microcline-perthite, acidic plagioclase, biotite, alkaline amphibole, and garnet. In addition, the melanocratic varieties contain pyroxene of the aegirine-augite type. The secondary minerals are cancrinite, zeolites and epidote, the accessories being magnetite, apatite, zircon, sphene and arsenopyrite. In syenites, there are schlieren- like segregations of the medium-grained melanocratic rocks with a composition very similar to that of gabbro syenites or shonkinites. They have a gabbroic texture and consist of plagioclase (40 to 45%), K-feldspar (40 to 45%), semi-alkaline hornblende (4 to 5%), 6 to 8% titanaugite transitional to aegirine-augite and overgrown with the aegirine rim, and sphene (2 to 4%). Phase 2 rocks are medium-grained trachytoid banded or massive syenites consisting of microcline-perthite (70%), albite (10%) nepheline (10%), garnet (10%) and minor amphibole and biotite; the secondary minerals are represented by cancrinite and analcite, the accessories are magnetite, sphene, fluorite, apatite and uraninite. Among the Phase 2 rocks coarse-grained pegmatoid syenites are also encountered that are markedly cancrinitized and characterized by the accessory magnetite, zircon, apatite, orthite and thorite. The contact effect of syenites on the enclosing sandstones consists in recrystallization of the rocks and their alteration to biotite-cordieritic hornfels. The zone of alteration is traceable over 700 to 800 m distance from the contact. Pseudoleucitic nepheline syenites in the vicinity of the Zarkashon village are tentatively assigned to the Barkar Complex. Here they form a minor stock 1.0 km in diameter, with vertical contacts. Macroscopically the rocks are grey, massive, fine-grained with a pseudoleucitic texture. Phenocrysts making up 25 to 30% of the rock consist of pseudoleucitic aggregate (orthoclase + albite + nepheline) and are sunk in the grey finegrained groundmass consisting of K-feldspar (50%), albite (25%), nepheline (5 to 10%) and garnet (up to 15%). The secondary minerals are biotite and cancranite, the accessories being sphene, apatite, zircon, fluorite, monazite and pyrite. The rocks contain 8.2 to 8.65% K2O and. 2.50 to 2.75% Na2O. This is obviously the result of the complex epigenetic replacement of leucite in which a substantial role was played by cation- exchange processes. 300

Table 45
Oxides

Chemical composition of some rock types from the Barkar Complex.

1 2 3 4 5

SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total:

56.02 0.30 18.70 4.48 2.12 5.95 0.50 0.02 5.68 4.70 0.05 0.96 99.48

51.64 0.50 13.26 8.36 3.56 12.09 3.11 0.02 3.34 3.28 0.15 0.50 99.81

63.10 0.12 19.72 1.43 0.29 1.34 0.10 0.01 7.76 5.00 0.01 2.16 101.4

58.02 0.18 19.72 3.26 1.44 4.22 0.60 0.02 7.2o 3.54 0.02 1.05 99.27

53.80 0.16 18.70 1.84 0.36 9.02 0.10 0.03 7.48 3.00 0.03 4.75 99.23

1-2 alkaline amphobolic syenites, 3-4 amphobolic syenites, 5 leucitic syenites (155). Petrochemically the rocks under consideration correspond to miaskites and are apparently derivatives of a gabbroic magma. Ghurzanak Complex This complex has been identified by V.I. Dronov, S.M. Kalimulin, A.Ya. Kochetkov, K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (152, 157) and is represented by various dike bodies. In the Farah Rod Trough, most of the dikes are confined to the fields of the Valanginian-Hauterivian rocks. A smaller number of the dikes occur in the Barremian-Aptian limestones and Eocene-Oligocene volcanics. The Dikes of mainly N-S trend are from a few dozen centimetres to 5-50 m thick and from a few metres to a few dozen kiloimetres long. In terms of composition, several rock types can be distinguished here: andesite and diorite porphyries, dolerites and diabases. The predominant ones are andesite and diorite porphyries of a porphyritic texture whose phenocrysts are intermediate plagioclase and diopside-augite. The groundmass is prismoid or pilotaxitic, fine- or medium-grained, made up of plagioclase, hornblende, clinopyroxene and accessory apatite, sphene and magnetite. Within the Helmand-Argandab Uplift the dikes and veins of the Churzanak Complex occur everywhere in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks of different ages; in places they form entire fields. Most of the dikes consist of diabase porphyries, gabbro-diabases, dolerites and essexite porphyries. Macroscopically they are compact, aphanitic or fine-grained of grey and dark-green colour. The diabase porphyries have a porphyritic texture and ophitic or microophitic groundmass. They are composed of Nos 35-38 plagioclase, clinopyroxene and secondary minerals represented by chlorite, sericite, carbonate and leucoxene. Some coarse-grained varieties of the diabase porphyries consist of plagioclase, the composition of which varies from andesine (Nos 38-42) to labradorite (Nos 50-55), monoclinal and orthrhombic pyroxene or divine completely replaced by chlorite and serpentine. The gabbro-diabases have a gabbroic texture with elements of an ophitic texture and consist of plagioclase (Nos 40-44) plus clinopyroxene (40 to 45%) replaced by uralitic hornblende. The essexite porphyries have a porphyritic texture. Their phenocrysts amounting to 50% 301

of the rock volume are represented by plagioclase and clinopyroxene. In addition to these minerals, the groundmass contains 15 to 20% K-feldspar, 8 to 9% barkevikite, and magnetite. The chemical composition of some rock types assigned to the Ghurzsnak Complex is presented in Table 46. Table 46
Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CsO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total:

Chemical composition of some rock types from the Ghurzanak Complex.

1 50.3 0.90 14.70 1.48 6.20 0.17 7.90 8.91 1.52 2.72 0.23 4.60 99.63 2 59.75 0.90 18.24 1.84 3.53 0.18 3.82 6.42 0.80 3.412 0.18 0.96 99.74 3 64.91 0.63 16.93 0.54 2.02 0.09 1.58 3.35 3.14 4.00 0.14 2.42 99.75 4 51.74 1.20 14.84 3.68 5.68 0.07 6.11 6.79 4.70 3.30 0.28 1.11 99.50

Suleiman-Kirthar Area In this area, there are two spatially disconnected complexes referred to as the Dobandi and Lura Rud and considered to be of Miocene age. Their interrelationships have not yet been ascertained. Dobandi Complex This has been described by Yu.I. Shcherbina et al. (381). The complex comprises dikes, lenticular bodies and small stocks of diorites, diabased, gabbro-diabases, diorite and diabase porphyries exposed in the southeastern portion of the Kabul Stable Mass. The gabbro-diabase and Diabase porphyry dikes within the area occupied by the Logar Complex of ultrabasics and the diorite bodies on the left bank of the Kabul River have also been tentatively assigned to the Dobandi Complex. These bodies occur in sedimentary-volcanogenic Carboniferous-Triassic formations. The intrusions are small in size (up to 0.3 x 0.7 km); the dikes are up to 8-10 m thick and extend for several dozen metres, and rarely for 160 m or more. The diorites and diorite porphyries are greenish-grey, medium-grained, occasionally porphyritic rocks of a panautomorphic-granular texture with elements of a poikilitic texture. The rocks consist of plagioclase (60 to 70%) and clinopyroxene (20%). Phenocrysts amounting to 15-20% in the. dioritic porphyries are represented by andesine. The gabbro-diorites are greenish-grey, medium and coarse-gained, exhibiting a gabbroic texture with elements of panautomorphic-granular texture. They consist of oligoclase-andesine (50 to 65%), clinopyroxene relics, and accessory apatite and ilmenite. The gabbro-diabases, diabases and diacase porphyries are fine-grained, aphanitic, occasionally porphyritic rocks. They have gabbroic, ophitic, poikiloophitic and porphyritic textures. The rocks consist of andesine (60 to 70%), clinopyroxene relics (25 to 30%) and up to 15% ilmenite. 302

The zones of contact alterations around the veins end dikes do not exceed a few metres in width. In the endocontact parts, the rocks are more finely grained and have dark color. In the exocontact parts, silicification, sericitization, epidotization and chloritization have been reported. Lora Rod Complex This complex has been studied by Yu.M. Koshelev at al. (222) and N.M. Sborshchikev et al. (371). Rocks of this complex occur in the Karawaz Trough in the Lora Rod River basin, on the southeastern slope of the Surghar Ridge, and. near the southwestern termination of the Shinkay Gar Ridge. The complex comprises bodies of plagiophyres. The bodies are shaped as stocks, dikes and veins. The stocks are 0.4 to 3 km in diameter. The contact planes dip towards the stocks at 80~50. Spatially, the veins and dikes are closely associated with the stocks, but also occur at a considerable distance from them. They are 3 to 50 m thick and several kilometres long. Their country rocks are Eocene shales. The plagiophyres are fine and medium-grained rocks with a porphyric texture and microgranitic groundmass. The phenocrysts (40 to 60%) are represented by plagioclase (60 to 95%), more rarely by quartz and chloritized biotite. The plagioclase (oligoclase-andesine) is slightly sericitized and carbonatized. The matrix consists of feldspar (40 to 60%), quartz (20 to 30%) and biotite. The granodiorite porphyries have a porphyritic texture and microallotriomorphic-granular groundmass. The phenocrysts are made up of albite-oligoclase and, less frequently, quartz. The matrix consists of quartz (40 to 50%), albite-oligoclase (10 to 20%), K-feldspar (up to 30%), biotite (2 to 5%), as wall as carbonate, sericite and chlorite. The chemical composition of some rock types from the Lora Rod complex is given in Table 44.

Afghanistan-East Iran Region Naserqu Complex This has been identified by V.I. Dronov, V.P. Kolesnichenko at al. (88, 254) and is represented by a single stock composing the Naserqu Mountain in the Asparan mountain system. The stock, 100 x 100 m in size, occurs in terrigenous-carbonate rocks of Campain-Maestrichtian age. The stock is composed of granodiorite porphyries which exhibit a porphyritic texture and microhypidiomorphic groundmass. The phenocrysts in the rocks are represented by plagioclase (65 to 75%) and biotite (25 to 30%). Plagioclase is replaced by sericite and epidote, and. biotite by chlorite. The groundmass is made up of albite, quartz and biotite. The chemical composition of the rocks from the Naserqu Complex is shown in Table 44. Gabbro-diabases and diorite porphyries not assigned to the Nazerqu Complex but located in the Asparan Zone have also bean tentatively dated as the Miocene. The gabbro-diabases form a stock (50 x 50 m in plan) on the right bank of the Karo River, where it cuts through the andesite porphyry. The rocks are ophitic with elements of gabbroic texture. They consist of lies 40-43 plagioclase (55%), clinopyroxene (hedenbergite) (40 to 43%), and titanomagnetite (2%). The dioritic porphyries make up dikes of a roughly E-W, or, less frequently, N-S trends. The dikes are 1 to 20 m thick and from a few dozen metres to a few hundred of metres long. The exomorphic alterations of the country rocks manifest in the development of hornfels.

Early Quaternary Intrusions

Intrusions of this group are spatially and genetically associated with the early Quarternary stratified volcanics and represent the subvolcanic facies of the latter. They have been studied by Yu.M. Dovgal at al. (144), M.M. Sborshchikov at al. (371), A.M. Diomin et al. (319), S.S. Karapetov at al. (142). A. Lapparent at al. (245), P. Bordet (29, 30), O. Ganss (132), V.I. Slavin (149), B. Ya. Vikhter, G.K. Yeriomenko and V.M. Chmyriov (431). Two formations of Early Quaternary volcanics are distinguished. These are: (1) phonolite-carbonatite and (2) andesite-dacite formations with the associated subvolcanic facies. 303

Phonolite-Carbonatite Formation Khanneshin Complex It was identified by B.Ya. Vikhter, G.K. Yeriomenko, and. V.M. Chmyriov (431) amid the Early Quaternary volcanics of the Khanneshin Mountains on the left-hand bank of the Helmand River. It is represented by a conic volcano rising 700 m above the terrain to an absolute elevation of 1,419 m with a basement diameter of 6.5 km. This is a strongly eroded volcanic-dome structure, in which one can discern a central channel-way, pyroclastic covers, satellite vents, and dikes. Rocks of vent, extrusive, and subvolcanic facies can be distinguished here. The rocks of the vent facies make up the volcanic cone, while the extrusives constitute the central portions of the volcano. A special position among these rocks is occupied by soevites, which constitute a 3 by 2 km large stock in the central part of the volcano, and by ankerite-barite carbonatites, which surround the stock forming a ring-type, 0.8-1.5 km wide body. Three isolated stock-like alvikite bodies, 0.3; 0.5; and 1 km in diameter, can be distinguished in the southern part of the volcano. Structurally, these bodies are in contact with the soevites and ankerite-barite carbonatites. They contain inclusions of biotite and phlogopite glimmerites, albite and K-feldspar fenites. The ankerite-barite carbonatites of the extrusive ring are black fine-grained rocks possessing a flowlaminated structure and consisting of calcite (10-50%), ankerite (5-20%), barite (5-50%), magnetite (5-40%), pyrite (0-2%), and phlogopite (0-5%). The extrusive silicate carbonatites are fine-grained dark-grey rocks of a porphyritic texture. The phenocrysts are calcite (5-20%), monoclinic pyroxene (20-50%), biotite (5-15%), garnet (0-5%), apatite (7-15%), and magnetite (5-15%). The groundmass consists of a fine-grained calcite and minor dolomite (10-15%). Vent agglomerates are characterized by the presence of rounded alvikite fragments or blocks of diverse sizes (up to 2 m across), cemented by an alvikite groundmass. The vent and extrusive-facies rocks are cut through by carbonatite dikes. The dikes are 2 to 50 m thick and up to 3 km long. Two groups of dikes are distinguished: (1) dikes consisting of massive alvikites resembling the extrusive-facies rocks and (2) dikes of fine-grained calcite carbonatites. The second group of dikes appear to be one of the younger units of the Khanneshin Complex. They consist of rhombic-type calcite phenocrysts immersed in a fine-grained calcite matrix, which contains powdered magnetite disseminations and, locally, minutely-acicular aegerine, and a thin-flaky chlorite-like mineral. South-east of the Khanneshin Volcano, there is a number of minor leucite phonolite outcrops which are relics of a thin (up to 30 m thickness) cover. A stock consisting of the same rocks associates with one of the outcrops. A dike-type leucite phonolite body can be found in this area. The leucite phonolites are the youngest rocks in the complex. These are dense, massive green-grey rocks exhibiting a thin-banded finelyspotted structure and a porphyritic texture. Locally the rocks exhibit a spheroidal parting. The phenocrysts (50-70%) consist of leucite crystals measuring 0.2-0.5 mm across. The groundmass consists of sanidine, fineacicular aegerine aggregates and minute nepheline leucite, and carbonate crystals. The Khanneshin Volcano comprises rocks of several phases. The initial phase manifested itself as an intensive explosive activity from the central vent resulting in pyroclastic material corresponding in composition to ankerite soevite. The volcanic activity producing the pyroclastic material was followed. by the formation of the soevite plug through the pressing out of the largely crystallized pulp-type magma up the vent. Glimmerites, fenites, and coarse-grained soevites found in the plug suggest powerful carbonatization processes in the depth. The phase was completed by the emplacement of a ring-shaped ankerite-carbonatite body and formation of a thick cover of coarse pyroclastics of an identical composition. The succeeding phase commenced as an explosive activity which resulted in the second carbonatite association, viz., silicate carbonatites. The phase was completed by effusion and extrusion of silicate-carbonatite magma. The final phase of the volcanic activity has resulted in the emplacement of carbonatite dikes and minor eruptions of phonolite magma. The rocks of the Khanneshin Complex are given Early Quaternary age on the evidence that they cut through the Neogene sediments and are overlain by loose Middle-Upper Quaternary deposits. It is quite possible that

304

most of the rock types are of Pliocene age. The leucite phonolites have yielded 5 m.y. K-Ar age which corresponds to Late Pliocene.

Andesite Dacite Formation Two areas underlain by rocks of this formation are distinguished. These are the Dashte Nawer and Malekdokhand. The stratified volcanics of these areas are referred to as the Dashte Nawer and Malekdokhand series. The subvolcanic facies spatially and genetically associated with these volcanites are distinguished as igneous complexes of the same names. Dashte Nawer Complex Located within the plateau bearing the same name, the complex comprises volcanic structures of the centraltype extrusions with associated rocks of the vent, extrusive, and subvolcanic facies. The Vent facies Vent facies rocks make up dome-shaped and conic volcanic structures whose slopes have angles of 25-45 and a basement diameter from 100 to 500 m, rarely up to 1,500 m The structures, 70 to 250 m high, rise to 2,800 to 3,540 m above sea level. The dacite and andesite vent facies varieties genetically linked with the lower and upper portions of the Dashte Nawer Series, respectively, can be distinguished in the area. The dacite phase is typified by volcanic structures whose slopes are made up of medium- to coarse-clastic lithocrystalloclastic tuffs and dacite lava flows. Plugs consisting of extrusive rock-types occur locally in the central parts of the domes. Necks are formed of fluidal lava breccias and dacite lavas. The volcanic structures formed of the andesite phase rock-types are similar to volcanoes built of the rocks resulted from the earlier phase, though andesitic and andesite-dacite lava products strongly prevail in the vent and near-vent facies. Pyroclastic material facies plays a subordinate role. All the vent units bear evidence of of central-type singlephase eruption. The vent-facies rocks have a porphyritic texture. The phenocrysts are plagioclases, Nos 3842, in dacite-andesites, and Nos 53-55, in andesites, biotite, hornblende, and quartz. The groundmass consists of plagioclases, Nos 30-32, in dacite- andesites, and 38-42, in andesites, which are cemented by volcanic glass and have a hyalocrystalline texture. The extrusive facies rock-types have a close spatial and genetic association with the vent facies rocks. All the extrusive domes and plugs are confined to the central parts of the volcanoes and appear as isometric ellipsoidal bodies ranging in diameter from 100 to 500 m. The domes have steep slopes. Single rocky plugs up to 70 m in height occur locally in the upper parts of the domes (the Sarsa Deh Volcano). The extrusive rocks exhibit a typical columnar, less commonly block-type jointing and. occasional labelliform fluidity. Breccia formed near volcanic domes and the extrusion-type units are of an identical composition with the rock-types of an extrusive dome or plug concerned and consists of dacites which exhibit porphyritic texture and a micropoikilitic groundmass. The phenocrysts consist of plagioclases Nos 25-38, hornblende, quartz, and. biotite. The groundmass consists of quartz, plagioclase, and accessory apatite and magnetite. The Subvolcanic facies The Subvolcanic facies comprises dacite and andesite-dacite dikes, linked spatially and genetically with the lower and upper parts of the Dashte Nawer Series. The dacite dikes are found near the Sarsa Deh Village (map sheet 514-F), where they reach up to 0.4 m in thickness and up to 40 m in length. The andesite and dacite porphyries of the Dashte Nawer Complex contain the following accessory minerals: magnetite, cinnabar, garnet, zircon, ilmenite, pyrite, malachite, bornite, rutile, corundum, and. sphene. The absolute ages of some rock types from the Dashte Nawer Complex are given in Table 47.

305

Table 47
Sample No.

Absolute ages of some rock types from the Dashte Nawer Complex.
Rock K content % Radiogenic argon content ng/g 2.7 2.8 2.06 1.68 1.59 1.87 1.97 1.40 Sample location

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Dacite Dacite Dacite Dacite Dacite Andesite Andesite-dacite Andesite-dacite

514-F2 Dashte Nawer 514-F2 Shirbozu 514-F2 Burgur 514-F2 Zarkadakh 514-F2 Zarkadakh 514-F2 514-F2 Bulgorgar 514-F2 Bulgorgar

The chemical composition of some rocks assigned to the Dashte Nawer Complex is given in Table 48. Malekdokand Complex The complex comprises subvolcanic bodies which occur in the Lower Quaternary volcanic sequence at the northern spurs of the Chagay Range. Vent, extrusive, and subvolcanic facies are distinguished, all being closely associated with the volcanics. Vent facies The Vent facies rocks form either single conic volcanoes or complex volcanic structures. Being 0.5 to 3.6 km across, they are not higher than a few hundred metres, except for several larger ones (such as Aynak and Malekdokand) which rise above the ground to 500-800 m. In plan, the volcanic structures are circular or oval, while in side-view they appear as truncated cones with quite steep (25-45) slopes. The slopes of the vent facies volcanic structures are made up of liparite-dacite and liparite, less commonly of andesite and trachyandesite lavas. In the vent facies, liparite-dacite and diorite, andesite, and. trachydacite porphyries are distinguished. The dacite porphyries are predominant. These are massive purple-grey rocks exhibiting a porphyritic texture with a microsubhedral- granular or microallotriomorphic-granular groundmass. The phenocrysts (about 60%) are Nos 34-35 plagioclases, quartz, and minor amphibole and orthopyroxene. The groundmass consists of plagioclase, quartz, and an opaque mineral. The liparite-dacites and liparites differ from the above dacite porphyries in a more acidic composition of the plagioclases (andesine-oligoclase, oligoclase), quite a high (up to 60%) content of quartz phenocrysts and a spherulitic and microfelsitic texture of the groundmass. The andesite porphyries have a porphyritic texture with a microprismatic granular groundmass. The phenocrysts are plagioclases (60-70%), hornblende (20-30%), pyroxene (2-5%), biotite, and quartz. The groundmass consists mainly of plagioclases, with occasional quartz grains and an opaque mineral. The trachydacitic porphyries are coarse-grained porphyritic rocks with an orthophyric texture of the groundmass which exhibits features of a microprismatic granular texture. The phenocrysts are plagioclases (Nos 34-38) and hornblende. The predominant components of the groundmass are K-feldspar, plagioclase, and minor amphibole and quartz. Extrusive facies The Extrusive facies rocks associate closely with the vent-facies rocks and usually form steeply sloping (5080), sometimes vertical, comes and plugs confined to the central parts of volcanoes. In plan, comes formed of extrusive-facies rocks are circular or oval. The biggest domes reach 4 km in diameter and 500-300 m in height. The extrusive rocks exhibit a typical vertical-columnar or, less frequently, oval-block jointing, and occasionally flabelliform fluidity. Most of the domes consist predominantly of dacite, liparite-dacite, and 306

liparite porphyries. They differ from similar rocks of the vent facies in that they have larger phenocrysts, a better crystallized groundmass, almost completely lack secondary alteration, and are of a lighter color. Subvolcanic facies The Subvolcanic facies. These facies, represented by dikes, have a limited spreading. The dikes are 1-2 to 10 m thick and 100 to 200 m long. Petrographically, the subvolcanic rocks resemble these of the described above vent facies, though occasionally show a higher basicity. The chemical compositions of the rocks from the Malekdokand Complex are given in Table 48. Table 48
Number of analyses Oxides SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO K2O Na2O P2O5 LI Sum total

Chemical composition of some rock types from Dashte Nawer and Malekdokand complexes.
7 8 4 5 3 1

1 56.47 0.88 16.25 4.46 2.31 0.34 3.75 6.78 3.25 3.23 0.41 1.87 100.00

2 62.49 0.50 16.30 2.72 1.55 0.11. 1.47 5.20 3.11 3.73 0.22 1.90 99.30

3 69.13 0.28 14.60 1.19 0.96 0.10 0.98 3.35 3.70 3.27 0.18 1.70 99.45

4 61.93 0.46 15.98 3.31 1.24 0.02 4.17 3.52 1.70 4.05 0.12 3.36 99.86

5 64.80 0.40. 16.31 .2.29 1.13 0.07 1.95 3.93 3.29 3.51 0.07 2.21 99.96

6 68.50 0.43 15.23 2.86 1.02 0.08 2.32 3.35 1.60 3.86 0.10 1.10 100.45

Dashte Nawer Complex (144): 1-andesite, 2-dacite, 3-liparite-dacite; Malekdokand Complex (371): 4- andesite-dacite, 5- dacite, 6-liparite-dacite.

307

Chapter 6

STRUCTURE

The particular features of the structure of Afghanistan are determined by the fact that the country lies within the Mediterranean Fold Belt and is bounded by the Turan Plate in the north. The Afghan portion of the Mediterranean Fold Belt has an intricate structure. It comprises several folded regions of different ages, including a large number of rigid structural units, such as median masses, zones of long-term geoanticline development and the highly elevated blocks of the Precambrian basement. The Turan Plate within the Afghanistan territory is distinguished by a contrasted structure, intensive faulting, an elevated Folded Basement and strong manifestation of recent epiplatform orogenesis. The earliest information on the structure of Afghanistan was given in the works by C.L. Griesbach, H. Hayden, R. Furon, K. Bruckle, H. Cirancourt, and other investigators (35, 50, 119-126, 165-168, 177, 179, 428). In spite of the fact that the evidence available to the authors was scanty and concerned only some scattered outcrops and local structural features, they were able to draw general conclusions on the differences in the facies and genesis of the contemporaneous deposits occurring in the south and north of the country and on the differences in the age and type of deformations in the regions concerned. The results of these early investigations were reviewed and analyzed in 1940 by B. A. Petrusheraky in a paper on the structure and paleogeography of Afghanistan and adjacent Soviet Tajikistan (330). Valuable information on the structure and paleogeography of Afghanistan was reported by S. Popol and S. Tromp (339) who reviewed the data on the geology of Afghanistan available by 1954. Abundant new data were obtained in the late 1950's and particularly in 1960's in the course of surveys conducted by: Italian, German (FRG), and French geologists (42, 61-69; 116, 135, 188, 237-253, 278,290, 343, 412, 439 and others). Apart from describing individual structural units and separate areas, the authors attempted to compile regional sketch maps of tectonic zoning for the middle and southern regions of Afghanistan and to analyse the relations of the structural units of Afghanistan and those of the adjacent territories. Numerous data on the structure of Afghanistan were obtained as a result of the combined efforts of Soviet and Afghan geologists who started joint investigations in 1958. In the course of this work- the structure of the individual regions and of the country as a whole was investigated in detail. As far as the regional tectonic pattern is concerned, the most valuable information was provided by the geological surveys made on the scale of 1:200,000 and 1:500,000, as well as by the analytical reviews prepared by a group of petroleum geologists for the northern areas (161) and by the Department of Geological and Mineral Survey for Central and South-West Afghanistan (152, 414) and for the whole country (362, 420). The results of these investigations were presented in numerous reports and papers written by Sh. Abdullah (1), I.V. Arkhipov et al. (11, 12), Sh.Sh. Denikayev at al. (145, 146, 151, 376), Yu.M. Dovgal at al. (144), V.I. Dronov at ml. (143, 144, 152, 88, 92-100), S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206, 210), A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153, 182, 200, 377, 198), Kolchanov et al. (220, 314, 348), V.V. Kulakov et al. (225-228), K.Ya. Mikhailov at al. (347, 350), V.M. Moraliov et al. (351), N.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154, 371, 372, 411, 420). G. G. Semionov et al. (141), K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (322, 397, 406, 375). A general regional study of the structure of Afghanistan was made by V. I. Slavin. In 1969 he published a paper which was supplemented with a general sketch map of the country's tectonic zoning (386) and in 1976 the book entitled "The Structure of Afghanistan" (393). A study of structural features of the Kabul Stable Mass was conducted by N. M. Feruz in cooperation with V.I. Slavin (112, 114). The general aspects of the structure of Afghanistan, which is part of the Mediterranean Fold Belt, and the young platforms bordering the belt to the south and north were described by A.D. Arkhangelsky (9), I.V. Arkhipov et al. (10), B.P. Barkhatov (13, 14, 15), A.A. Belov et al. (16), A. A. Bogdanov et al. (317), N.G. Vlasov (433), I.A. Voskresensky et al. (163), A. Gansser (130), S.S. Karapetov et al. (210), U.G. Lomize (263), E.B. Movaliovich et al. (308), V.U. Moraliov et al.(303), U.V. Muratov et al. (304-306), B.H. Pashkov (324-326), Yu.S. Perfiliev et al. (162, 328), B.A. Petrushevsky (331-332) V.P. Ponikarov et al. (321), D.P. Rezvoi (359, 360), S. V. Ruzhentsev (370), V.I. Slavin (389, 390), B.A. Sokolov et al. (394), V.E. Khain et al. (417, 212-216), I. Stocklin (407), A.L. Yanshin (445), and others. The most valuable and circumastantial works are those by Y.S. Perfiliev at al. (162), and V.E. Khain et al. (214, 417). 308

In 1975, a Geological Map of Afghanistan on the scale of 1:500,000 edited by V.M. Chmyriov and Sh. Abdullah (138) was prepared for publication. An analysis of the map resulted in the improvement and modification of the previously existing concepts on both the tectonic pattern of the country as a whole and on the structure of its individual regions. For instance, an analysis of the magmatism manifested itself within the structural units of the median mass type made it possible to establish its relationship with later tectonic and igneous activity (322, 397, 399). The study of endogenic mineralization revealed that the structural units most favourable for ore localization were median masses reworked by superimposed processes (298). These conclusions provided a basis for compiling a new tectonic map on the scale of 1:2,500,000 in 1975 (416). The improved version of this map (Annex 2) served as the basis for the compiling of the present chapter. In accordance with the above-mentioned map, the following principal structural provinces are distinguished in Afghanistan (Fig. 7): (I) Regions of Hercynian Folding; (II) The North Afghanistan Platform; (III) The Region of Middle Cimmerian folding; (IV) Median Masses; (V) Regions of Alpine Folding. The regions differ in the time of the completion of the latest geosynclinal cycle and the transformation of a folded area, such as median mass, platform, superimposed basin, etc. Further subdivision of the regions into zones, blocks, etc., was made with due allowance for the stratigraphic sections, igneous activity and geomorphology of the individual parts of the regions. In most cases, the boundaries between the regions, as well as between the zones and fault blocks, run along faults. A systematic description of all the distinguished regions follows below. The data available on the Pamir, South-West. Tajikistan and South Turkmenia was used to describe the structure of the regions bordering on the U.S.S.R.

Regions of Hercynian Folding

Two regions of Hercynian folding have been distinguished. These are Afghanistan-North Pamir and the Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Regions. The former was referred to by all the investigators previously working in Afghanistan, and the latter has been newly identified on the basis of the data collected by A. Kh. Kafarsky (198, 200, 377, 415). The regions differ in their geological structure.

Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region As far as the general structure of High Asia is concerned, the region appears to be a northern periphery of the Mediterranean Fold Belt. As the name of the region indicates, it includes adjacent areas of Afghanistan and the U.S.S.R. Within Afghanistan, it comprises the whole of the north-western mountainous part of North Afghanistan including a system of the West Hendukush and North-West Badakhshan ridges. The general trend of the region is north-eastern. In the west, the trend of the folds is almost east-western, and in the east, north-eastern, grading to almost north-southern. Taken as a whole, the folds form a broad arc convex to the east-south-east. South-westwards, they plunge beneath the Sedimentary Cover of the North Afghanistan Platform. Their north-eastern extension are the contemporaneous structures of the Soviet North Pamir. The total extension of the region is more than 800 kilometres, the part situated in Afghanistan being 550 kilometres long. The greatest width is 100 kilometres. The area situated within Afghanistan amounts to 40,000 square kilometres. The boundaries between the region and the adjacent territories run along faults almost everywhere. In the north-west, the region borders on the North Afghanistan Platform along the Hohan-Eshkamysh Fault (Fig. 7-11), [Footnote: Here and below throughout the chapter, the Roman numbers given in the figures after the dash designate the numbers of major faults, and Arabic ones, the numbers of structural-facies zones, blocks and superimposed basins.] and in the south-east, the structures of Middle Afghanistan and the Nuristan-Pamir Median Mass along the Central Badakhshan Fault (Fig. 7-VIII). Geologically, the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region consists of variously metamorphosed Lower Proterozoic, Paleozoic and Triassic strata cut by Early Proterozoic, Early Carboniferous, Peinian and Late Triassic intrusions. The section comprises Lower Proterozoic, Ordovician-Devonian, Lower Carboniferous, Middle Carboniferous and Triassic structure-formation complexes separated by unconformities (Sketch map 10). The Lower Proterozoic structure-formation complex is believed to he a geosynclinal one. It consists of metamorphosed in amphibolite facies compositionally variable gneisses, crystalline schists, marbles, 309

amphibolites and metavolcanics, 4,000 to 7,400 meters in thickness. Intrusive rocks are represented by derivatives of diabase, gabbro-plagiogranite and migmatite-granite formations (Sabang and Kufob complexes). The formation of the complex is ascribed to the Early Karelian cycle of diastrophism. In the recent structure of the region the complex outcrops in the uplifted blocks of the ancient basement. Rocks of the Middle-Upper Proterozoic and Vendian-Cambrian ages may occur in the region, but have not been found yet. The Ordovician-Devonian structure - formation complex is supposed to be quasicratonic with the exception of the Hazrat- Sultan Zone (Figs 7-15a). It consists of metamorphosed in phyllite and low-grade greenschist facies of marine terrigenous end carbonate rocks, 3,200 to 3,800 meters thick. It is assumed that originally the rocks rested unconformably on the Lower Proterozoic complex, but in the present-day structure the contact between the two complexes is faulted almost everywhere. No intrusive formations belonging to the Ordovician-Devonian complex have been found. In the Hazrat-Sultan Zone, the Ordovician-Devonian structure- formation complex is represented by geosynclinal totally terrigenous and, possibly, partially volcanogenic rocks reaching 3,000 meters in thickness. The relations between these and older rocks have not been ascertained. The Lower Carboniferous structure-formation complex is considered to be the main geosynclinal complex in the Afghanistan- North Pamir Folded Region. In most areas it lies disconformably on the OrdovicianDevonian rocks yet with no prominent angular unconformity. In the Hazrat-Sultan Zone the relations between the two complexes remain uncertain. The Lower Carboniferous complex consists of lower volcanogenic (Lower Tournaisian), middle terrigenous-carbonate (Upper Tournaisian - Visean) and upper volcanogenic-terrigenous (Namurian) deposits which seem to have accumulated in structures of engeosyncline aad miogeosyncline type. Their thickness varies greatly, reaching a maximum of 7,600 meters. The intrusive rocks of the complex are represented by ultrabasics and gabbro-plagiogranite varieties (Payandeh and Shengan complexes). The Middle Carboniferous-Permian structure-formation complex is considered to be a late geosynclinal one. It lies unconformably on all the older rock sequences and consists either of totally carbonate (Bamyan Zone) or carbonate-terrigenous rooks of marine origin The thickness of the rocks varies within 1,485-2,770 meters. No intrusive rocks have been found, with the exception of the Hazrat-Sultan Zone, where Persian ultrabasic and gabbro-plagiogranite intrusions have been distinguished by analogy with the Middle Pamir (U.S.S.R.). The Triassic structure-formation complex is tentatively regarded as orogenic. It overlies unconformably the older formations. The lower beds of the complex (Ladinian-Norian) are composed of marine terrigenous rocks, and the upper ones (Rhaetian?) of terrestrial terrigenous-volcanogenic rocks, totalling 1,330 to 2,529 meters in thickness. Intrusive rocks of Triassic age are abundant, being represented by derivatives of subvolcanic and granite batholith formations. The Triassic tectonic cycle was a final one in the geosynclinal period of the geological history of the Afghanistan -North Pamir Folded Region. As a result of Triassic movements, the whole region was removed from the zone of marine sedimentation and subject to peneplanation. In later periods, sedimentation took place only in a few restricted areas bordering on the platform, which were flooded by the sea. The remaining part was a provenance area. The epigeosynclinal formations of the region build up two structure-formation complexes, Jurassic-Cretaceous (cratonic) and Neogene (orogenic). Both complexes are of local distribution. Their rare outcrops are found as outliers traceable at the margins of the North Afghanistan Platform. The internal structure of the region is not uniform. An analysis of the stratigraphic section, magmatism, and structural pattern of the region made it possible to distinguish six facies-structural zones. These are: the Surkhab, Jaway, Faydzabad, West Hendukush, Bamyan and Hazret-Sultan. An imbricated Khawak zone has also been mapped there. The Surkhab Zone The Surkhab Zone (Figs7-13) was distinguished by A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (198, 153, 182, 198). The zone occupies the outer north-western one-third part of the region and is limited by faults almost everywhere. In the north-west, it borders on the North Afghanistan Platform along the Hohan-Eshakamysh Fault (Fig. 7-11), in the south-east, the Jaway and Faydzabad zones along the Laron Fault (Fig. 7-VI), and in the south-west, 310

the West Hendukush Zone along the Shekari Fault (Fig. 7-VII). The zone is 350 kilometres in length, the maximum width being 50 kilometres. In the extreme south-west, the structures of the zone are not faulted but plunge beneath the Sedimentary Cover of the North Afghanistan Platform. A direct extension of the Surkhab Zone in the U.S.S.R. is the Darwaza-Zaalay Zone of the North-West Pamir (272, 198). The geological section of the Surkhab Zone is the most complete, composed of the rocks least metamorphosed and best known among the six zones of the region. The section comprises the Lower Proterozoic, Ordovician-Devonian, Lower Carboniferous, Middle Carboniferous - Lower Permian and Middle - Upper Triassic structure-formation complexes. The Lower Proterozoic complex is of local distribution, being exposed in thrust sheets and fault wedges traceable along the southern and eastern peripheries of the zone. These may belong to adjacent structures. A more detailed description of the complex is given below in the sections dealing with the Jaway and Faydzabad zones. The Ordovician-Devonian complex occurs throughout the zone except in the extreme northern part. The Ordovician section consists of terrigenous rocks (2,000-2,500 m), and the Silurian- Devonian, of carbonate rocks (1,200-1,300 m). The folds are commonly brachyform, the Ordovician ones usually being more complex grading to linear folds. The Lower Carboniferous complex overlies disconformably the Ordovician.-Devonian one, yet no prominent angular unconformity was noticed. The lower part of the complex (1500 m) thick outcropping in the extreme south-west of the zone consists of greenschist-altered and schistose acid and intermediate volcanics inferred to be of Early Tournaisian age. The middle part, 250-500 m resting either on the Lower Tournaisian with evidence of erosion, or unconformably on all the older rock units consists of Upper Tournaisian - Visean terrigenous carbonate rocks. The upper part of the complex overlies conformably the middle one and consists of two contemporaneous, but lithologically different, formations of Namurian age: volcanogenic, spilitekeratophyre (2,600-5,600 m), outcropping in the extreme north of the zone along the Andarab and Surkhab rivers, and terrigenous (800-1800 m) occurring in all the other parts of the zone. The formation of the complex was completed by a phase of folding and intrusion of ultrabasic rocks and gabbro-plagiogranite massifs (Payandeh and Shengan complexes). The folds are brachyform and linear. The elements of the folds have not been studied in detail. The Middle Carboniferous - Lower Permian complex is only exposed in the north of the zone. In the other areas the outcrops are comparatively insignificant. Everywhere the rocks lie unconformably on the Lower Carboniferous and older strata and constitute a markedly isolated structural unit whose section consists of two parts: The Middle - Upper Carboniferous relatively thin (800-900 m), predominantly carbonate part, and the Lower Permian, much thicker (2,700-3,800 m), carbonate-terrigenous one, highly variable in facies, abundant in reef limestones and variegated shallow-water sandstones and conglomerates (at the top). The rocks are crumpled into brachyform and linear folds. The Upper Permian and Lower Triassic units have not been found in the Surkhab Zone so far. In the U.S.S.R., in the Darwaza-Zaalay Zone, these consist of variegated carbonate-terrigenous shallow-water marine deposits (73). The deposits are 2,700-5,000 meters in thickness. It is not ruled out that the deposits of this age were present in Afghanistan, in the Surkhab Zone, but were later eroded. The Middle-Upper Triassic structure formation complex is primarily developed in the middle and southwestern segments of the Surkhab Zone. The section consists of two portions, the Ladinian-Norian and the Rhaetian. The Ladinian-Norian strata, 1,000-1,100 m thick, lie unconformably on all the older rock sequences and consist of dark-coloured terrigenous rocks of marine origin. The Rhaetian portion is composed of terrigenous-volcanogenic terrestrial deposits (800 m). The rocks conformably overlie the Ladinian-Norian strata, or unconformably all the older rocks. The formation of the complex was completed by a phase of folding and intrusion of subvolcanic granites (Murkh Complex). The folds are brachyform and linear. Each of the structure-formation complexes considered forms an independent structural unit marked by its own type of folding. The complexity of the folds, particularly of the high-order folds, decreases regularly towards each younger structural unit. At the same time, it should be noted that the relative complexity of the folds is not accounted for by the intensity of the folding movements alone, but by the competence of the rock 311

sequences subject to folding: the folding of the terrigenous strata of all ages is normally more intricate than that of the carbonate and volcanogenic strata. For instance, the Namurian, Lower Permian and LadinianNorian sandstone and shale strata are crumpled into brachyform end linear folds absolutely similar in complexity and type, with the limbs dipping at 15 to 80. The same applies to the Namurian and Rhaetian strata which are identical in the type of folding and geomorphology. Many folds are broken by faults, and only their portions remained, such as homoclines. The general trend of the folds is almost east-western in the south, south-western and, north-eastern in the middle of the zone, and almost north-southern in the north. The epigeosynclinal formations of the Surkhab Zone build up two structure-formation complexes: JurassicCretaceous, of the cratonic type, and Neogene, orogenic. The Jurassic-Cretaceous complex, consisting of various terrestrial, lagoonal-terrestrial and marine deposits more than 2,500 meters in thickness, appears to have previously occurred throughout the zone. At the present time, it has only survived erosion in the three most depressed areas, Narin, Chal-Namakab and the AndarabYarm interstream area, where the structures are of a cratonic type. The Neogene complex consisting of coarse-clastic deposits of a molasse formation (1,100 m) occurs extensively in the northern one-third portion of the zone, building up the eastern side of the Badakhshan Foredeep. The deposits lie unconformably on all the older strata. The internal structures of the complex are intermittent. The zone is abundant in faults, most of which are rectilinear. Their general trends are basically parallel to those of the folds, in the north being predominantly north-southern, in the middle, north-eastern, and in the south-west, east- western. The transverse and oblique faults cutting the folds are less abundant. The faults generally create a dense network breaking the area into triangular, rectangular, rhombic and polygonal blocks and wedges. The faults are poorly known, because no special study has been made of them. An analysis of the geological maps, however, suggests that most of them are wrench faults and upthrusts. The largest of the intrazonal slip-type faults is the Andarab-Mirza Wolang right-lateral wrench fault (Fig. 7IV), whose northern wall has shifted to the east and the southern one to the west. The magnitude of the displacement is more than 40 kilometres. The age of the majority of faults is uncertain. It is likely that the largest of them originated as far back as the geosynclinal period, or most probably during the orogenic phase of the zone's history. However, many of the fault s were rejuvenated in Neogene-Quaternary time since some of them out all the deposits occurring in the zone, including the Neogene ones. The next three zones, Jaway, Faydzabad and West Hendukush (Figs 7-14, 15, 16) comprise a group of axial, core zones of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region. Throughout the post- Proterozoic history they evolved as zones of long-term relative uplifting. Together with the Beleulin Zone of the North-West Pamir (198, 272), they form a system of linearly elongated structures extending for more than 800 kilometres, with the width varying from 30 to 70 kilometres. The Jaway Zone The Jaway Zone (Figs7-14) was distinguished by A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (153, 182, 198). It is the extreme north-western zone in the above mentioned system. The zone is most representative of the whole system and best known. The length of the zone is 125 kilometres and its maximum width is 50 kilometres, the strike being north-eastern. Its direct extension in the U.S.S.R. is Beleulin Zone of the North-West Pamir (198, 272). The zone is bounded by faults on all sides. In the west, it borders on the Surkhab Zone along the Laron Fault (Fig. 7-VI), and in the east the Hazrat-Sultan Zone along the Hazrat-Sultan Fault (Fig. 7-XXVII). The section consists of Lower Proterozoic, Ordovician, Devonian, Lower Carboniferous, Middle Carboniferous - Lower Permian and Neogene structure-formation complexes. The Lower Proterozoic complex constitutes three large uplifts in the axial part of the zone. It consists of metamorphosed in-amphibolite facies, compositionally variable gneisses, crystalline schists-, marbles, amphibolites and meta- volcanics, 7,000 meters in thickness. The rocks enclose small tabular, lenticular and stock-like migmatite-granite bodies (Kufob Complex). The structures are of the gneiss dome type. 312

The Ordovician-Devonian complex outcrops from beneath the younger formations in the north-west of the zone. The Ordovician section is totally terrigenous (2,000-2,500 m) and the Silurian- Devonian portion is carbonate (370-800 m). The lower contact of the complex is faulted everywhere. The structures are brachyform folds of almost north-southern and north-eastern trends. The Lower Carboniferous complex is widespread throughout the north-western part of the zone. The section is divided into three parts. The lower part, 2,300-2,900 m thick, consists of acid and intermediate volcanics of Early Tournaisian age. The rocks overlie the Ordovician-Devonian sequence with evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity and rest unconformably on the Lower Proterozoic metamorphic rocks. The middle of the section is composed of Upper Tournaisian-Visean limestones and terrigenous rocks (290-500 m), resting on Lower Tournaisian volcanics with evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity, and unconformably on the Lower Proterozoic gneisses (Fig. 8). The upper part of the section is composed of Namurian deposits, which vary in lithology from place to place. In the north-west of the zone, this part of the section rests conformably on the Upper Tournaisian-Visean limestones and consists of terrigenous rocks, 300 m thick. In the axial part of the zone it lies unconformably on the Lower Proterozoic metamorphic rocks and consists of intermediate and basic volcanics, 0 to 300 m thick. The intrusive units of the complex are represented by rock masses of ultrabasic and gabbro-plagiogranite formations (Payandah and Shengan complexes). The sedimentary rocks are crumpled into brachyform and linear folds striking to the north-east. The Middle Carboniferous-Lower Permian structure-formation complex is folded to form two large synclines in the north-eastern and south-western parts of the zone. The rocks lie unconformably on all the older formations of the zone. The complex comprises two formations, carbonate in the lower part (50-400 m) and terrigenous at the upper part (1,000-2,000 m). No intrusive rocks of this age have been found. The general structures of the complex are synclinal, overlapped quasicratonic, gently dipping, broad, shallow and prominently discordant with respect to all the older structures (Fig. 9). The individual structures are brachyform and linear folds. Each of the complexes considered forms an independent structural unit characterized by its own type of folding. Taken as a whole, the structures form the large arch-type uplift of a north-eastern strike. In the axial part of the uplift there outcrop Lower Proterozoic rocks, which build up three domal structures in the centre of the zone. Their direct extension on the U.S.S.R. territory is the Kurgowat system of domal axial highs of the Beleulili Zone. The flanks of the uplift are asymmetrical. The section of the north-western flank is more complete. It consists of Ordovician-Devonian, Lower Carboniferous and Middle Carboniferous-Lower Persian strata. The section in the south-eastern flank is reduced. It includes the Middle Carboniferous-Lower Persian rocks only. The rocks of the Ordovician-Devonian and Lower Carboniferous complexes are missing. It is likely that they were never deposited there (Fig. 9). A distinctive feature of the uplift is the presence of complicated broad flat synclines of the quasicratonic type composed of Middle Carboniferous-Lower Permian rocks. One of the synclines is situated in the northeastern, and another in the south-eastern part of the Jaway Zone. They separate the uplifts composed of Proterozoic rocks in the axial part of the zone and participate in building up the flanks of the uplift. The epigeosynclinal complex of the zone is represented by a coarse-clastic molasse of Neogene age and 300 m in thickness. The rocks fill in several superimposed basins in the extreme southwest of the zone. The general structure of the complex is of the blanket type, individual structural features being intermittent. Paleostructurally, all the basins were the eastern periphery of the Badakhshan Foredeep. There are numerous faults within the zone. Commonly, these are linear wrench-type faults of an almost north-southern and north-eastern strike. They break the area into blocks and wedges of different sizes. The magnitude of the displacement varies from several meters to several kilometres. As to the age of the faults, they can be classified in two groups, pre-Middle Carboniferous and post-Early Permian. Only one fault, Jughani, can so far be dated as pre-Middle Carboniferous (Fig. 7-XXI). This is a rather large fault cutting off the north-western third of the zone from the remaining part. The fault breaks the continuity of the Lower Proterozoic, Ordovician- Devonian ana. Lower Carboniferous rock sequences and plunges beneath the Middle Carboniferous-Lower Permian deposits without breaking them (Fig. 9). Its continuation on the U.S.S.R. territory is the Vishawr Fault in the North-West Pamir (198, 272). 313

All the other faults are of post-Early Permian age. Most of them break the Lower Permian rock sequences and are not hidden by younger deposits. In the south-west, some of the faults plunge beneath the Neogene strata without breaking them. This suggests that the faults may be of pre-Neogene age. It is likely that most of the faults occurring in the zone are of pre-Neogene age too. The Faydzabad Zone The Faydzabad Zone (Figs. 7-15) was distinguished by A. Kh. Kafarsky et al. (107, 153, 198). The structures of the zone are exposed in most elevated water divide areas of the Khwaja Mohammad Ridge. This is the largest zone in the group of axial zones of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region. The length of the zone is 250 kilometres, the maximum width is 70 kilometres, the trend is north-eastern. The zone is bounded by faults. In the west, it borders on the Surkhab Zone along the Laron Fault, in the south-west on the West Hendukush Zone along the Andarab-Mirza Wolang Fault and in the east, on the Hazrat Sultan Zone along the Hazrat-Sultan Fault. The zone has been poorly studied. It is basically composed of Lower Proterozoic metamorphic rocks. The section is divided into three parts. Metamorphosed in amphibolite facies compositionally variable gneisses, crystalline schists, amphibolites and metavolcanics form the lower part 2,500-4,000 m in thickness and the upper part, 1,500-2,500 m thick. The middle part (500-900 m) consists of marbles. The total thickness of the complex is 4,500-7,400 meters. Intrusive rocks forming small tabular, lenticular and stocklike massif are derivatives of diabase, gabbro-plagiogranite and migmatite-granite formations (Salang and Kufob complexes). The stratified rocks of the complex are crumpled into brachyform and linear folds grading to gneiss domes. Formations of the Ordovician-Devonian and Lower Carboniferous complexes outcrop on the periphery of the zone in fault blocks and wedges traceable along major faults. They have never been found in normal stratigraphic succession. It is likely that they have never been deposited there. The youngest rocks of the zone are represented by widespread Late Triassic granitoids of the West Hendukush Complex occurring in large stock-like and batholith-shaped massifs. The general structure of the Faydzabad Zone appears to be of the horst-anticlinorium type. The general trend is north-eastern. In two localities (in the places of undulation of the anticlinorium hinge), folds are oriented almost eastwesterly. The folds are curved in plan. A series of such folds are present in the drainage basins of the Tagabe Khawrok and Derah-i-Khvajashar rivers. These are conjugated synclines and anticlines 20-25 kilometres in length and 2-5 kilometres in width. The beds at the limbs dip at 50-60. The folds are complicated by longitudinal and oblique faults. The zone is abundant in faults, which are predominantly rectilinear of north-eastern and almost northsouthern trends concordant with the general trends of the folds. In the places of transverse undulation of the anticlinorium hinge the faults are of nearly east-western strike and still subparallel to the strike of the folds. A system of these cross faults breaks the horst-anticlinorium into three blocks. The West Hendukush Zone The West Hendukush Zone (Figs 7-16) was described by A. Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 182, 198). The zone occupies the extreme south-western part of the axial structures under discussion, inclucaing the watershed area and the elevated foothills of the Hendukush Ridge. The zone is 250 kilometres in length and 35 kilometres in width. The trend of the zone is east-north-eastern. The zone is lens-like in plan. It is bounded by faults everywhere. In the north, it borders on the Surkhab and. Faydzabad zones along the Shekari and Andarab-Mirza Wolang faults and in the south, on the Bamyan zone along a nameless fault. The section of the zone comprised the Lower Proterozoic, Ordovician-Devonian and Middle CarboniferousLower Permian structure-formation complexes. As in previous zones, the Lower Proterozoic complex consists of metamorphosed in amphibolite facies, compositionally variable gneisses, crystalline schists, marbles, amphibolites and metavolcanics totalling 3,400-3,800 meters in thickness and intruded by lenticular 314

and stock-shaped massifs of diabase, gabbro-plagiogranite and migmatite-granite (Salang and Kyfob complexes). The folds are brachyform and linear of almost east-western trend. The Ordovician-Devonian complex is widespread consisting of terrigenous rocks in the lower part, 2,0002,500 m thick, and. of carbonate rocks in the upper part, 300-800 m in thickness. The rocks are believed to lie transgressively on the Lower Proterozoic complex, although no reliable evidence is available. The Ordovician folds are linear and the Silurian- Devonian ones are brachyform. No stratified. Rock units of Early Carboniferous age have been found. However, intrusive rocks of this age are likely to occur there. These are lenticular masses of ultrabasic rocks (Payandeh Complex). The Middle Carboniferous-Lower Permian complex is exposed in a large syncline in the east of the West Hendukush Ridge (Fig. 10). The complex rests unconformably on the Lower Proterozoic metamorphic sequence and consists of carbonate rocks at the base (50-400 m thick) and of terrigenous rocks in the upper part (1,000 m thick). The rocks are similar to those exposed in the Jaway Zone. The minor folds are linear and brachyform, forming one large, broad, flat and shallow syncline of a quasicratonic type. It is 70 kilometres in length and 15 kilometres in width and strikes to the east-north-east. The youngest igneous rocks of the zone are Late Triassic granitoids of the West Hendukush Complex forming two linearly elongated batholiths and a series of stock-like massifs. The faults are relatively few in number but long in extension. They strike to the east and east-north-east, in parallel with the general trends of the folds. As an exception, there are some faults of nearly north-southern trend in the western part of the above mentioned syncline. These faults cutting the Middle Carboniferous - Lower Permian rock units and the Late Triassic granites of the West Hendukush Complex seem to be of Late Triassic age. The next two zones, Bamyan and Hazrat-Sultan, belong to a group of inner zones of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region. In the present-day outlines, the zones represent remnants of initially extensive eugeosynclines and miogeosynclines which were located south of the above mentioned axial zones. The extensions of the zones in the U.S.S.R. are the fold systems of the North-East and North Pamir (198, 272). The Bamyan Zone The Bamyan Zone (Figs 7-17) was delineated by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142). It occupies the southern foothills of the West Hendukush, north of the township of Bamyan. The zone extends for 150 kilometres, the maximum width (in the west) being 25 kilometres. The trend is almost east- western. The zone is wedgeshaped in plan tapering eastwards. In the south and north, it is bounded by faults. In the north, it borders on the West Hendukush Zone along a nameless fault, and in the south, on the Mid-Afghanistan structural units along the Central Badakhshan and Main Hari Rod faults. In the west the structures of the zone are not faulted and plunge gradually beneath the Sedimentary Cover of the North Afghanistan Platform. In the U.S.S.R., the counterparts of the zone are the Zulumart and Qara-Jelga zones of the North-East Pamir (198, 272). The section consists of the Lower Proterozoic, Ordovician- Devonian, Lower Carboniferous, Permian, Cretaceous and Neogene structure-formation complexes. The lithology, structure, and thicknesses of the former three complexes are more or less similar to the contemporaneous formations of the West Hendukush Zone. The Permian complex is rather unusual and determines the character of the zone. It consists of limestones, 1,100 meters thick, ascribed to Kubergandinian and. Murghabian stages. None of the above mentioned zones is known to contain such limestones in this stratigraphic interval. This is the youngest marine Permian formation in the-region. It rests unconformably on all the older rock sequences and is overlain unconformably by Cretaceous strata. The folds encountered within the complex are brachyform of almost east-west trend. The intrusive units of the zone are represented by Early Proterozoic, Early Carboniferous and Late Triassic diabases, ultrabasic and granitic rocks (Salang, Kufob, Payandeh, West Hendukush and Bamyan complexes). The epigeosynclinal formations of the zone constitute the Cretaceous-Paleogene and Neogene complexes. The Cretaceous-Paleogene complex consists of Maastrichtian-Paleogene marine limestones which in the west of the zone rest unconformably on all the older rocks. The limestone formation appears to be an outlier of the Sedimentary Cover of the North Afghanistan Platform. 315

The Neogene complex consists mainly of terrestrial coarse and fine terrigenous, partly carbonate and volcanogenic red-coloured and variegated deposits of superimposed basins. The rocks seem to be outliers of the Neogene sedimentary cover of the north side of the Yakowlang-Bamyan Graben. The structures of the complex are of the blanket type. The faults occurring in the zone are linear, of nearly east-western strike, breaking the zone into a number of sub-parallel blocks and wedges. Most of the faults cut the Neogene strata and are consequently supposed to be of Late Neogene or even Quaternary age. The Hazrat-Sultan Zone The Hazrat-Sultan Zone (Figs 7-15a) was distinguished by I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (154). The zone includes the watershed areas and eastern sides of the Safedhirs and Khwaja Mohammad ridges. The zone bounded by faults is 250 kilometres in extension and up to 25 kilometres in width. It is of almost northsouthern trend. In the west, in borders on the Faydzabad Zone along the Hazrat-Sultan Fault (Fig. 7-XXVII) and. in the east, the structural units of Middle Afghanistan and the Nuristan-Pamir Median Mass along the Central Badakhshan fault. The southern boundary of the zone is uncertain. The zone extends into the U.S.S.R. territory as a system of the Mid-Pamir structures (198, 272). Little is known about the geology of the zone. Two thick "greenschist" sequences are known to occur in the area. They are composed of sandstones, shales, siltstones and schistose greenschist altered intermediate and basic volcanics. One sequence (3,000 m) is inferred to be Silurian-Devonian and, possibly, Ordovician at the base. The other (1,500-2,000 m) is Lower Carboniferous and, possibly, Middle-Upper Carboniferous and Permian at the top. The total thickness is 4,500-5,000 meters. No unconformities or gaps have been noted in the stratigraphic column. The rocks in the zone are crumpled into linear extremely complex folds. Many of them have been inadequately studied to be classified. Intrusive rocks represented by ultrabasic and gabbro-plagiogranite varieties are tentatively dated as Permian (Kafir and Madut complexes). In the southern portion of the zone Late Triassic granite massifs occur (Hendukush Complex). The epigeosynclinal formations in the extreme north-east of the zone consist of red-coloured sandstones and conglomerates (1,600 m) assumed to be of Early Cretaceous age. They rest unconformably on the SilurianDevonian and Lower Carboniferous strata. The contact is commonly faulted. Faults are abundant. They are of linear, nearly north-south and north-east trends. The faults break the zone into rectangular and polygonal blocks. Some of them are wrench-type faults. In the north the faults appear to be of post-Early Cretaceous age since they cut the Lower Cretaceous strata. In the other parts of the zone they may be dated as post Triassic because they break the Late Triassic granites of the West-Hendukush Complex. The Khawak Zone The Khawak Zone (Figs 7-16a) has been newly identified in an area of the Khawsk Pass south of the Andarab-Mirza Wolang Fault. The zone is wedge-shaped in plan. It is 25-30 kilometres in length and 5 km. in width, the strike being east-northeastern. The zone is underlain by Ordovician, Silurian-Devonian and possibly Lower Carboniferous rock units. The contacts between them, as well as the boundaries of the zone as a whole are faulted. The rocks occur in imbricated thrust sheets, fault blocks and wedges. Some of them are composed of variegated rocks supposed to be of Neogene age. The dips are very steep, often vertical. The occurrence of the Neogene beds suggests that the zone originated as a structural unit in Neogene time.

Henduraj-Hazar Folded Region The structures of the region are tentatively classified as Hercynian. [Footnote: V.I. Dronov classifies them as Late Kimmeridgian.] Geographically, the region includes poorly known, inaccessible mountain areas of the Hazar district (163) and Henduraj Ridge. In the general regional tectonic setting of the High Asia, region 316

includes all the pre-Alpine heterogeneous structural units in the rear parts of the Middle- and Late-Alpine troughs in the southern branch of the Mediterranean Fold Belt. In Afghanistan, the region includes the southern and northern sides of the eastern end of the East Hendukush and the south-western end of the Henduraj Ridge. The general trend of the region is north-eastern, some of the structures striking to the south-west (in the south) ann to the west (in the north). Taken together, the structures form an arc convex to the northwest. In the south-west, they join the almost east-west trending structures of the Spin Ghar Ridge at the right angle. In the northeast, the structures extend to the unexplored Hazar and North-West Qara-Qorum areas. The Afghan portion of the region is more than 500 kilometres in length, the maximum width being 50 kilometres. The region includes two zones: Tashkuprok and Konar, reaching 5,000 square kilometres in area. The zones differ greatly in structure and tectonic history. Judging by the abundance of carbonate facies, the Tashkuprok Zone seems to have evolved as a zone of long-term relative uplifting, whereas the Konar Zone, rich in Lower Carboniferous volcanics, appears to have developed as an eugeosynclinal structure, at least in Early Carboniferous time. The Tashkuprok Zone The Tashkuprok Zone (Figs 7-19) was reported by A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (198, 220). It encloses the northern and southern sides of the East Hendukush eastern part. Only a small part of the zone is situated within Afghanistan. Most of the zone lies outside the country. The length of the Afghan part is 100 kilometres, the widest part being 15 kilometres. The trend is almost east-western. The zone borders on the Wakhan Zone and the Nuristan Fault Block along the Tashkuprok Fault (Fig. 7-XIV). The southern boundary is uncertain. By analogy with the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region, the zone is supposed to comprise OrdovicianDevonian, Lower Carboniferous, Middle Carboniferous-Lower Persian and Oligocene structure-formation complexes (Sketch map 11). The Ordovician-Devonian complex (1,350 m) consists of terrigenous-carbonate rocks. The lower contact of the complex is unknown. The rocks of the complex are overlain by Lower Carboniferous beds with evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity. The Lower Carboniferous complex is represented by a terrigenous-carbonate formation (1,315 m) which has a small amount (100 m) of basic volcanics. The Middle Carboniferous-Lower Persian complex rests conformably on the Lower Carboniferous and consists of 830 meters of terrigenous-carbonate rocks at the base and 1,000 meters of carbonate rocks at the top. Eastwards, beyond the territory of Afghanistan, the Lower Permian strata are overlain, apparently unconformably, by Upper Permian-Triassic limestones and dolomites. All the complexes are conformably deformed into simple linear and brachyform folds trending almost eastwestward (Figs 11, 12). The most significant folds reach 20-25 kilometres in length and. 1.5-5 kilometres in width. The dips in the limbs reach 55-60. The folds tend to diverge southwards. Intrusive units are represented by granitic rocks of tentatively Late, Triassic age. [Footnote: V.I. Dronov dates this granite massif as Paleogene.] The epigeosynclinal formations of the zone consist of variegated and red-coloured terrestrial sandstones and conglomerates (300 m) tentatively dated as Oligocene. They lie unconformably on the Lower Carboniferous strata. They appear to be the deposits of superimposed basins. Their Oligocene age was assumed with great uncertainty. Structurally, the deposits form a compressed syncline of almost east-west trend. It has steeply dipping limbs and is complicated in the vicinity of the fault (Fig. 13). There are few faults within the zone. South of the Tashkuprok Fault, there are two more faults running parallel to the latter, which break all the deposits including the Oligocene. The Konar Zone The Konar Zone (Figs. 7-20) was distinguished by Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145, 146) and by I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (413, 420). It was also investigated by V.I. Slavin (393), and A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (198). Within the present outlines the zone encloses the south-western end of the Henduraj Ridge and a system of hills extending along the Kabul River Valley up to the Sarobay reservoir. The zone is 317

200 kilometres in length, its maximum width being 50 kilometres. It strikes to the northeast. The zone is bounded by faults on all sides. In the north-west, it borders on the Nuristan Fault Block along the Konar Fault (Fig. 7-XV), and in the south, on the Spin Ghar Fault Block along the Spin Ghar fault (Fig. 7-XXII). By analogy with the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region, the zone is supposed to comprise Lower Proterozoic, Ordovician- Devonian, Lower Carboniferous, Upper Permian-Triassic and Neogene structureformation complexes (Sketch map 11). The rocks of the Lower Proterozoic complex occur in the extreme south-west of the zone. These are metamorphosed in amphibolite facies mineralogically variable gneisses, marbles and crystalline schists enclosing lenticular gabbro-amphibolite bodies. The exposed thickness of the complex is more then 1,000 meters. The structures are linear north-east striking folds with dips reaching 70. The Ordovician-Devonian complex is represented by sandstones, shales and siltstones metamorphosed in phyllite facies with interbeds and lenses of limestone. It is 3,200-3,500 m thick. Its initial relation with the Lower Proterozoic complex is uncertain, since the contact between the two complexes is either faulted or sealed by young intrusions. The Lower Carboniferous complex, 5,000 m thick, consists of terrigenous-volcanogenic formations with a strongly subordinate amount of limestone. Its relation with the Ordovician-Devonian complex remains uncertain. It is supposed to be transgressive. The intrusive units of the complex are represented by ultrabasics and gabbro-plagiogranite rocks (Konar and Nan complexes). The structures are linear folds of almost eastwestern and north-easterly trends. The assemblage of sedimentary- volcanogenic and intrusive rooks suggests that the complex developed in a structure of the eugeosyncline type. Middle-Upper Carboniferous and Lower Permian deposits seem to be missing, though A.Kh. Kafarsky believes that they do occur within the zone and are represented by terrigenous-carbonate varieties (198). The Upper Permian-Triassic complex rests unconformably on all the older rocks. It is composed of carbonate rocks of the quasi-cratonic type, 1,000-1,150 m in thickness, exhibiting brachyform folds. Intrusive units are represented by supposedly Late Triassic granitic rock massifs of a batholith formation (Henduraj Complex). [Footnote: V.I. Dronov dates the complex as Paleogene.] Rare faults are linear trending to the north-east in the Henduraj Ridge and almost west-eastwards along the Kabul Valley.

North Afghanistan Platform The name "North Afghanistan Platform" is provisionally given to the extreme south-eastern part of the Toran Young Platform (147, 411, 413, 420) which is about 150,000 square kilometres in area, extending from southwest to north-east for 960 kilometres and reaching a width of 335 kilometres. The southern margin of the platform forms a smooth broad south-south-east convex arc facing Middle Afghanistan, the West Hendukush and the North-West Badakhshan Mountains. The northern and north-western boundaries of the platform are not geological being drawn tentatively along the Afghanistan U.S.S.R. frontier. The southern, south-western and south-eastern boundaries are geological, running predominantly along faults. In the southwest, the platform borders on part of the Afghanistan Turkmen--Horasan Region along the Syahbobak and Manary-Jam faults (Fig. 7-XXV). In the south, it borders on the structural units of Middle-Afghanistan along the Main Hari Rod. Fault (Fig. 7-IX), and in the south-east, it abuts against the structures of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region along the HohanEshkamish Fault. In the area between the mouth of the river Andarab and the upper reaches of the river Bamyan, the boundary between the platform and the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region runs along a system of intermittent minor faults and is drawn tentatively in an unfaulted area. In this area, the Precambrian and Paleozoic-Triassic complexes of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region gradually plunge beneath the Sedimentary Cover of the platform. Almost all the geological boundaries of the platform are not paleogeographical; they run along the recent faults produced by the Neogene-Quaternary horizontal and vertical movements manifested within the 318

platform and the adjacent folded areas. The magnitudes of the displacements have not been estimated quantitatively, yet, judging by the en-echelon junctions of the adjacent structural features, they must be significant. This particularly applies to the southern boundary where the contemporaneous structures of the platform and Middle Afghanistan adjoin along the Main Hari Rod Fault at diametrically opposite angles, thus suggesting substantial horizontal displacements along wrench - and overthrust (underthrust) - type faults. The same is true, to a lesser extent, of the south-eastern boundary where horizontal movements were, apparently, less significant whereas vertical displacements were very strong, resulting in the fact that in extensive areas, at the platform margins, the sedimentary rocks were eroded, and the Hercynian basement was exposed as a result of Neogene-Quaternary erosion. For instance, it can be safely stated that almost the whole area of the Surkhab Zone was covered by the North Afghanistan Platform deposits, and only in recent times were the deposits removed by Neogene-Quaternary erosion. It is likely that the original paleogeographic boundary of the platform in the southeast of the region runs along the north-western border of the Jaway, Faydzabad and West Hendukush zones, rather than along the Hohan-Eshkamish Fault as it is drawn at present. Structurally, the platform consists of two units, the Folded Basement and the Sedimentary Cover. The Folded Basement consists of variously metamorphosed Proterozoic, Paleozoic and Triassic rocks. The Sedimentary Cover comprises unmetamorphosed Jurassic, Cretaceous, Paleocene and Eocene formations. Widespread Upper Eocene-Oligocene, Neogene and Quaternary deposits form another epiplatform unit which originated during the Late Alpine phase of folding when the platform developed as an orogenic area (Sketch map 10). The Folded Basement varies from place to place. From the known outcrops two main types of the basement have been distinguished: the Afghanistan-North Pamir basement and Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan one. The former is found in the north-east and the latter in the South-west of the platform. The Folded Basement of the Afghanistan-North Pamir type consists of the stratified and intrusive rock units which are known to outcrop in the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region. As it was mentioned above, these units gradually plunge beneath the Sedimentary Cover in the south-east of the platform where they are exposed only in deep valleys and cores of anticlines. As in most zones of the Afghanistan.-North Pamir Folded Region, the Proterozoic and Ordovician-Devonian rocks are invariable everywhere, whereas the Carboniferous and Permian rocks manifest zonal variations characteristic of the contemporaneous deposits in the outcrops of the appropriate zones. According to the available evidence two subtypes of the Carboniferous and Permian deposits can be distinguished, Surkhab and Bamyan. The Triassic strata are similar to those of the Surkhab Zone. Intrusive rocks are represented by the same complexes as found within the adjacent Surkhab, Bamyan and West Hendukush zones. It is worth mentioning the change in the trends of the structures. Being chiefly south-western and almost east-western in the adjacent parts of the platform and the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region, the structures change their trends to north-western in the Balkhob River drainage basin. The Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan type of the Folded Basement is found in the Paropamiz, Firozkoh and Bande Turkestan ridges. The Proterozoic formations are less metamorphosed there, and are believed to be younger (Middle Proterozoic) than the Lower Proterozoic metamorphic rocks from the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region. Their apparent thickness is about 3,000 meters. Neither Lower nor Middle Paleozoic rocks have been found. The Paleozoic section starts with acid and intermediate volcanics (2,000-2,500 m thick) which are supposed to be of Early Tournaisian age. Their lower contact is uncertain. The rocks are overlain unconformably by Upper Tournaisian-Middle Carboniferous fine -and coarse-terrigenous marine deposits 1,000-4,000 m thick with a small amount of limestone. The Permian strata rest disconformably on the Carboniferous, yet no angular unconformity was established. They consist of red-coloured predominantly fine terrigenous rocks, 1,000-3,800 m thick. The presence of red beds is one of the main features characterizing this type of the Folded Basement. The beds have no counterparts in the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region. By their position in the section and in their origin the beds resemble Permian redcoloured deposits from the North Caucasus and South-West Turkmenia (139). The Triassic deposits lie on the Persian with evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity. The section consists of 150-2,000 meters of variegated volcanogenic-terrigenous rocks at the base, 180-890 meters of terrigenous-carbonate (Anisian) rocks in the middle, and 2,000-4,000 meters of terrigenous flysch319

like deposits (Ladinian-Norian) at the top. All the deposits are of marine origin. The flysch beds resemble the Taurus Series from the Crimea. Intrusive rocks are the derivatives of the gabbro-plagiogranite and granitic formations of Proterozoic and Late Triassic age. Lower Tournaisian plagiogranite massifs are likely to be present, though they have not been mapped so far. Abundant pebbles of these rocks occur in the basal beds of the Upper Tournaisian sequence (147). Little is known about the structure of the Proterozoic formations. Only large folds have been examined. These were found to be rather simple brachyform folds striking to the northeast. Folds of higher orders are much more complex. The Carboniferous-Triassic strata are deformed conformably into linear and brachyform folds of almost east-western and east-north-eastern strike. Isoclinal folds were found in the Triassic beds of the Bande-Turkestan Ridge. The folding is of early Cimmerian age. The difference between the folded basements of the Afghanistan-North Pamir and Firozkoh Bande Turkestan types is augmented by a difference in the orientation of the structural features (north-western in the former, and nearly east-western and north-eastern in the latter). In the paleotectonic pattern of the Mediterranean Fold Belt, the former structures belonged undoubtedly to the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region and the latter, apparently, to the Crimea-North Caucasus Folded Region. The Sedimentary Cover of the platform lies unconformably on the Folded Basement. It consists of Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleocene strata. The facies, thicknesses and extent of the Sedimentary Cover vary from place to place. The most complete section and facies invariability are manifested by the deposits outcropping in the north of the platform. The section is least complete in the south. This is only natural because the northern area was subsiding and the southern rising throughout the period of sedimentation. The stratigraphical section of the cover starts with Lower- Middle Jurassic strata consisting in the south of terrestrial, in places coal-bearing, deposits of superimposed basins. Their thickness varies from 100 to 1,450 meters. They seem to have been deposited in patches. In the north reliable evidence of the facies, the thickness and areal extension of the Lower Middle Jurassic beds is not available. Upper Jurassic sequence(including some beds of Bathonian stage) occurs predominantly in the north and south-east of the platform. It consists of marine and lagoonal-terrestrial, terrigenous-carbonate, salt and gypsum-bearing deposits varying in thickness from 270 to 1,150 meters. In the south-east it rests on the Lower-Middle Jurassic coal-bearing strata with evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity. In other areas, the relations between the Upper Jurassic and Lower-Middle Jurassic strata remain uncertain. No Upper Jurassic sediments seem to have been deposited in the larger, southern part of the platform. Neocomian-Lower Aptian beds occur predominantly in the north and southeast of the platform. They consist of red-coloured fine- and coarse-terrigenous terrestrial and lagoonal-marine deposits. The beds lie on the Upper Jurassic with evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity, and unconformably on all the older formations. The thickness varies from 15 to 1,000 meters. These deposits do not seem to have been accumulated in the larger, southern part of the platform. Upper Aptian-Albian beds start the marine interval of the Cretaceous section. They occur predominantly in the north and. south-east of the platform, lying either conformably or with evidence of erosion on the Neocomian-Lower Aptian and unconformably on all the older formations. Commonly, they consist of grey and green, and in places variegated, fine terrigenous rocks with a small amount of limestone. The thickness varies within 96-639 meters. They have not, apparently, been deposited in the larger, southern part of the platform. Like the previous Cretaceous rock units, Cenomanian-Turonian beds are found in the north and south-east. They consist of carbonate and carbonate-terrigenous rocks varying from 80 to 650 meters in thickness. The beds rest conformably or disconformably on the Upper Aptian-Albian and unconformably on all the older formations. It seems that sediments of this age have never been deposited in the larger, southern part of the platform.

320

Coniacian-Campanian beds seem to have been deposited over most of the platform area. In the north, they consist of clay, and in the south of interbedding limestones, marls, sandstones and clays. The thickness varies within 1,275-1,361 meters. The maximum thickness of the beds is found in the north of the platform (Mohammad Janghar Area). They rest conformably on the Cenomanian-Turonian and unconformably on all the older formations (in the south). All the above mentioned sediments of the Jurassic and, particularly, Cretaceous section seem to have been deposited in a period of gradual (possibly interrupted) advance of the sea to the southern areas of the platform which remained uplifted for a long time. Only in Maastrichtian-Paleocene time did the sea cover the whole of the North Afghanistan Platform. The Maastrichtian-Paleocene deposits are predominant within the platform, and mark the peak in its evolution. They occur ubiquitously, being represented chiefly by limestones, marls and dolomites. Reef limestones are-abundant, particularly in the south of the platform. The thickness of the beds varies within 150 to 1,150 meters. They rest on the Coniacian-Campanian conformably in the north and with evidence of erosion in the south. They overlie unconformably the older formations, having red-coloured conglomerate at the base. Eocene deposits seem to have occurred all over the platform with the exception of several areas in the south which started to evolve as inversion rises. The deposits are marine clays, sandstones and siltstones with minor amounts of limestones. The thickness varies within 50-700 meters. In the north, the contact between the Eocene beds and Paleocene limestones is conformable, while in the south it exhibits traces of erosion and a break in sedimentation. All the platform deposits are deformed into conformal folds that are non-linear, broad and shallow exhibiting a gentle dipping of the beds in limbs. Over large areas, the deposits are flat-lying. In places of pronounced flexure bends and in the vicinity of regional faults, the folds become extremely complex, exhibiting typical features of fault-line structures with straight and overturned steep limbs. The exception is the Afghanistan-South Tajikistan Depression with its pronounced narrow, long, box- and crest-like and even angular anticlines and gentle broad synclines, which form a fan-like bundle of linear folds radiating to the north. The origin of the folds is accounted for by the specific conditions in the AfghanistanSouth Tajikistan Depression which developed as a pliable intermountain area subject to the dynamic actions of the rigid surroundings. The orogenic epiplatform unit of the North Afghanistan Platform is composed of Upper Eocene-Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene and Quaternary deposits of terrestrial origin. The Eocene-Oligocene deposits occurring in the south and southwest of the platform are totally volcanogenic derived from a porphyry formation. The deposits are unusual for platform areas and seem to have been transported here from southern regions. They vary in thickness within 250 and 1,100 meters, lying unconformably on the Alay beds. Miocene strata are widespread in the north, northeast and north-west of the platform. They consist of variegated, red-coloured, predominantly fine-terrigenous deposits, 300-5,750 meters thick, lying on the Paleogene beds with evidence of erosion, yet with no prominent unconformity, and unconformably on all the older formations. Miocene subvolcanic intrusions are found in the south of the platform: granodiorite- and syenite-porphyry bodies (Share-Arman Complex), and diabase and diorite porphyry dykes (Marguzar Complex). In the mode of occurrence and. age of the emplacement, the bodies are counterparts of the Mineralnye Vody intrusions of the North Caucasus. Pliocene deposits occur throughout the entire platform being particularly abundant in the north, especially in the Badakhshan Foredeep where they reach 9,000 meters in thickness. The Pliocene beds lie on the Miocene with distinct evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity and unconformably on all the older formations. They are represented by grey and variegated coarse terrigenous conglomerate-like deposits derived from rapidly growing mountains in the south of the platform and in the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region. Like the Pliocene beds, the Quaternary deposits are found all over the area, being particularly widespread in the north. They consist chiefly of unconsolidated grey sediments of temporary and perennial streams and wind-blown material. The Lower and Middle Quaternary sequence encloses acid and basic volcanics (Qunduz and Sarlogh areas) and travertine limestones at the contact with the Pliocene (Shordara Unit). Throughout most of the platform the deposits lie unconformably on all the pre-Quaternary formations. In the 321

axial parts of large Neogene basins they rest on the Pliocene units with a gap, yet with no angular unconformity. The thickness varies from zero on the watersheds to several kilometres in deep recent basins. The deposits of the orogenic unit constitute an intermittent veneer resulted from recent differential movements of the region and the adjacent mountains. Commonly, they coat the evolving uplifts of variable amplitude and fill superimposed and inherited basins and grabens. The major structural units in the North Afghanistan Platform are the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift and the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin. The former corresponds almost totally to the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Mountains in the south of North Afghanistan, and the latter includes the North-West Badakhshan fore-ranges, the Afghanistan-South Tajikistan low-mountain area and the whole of the North Afghanistan Plain with the northern and north-western foothills of the Paropamiz and Bande Turkestan fore-ranges surrounding the plain in the south. In the opinion of some investigators, these two structures were formed owing to Neogene-Quaternary orogenic movements (161). Accepting the Neogene-Quaternary age of the structures, we believe that they are synsedimentary. They may have evolved as relatively uplifted or down warped structures during the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene. Naturally, the outlines and dimensions of the structures changed from period to period, but the general tendency of development as a basin and an uplift seems to have persisted during most of the periods indicated, including the Neogene-Quaternary, when the structures acquired their present-day outlines.

The Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift The general outlines of the uplift are marked by continuous outcrops of Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones in the south of the platform. The southern boundary of the uplift coincides with the Manare-Jam and Syah Bubak faults. The northern boundary runs along the northern foothills of the Alburs, Shadyan and Khwaja Tut ridges. In the east the uplift is bounded by the western side of the Pule Khumri-Baghlan Valley, and by the low foothills of the Paropamiz and Bande Turkestan ridges in the north-west. Within these boundaries, the Paropamiz- Bande Turkestan Uplift is a large, almost E-W-trending structure, oval in plan, having circular outlines in the east and a step-like, truncated angular boundary in the west-northwest. The junction of the uplift with the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin is a pronounced flexure in the north and north-east and a less pronounced bend in the west-north-west, where the uplift lowers, broadens out and, slowly plunging, grades to local structures of the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin. In the present structural pattern, the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift is characterized by a relatively elevated Folded Basement and Sedimentary Cover; in a paleotectonic pattern it is notable for an assemblage of geoanticlines formations, incompleteness of the section and the presence of numerous local and regional breaks in sedimentation. The geoanticline units are Jurassic coal-bearing, Lower Cretaceous red-coloured, enclosing a great number of conglomerate beds, and Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones, many of which are reef limestones, and others. The Jurassic rocks exhibit a limited distribution, being ascribed predominantly to the Lower and Middle Jurassic stages. The Lower Cretaceous is not ubiquitous either, and the Upper Cretaceous is often represented only by upper horizons. Most widespread are the Maastrichtian-Paleocene reef limestones. Eocene deposits occur chiefly on the periphery of the uplift. Breaks in sedimentation are noted within the Jurassic, at the base of the Lower Cretaceous, within the Lower Cretaceous, at the base of and within the Upper Cretaceous, at the base of the Paleocene, at the base of and in the Upper Eocene, etc. The internal structure of the uplift is not uniform. Judging by the differences in the Folded Basement and Sedimentary Cover, three fault blocks, or steps, according to the terms accepted by petroleum geologists, have been distinguished: Qala-i-Naw, Maymana and Sheberghan. Each succeeding fault block is lowered from south to north with respect to the previous one. The blocks are displaced from west to east with respect to each other in an echelon-like manner. The Qala-i-Naw Fault Block The Qala-i-Naw Fault Block (Figs. 7-21) was referred to by I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov and. S.M. Kalimulin as the Murghab-Hari Rod Fault Block (147, 411, 413, 420). This is the extreme south-western fault block in the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift. The block is bounded by faults almost everywhere. In the south-west, it adjoins the Herat Trough along the Syah Bubak Fault, in the south, the Monare-Jam 322

Graban along the Monare-Jam Fault, and in the north, the Maymana Fault Block along the Bande Turkestan Fault (Fig. 7-V). In the west, the block adjoins the Kalarin Trough which belongs to the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin. In plan, the block is wedge-like narrowing towards the divide between the Hari Rod and Bande Amir rivers. The length of the block is 535 kilometres, the maximum width being 115 kilometres. It strikes to the west- north-west. The Folded Basement is similar to that in the Firozkohl Bande Turkestan Region. It consists of Proterozoic and Carboniferous-Triassic rock sequences cut by gabbro-plagiogranite and granitic rock intrusions. The section of Sedimentary Cover is reduced. The Lower- Middle Jurassic portion consists of terrestrial coalbearing rocks 100 meters thick. At the base and top of the section there are unconformity surfaces. The only outcrop of the rocks known so far is at the Sabzak Pass. Except for this locality, the deposits of this age seem to have never existed within the block. Upper Jurassic deposits have also been encountered, yet in one locality only, in the extreme northwest of the block, in the area of the village of Kolotay These are marine terrigenous rocks, about 800 meters thick, possibly belonging to the Kopet Dagh facies. The Upper Jurassic sequence is bounded by unconformities traceable at its base and top. Throughout the larger part of the block, Upper Jurassic rocks seem to have never existed. Neocomian-Lower Aptian deposits have not been encountered within the block. They don't seem to have ever existed there either. Upper Aptian-Albian sequence is only known in two localities: (1) in a narrow strip west and east of the Sabzak Pass, and (2) at the mouth of the Darah-i-Kughyan River. It consists of marine carbonate-terrigenous rooks having a thickness of 90-130 meters in the former locality, and 245 meters in the latter. At the base and top the sequence is bounded by unconformities. The original areas of the rooks distribution are unknown. It is possible that, like the above-mentioned deposits, these were only deposited locally, never covering the whole area of the block. Upper Cretaceous deposits seem to have been accumulated throughout the block's area, although their outcrops are intermittent at the present time. They are represented by marine carbonate-terrigenous varieties varying within 250 to 500 meters in thickness. The sequence lies on the Upper Aptian-Albian beds slightly disconformably. On all the older strata it lies unconformably. The most abundant in the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block, just as in the whole Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift, are Maastrichtian-Paleocene carbonate deposits, including those of a reef facies, (150-1,150 m in thickness) which covered the whole area of the block in the form of a continuous mantle. Today they are exposed over an extensive area in the east of the block. They rest on the Upper Cretaceous rocks with evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity, and unconformably on all the older formations. The Eocene deposits are widespread in the eastern part of the block, where they form the base portion of the Kalarin Trough. They rest on the Maastrichtian-Paleocene with evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity (The sequence, 250-700 m thick, consists of sandstones, clays and siltstones of marine origin. The rocks of the orogenic unit occur predominantly in the western and southern parts of the block. The distinctive feature of the unit is abundance of Upper Eocene-Oligocene volcanics (250-1,400 m in thickness) lying on the Alay beds with evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity. The Neogene sequence is found sporadically and its section is incomplete. The most widespread are variegated and redcoloured fine and coarse terrigenous rocks (300-800 m thick) supposed to be of Late Miocene age. The Miocene sequence is bounded by unconformities at the base and top. Small subvolcanic granodiorite-porphyry and syenite-porphyry bodies (Share-Arman Complex) and diorite and diabase porphyry dikes (Marguzor Complex) were intruded in the Miocene period. The Pliocene rocks occur in the south-eastern part of the block, in the upper reaches of the Hari Rod Valley, where the section consists of variegated and grey, unconsolidated and compact conglomerates and sandstones, 50-250 m thick, resting unconformably on all the older formations. The Quaternary deposits fill in the central part of the Kabar Trough and some local lows traceable along the southern edge of the block. Their thickness varies from a few meters to several hundred meters (in the Kalain Trough). Structurally, the fault block is a megasyncline plunging to the west-north-west. The megasyncline is asymmetrical in cross-section with the southern flank hypsometrically more elevated and less steep compared to the northern. The block is divided into two parts by meridian 64. The eastern part is more elevated, and the western part, whose larger portion belongs to the Kalain Trough of the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin, is relatively lowered. The eastern segment of the block is also divided into two parts by the Okhankoshan transverse uplift. The southern part of the block, referred to as the Firozkoh Uplift, is singled out and described below as a separate structural unit. 323

The Firozkoh Uplift The Firozkoh Uplift is the southern flank of the Qala-i-Naw Megasyncline. In all the geological maps it is recognized as a separate structural unit which locally has an imbricate pattern. On the whole, the uplift is a mosaic of vertically and horizontally displaced thrust sheets, fault blocks and wedges in which rocks of different ages are exposed, such as rocks of the Folded Basement, remnants of the Platform Sedimentary Cover and of various orogenic units. On the southern side and in the watershed of the Paropamiz Ridge, there occur thrust sheets, fault blocks and wedges of different size separated by a series of extensive west-northwest-trending linear faults, as well as by cross faults and short oblique strike-slip faults. The Folded Basement consists of Permian and Lower-Middle Triassic rocks. The sections of the Sedimentary Cover and orogenic complexes are most complete there. A zone with a horseshoe-shaped system of faults was encountered in the area north and northeast of the villages of Chashte-Sharif and Darah-i-Takht. The faults outline a pericline of a large anticline elongated in an east-north-eastern direction. The anticline is composed of Carboniferous-Triassic beds cut by a granodiorite intrusion. Further eastwards, the dominating structures are rectilinear wedge-shaped fault blocks of a north-eastern trend. These are separated by en-echelon faults adjoining the Manare-Jam Fault at 20-40. The faults bring into contact the strata of different ages, such as Precambrian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic and Cretaceous-Paleocene. The Carboniferous and Permian-Triassic rocks occur chiefly in simple, frequently monoclinal beds normally having a north-eastern strike. The beds are only folded in some localities. Usually, such complications are restricted to junctions of differently oriented faults. One such locality is found in a tectonized area of the village of Share Naw (Fig. 14), where a series of north-east-trending fault blocks are cut off by an extensive northwest-trending fault. In the northeast, the fault cuts Triassic beds whose strike lines are gently curved in plan. Generally unfolded, most frequently monoclinal, the Carboniferous strata are complicated by a number of other faults south of the village of Share Naw. The complications are various kinds of folds having high-angle dips at the hinges. Against the background of the monoclinally dipping beds (dips 40-50) the folds are easily recognizable since they are oriented across the predominant north-eastern trend of the beds. The above-mentioned fault of north-western trend running in the area of the village of Share Naw separates a large fault block of the Precambrian basement in the north. In the eastern part of the block, the relations between the Precambrian and the overlying Maastrichtian-Paleocene units are somewhat unusual (Fig. 15). The different beds of these units end against the horizontal surface of the Proterozoic metamorphic rocks, which is undoubtedly indicative of the fact that sedimentary strata were sheared from the Platform Basement. North or the town of Chaghcharan most of the structures of' the Fizozkoh Uplift are hidden beneath the Platform Sedimentary Cover and Quaternary deposits, although in some localities Proterozoic metamorphic rocks are outcropping. The outcrops seem to outline a large uplifted block of the Precambrian basement. Together with the Share Naw imbricate structure, they form a large basement uplift, lens-shaped in plan, responsible for a swell-like arch of the Platform Sedimentary Cover which was, apparently, an ancient synsedimentary uplift flooded by the sea only in Maastrichtian time. Further eastwards, another highly tectonised area is found in the upper reaches of the Hari Rod Valley. Structurally, this area is different from all the areas considered above. The exposed sequence is relatively small in thickness. It includes the Cretaceous-Paleocene end the overlying Neogene beds. Only in some small fault blocks are the Precambrian metamorphites and granites intruding them exposed. The carbonate Sedimentary Cover slowly plunging southwards becomes structurally very complex as it approaches the Hari Rod River (Figs 16, 17). The beds are folded, upthrusted and overtbrusted. Both the folds and faults have almost east-western strikes parallel to the Main Hari Rod Fault. Most of the folds are narrow compressed anticlines and synclines, often having vertical or overturned limbs. Complex disharmonic folds are not infrequent (Fig. 18). Monoclinal units occurring as imbricate thrust sheets and fault wedges producing double or triple sections are a common feature. The asymmetry and overturning of the folds, as well the southward inclination of the fault planes, suggest the general divergence of the structures to the north. The amplitudes of the folds vary within 0.5-15 kilometres and separation magnitudes of the overthrusts reach several hundred meters. 324

The area considered is the eastern-most within the Firozkoh Uplift. In the east it ends against the YakowlengBamyan Graben having a north-western trend. It is the intersection of almost east-western and north-western trends that were apparently responsible for the formation of the above-mentioned complex imbricate zone emphasizing the wedge-like end of the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block. The Okhankashan Uplift The Okhankashan Uplift divides the eastern half of the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block into two almost equal parts. Unlike the Firozkoh Uplift, which is roughly longitudinal, the Okhankashan Uplift is oblique with respect to the general trend of the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block. The uplift begins in the area of the Chashte-Sharif and Darahe-i-Takht horseshoe-shaped structures and extends north-eastwards up to the Bande Turkestan Fault. The uplift is a swell-like feature with the rocks of the Folded Basement and the oldest beds of the Platform Sedimentary Cover occurring in its core. Over the whole extension the uplift is marked by outcropping laccoliths of Miocene subvolcanic rocks (granodiorite-porphyry, syenite-porphyry and the like) (94, 147). The emplacement of the laccoliths was accompanied by the formation of typically magmatogenic anticlines, whose cores are built up of the laccoliths and the limbs consist of Platform Cover deposits. The Miocene age of the laccoliths suggests Miocene age of the uplift as a whole and of the constituent anticlines. A less pronounced oblique swell-like uplift is mapped in the extreme east of the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block. It crosses the fault block from south-west to north-east obliquely to the trend of the Jare Gigonak, Acha Chap, Nawe Pul and Manore Sufla valleys. Like the previous uplift, it is recognizable by the outcrops of the basement rocks and. the oldest beds of the Sedimentary Cover. It is not ruled out that both this and. the previous uplift are ancient positive structures which existed during the period of sedimentation controlling the facies and thickness of the sediments. The present-day outlines of the uplifts seem to be inherited from the Neogene-Quaternary. To the north-west of the Okhankashan Uplift, nine flexural folds of different size are observed in the Sedimentary Cover, predominantly on the right-hand side of the Murghab Valley, which extend parallel to the uplift (147, 413, 420). The flexural folds reach 200-300 meters in amplitude. All the folds are elongated in a north-eastern direction, extending parallel to one another for tens of kilometres. The faults, represented chiefly by gentle upthrows, complicate the limbs of the flexures. The flexures are of Neogene age. Faults are not numerous within the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block, with the exception of some portion of the Firozkoh Uplift situated at the southern margin of the North Afghanistan Platform, The encountered faults have almost east-western trends. Most of the major faults strike subparallel to the trend of the folds, whereas minor faults are often oblique or transverse with respect to the folds. Another heavily faulted area adjoining the Yakowlang- Bamyan Graben on the south-west presents a system of sub-parallel faults of a north-western strike. It is quite obvious that the faults were produced by the movements responsible for the formation of the Yakowlang-Bamyan Graben. The above-mentioned group of faults and the Yakowlang group delimit a structural nose in the eastern end of the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block with differently oriented faults meeting at a sharp angle. Bearing in mind that many of the faults cut Neogene beds, they were dated as Late Neogene. Some of the faults are still active. The Maymana Fault Block The Maymana Fault Block (Figs 7-22) was described in the outlines considered here by I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov, and S.M. Kalimulin (147, 413, 420). The extreme north-western end of the block joining the local structures of the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin is referred to by petroleum geologists as the Maymana Uplift, and the eastern end, as the Fore-Paropamiz Step (161). The block occupies the axial part of the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift. In plan, it has the form of an irregular bevelled square oriented to the west-north-west. The block is 300 kilometres in length and up to 130 kilometres in width. In the southwest, it borders on the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block along the Bande-Turkestan Fault, and in the north-east, on the Sheberghan Fault Block along the Anadarab-Mirza Wolang fault system. The south-eastern boundary is drawn in an area where the structures of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region plunge gradually without any fault beneath the Sedimentary Cover of the Platform, wedging into the latter as the Surkhab Fault Block. In the north-west, the boundary between the block and the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin is not distinguishable. Gradually plunging, the block merges with the local structures of the basin. 325

The structure of the Folded Basement is different in the eastern and western parts of the block. In the east it is of the Afghanistan-North Pamir type, and in the west, of the Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan type; the boundary between them runs somewhere west of the north-eastern stretch of the Balkhob River and is so far uncertain. The Sedimentary Cover has a more complete section than that within the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block. The Lower-Middle Jurassic strata occur in the extreme north-east, within the Surkhab Zone. They consist of terrestrial coal-bearing deposits 900 to 1,400 meters in thickness. At the base and top the strata are bounded by unconformities. Several breaks and local unconformities are recognizable between the Lower and Middle Jurassic and inside the Bajocian and. Bathonian. No sediments of this age seem to have been deposited in the larger part of the b1ock's area. The Upper Jurassic has been inferred but not proved. It is quite possible that the deposits of this age were missing originally. The Neocomian-Lower Aptian unit, varying within 15-1,000 meters in thickness, is fairly widespread but not ubiquitous. It consists of red-coloured sandstones and siltstones with a large amount of conglomerates (Eshpushta). At the base and top, it is bounded by unconformities. The intermittent occurrence of the rocks seems to be original. The Upper Aptian-Albian beds occur on the northern and north-western peripheries of the block (161). They consist of marine variegated and grey, occasionally gypsiferous clay, sandstone, marl, limestone and siltstone. The beds vary in thickness from several meters to several tens of meters. They rest on the Neocomian-Lower Aptian red beds with distinct evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity. In the places where the Neocomian-Lower Aptian beds are missing they overlie unconformably all the older formations. The absence of the Upper Aptian-Albian beds over the greater pert of the area seems to be accounted for by the fact that they have never been deposited there. The Cenomanian-Turonian deposits are more abundant than the Upper Aptian-Albian, yet they are not ubiquitous either. In the east the Cenomanian-Turonian sequence consists of marine sandstone, clay and siltstone enclosing limestone interbeds and lenses, the total thickness varying from 25 to 125 meters. It lies unconformably on the Neocomian-Albian and on all the older strata.. Its relation to the Upper Aptian- Albian beds has not been ascertained. In the north-west, the Cenomanian-Turonian deposits make up a continuous section with the Upper Aptian-Albian, being represented by grey-coloured and variegated clay, sandstone and siltstone with a markedly subordinate amount of limestone and marl. They are normally several tens of meters thick, reaching occasionally 100-150 meters. The Coniacian-Campanian deposits seem to have been accumulated over the greater part of the area with the possible exception of a few localities in the south-east. The sequence consists of marine clay, sandstone and siltstone beds with a small amount of limestone and marl. The thickness is variable from 20-30 to 200-300 meters. The beds lie on the Cenomanian-Turonian, either conformably or with evidence of erosion. In the places where the Cenomanian-Turonian beds are absent they rest unconformably on all the older formations. The Maastrichtian-Paleocene sediments were deposited throughout the Maymana Fault Block covering the area as a continuous mantle made up of limestone, marl and dolomite. Reef limestones are common, particularly in the Paleocene interval. The total thickness varies from a few hundred meters in the northwest to 800 meters in the south-east. The beds overlie the Coniacian-Campanian with traceable erosion, yet with no angular unconformity and, in the places where the latter are missing, they rest unconformably on all the older strata. Eocene outcrops are sporadically scattered along the northern periphery of the block. They consist of marine clays, sandstones and siltstones with rare limestone beds. The deposits vary in thickness between 70 and 700 meters and rest conformably, yet with evidence of erosion, on the Maastrichtian-Paleocene strata. The absence of Eocene deposits over the greater part of the area seems to be accounted for by the fact that they have never been accumulated there. Formations of the orogenic unit are not typical of the Maymana Fault Block. Some Miocene deposits are found along the northern and north-western periphery of the block, where they infill negative structures. These are red-coloured and variegated fine-terrigenous deposits varying in thickness from several tens to several hundreds of meters. They lie on the Eocene with no prominent angular unconformity and unconformably on all the older formations. They seem to have never been deposited over the greater part of the area.

326

The Pliocene deposits occur in the north-eastern part of the block where they fill in several shallow superimposed basins of a north-eastern trend. These are variegated, grey terrigenous rocks with rare beds of lacustrine limestone and marl. Here the Pliocene sequence is 150-500 meters thick. It lies unconformably on all the older formations. Sediments of this age seem to have never been deposited over the greater part of the area. The Quaternary beds occur in two large and several shallow basins in the west of the block. The basins are filled in with Middle Quaternary beds varying in thickness from several meters to several tens of meters. In the south-east, in the Sarlogh dry valley, the Middle Quaternary is represented by a thin flow of basanitetrachybasalt volcanics. The flow is 20-30 meters in thickness and 2.5 by 2.5 kilometres in area. Structurally, the Maymana Fault Block is a meganticline which is evidenced by its position between the negative structures bordering on it in the north and south and by the high level of the Folded Basement. The latter is exposed in a number of positive structures of which the Bande Turkestan and the Balkhob uplifts are the largest. The Bande Turkestan Uplift The Bande Turkestan Uplift coincides geographically with the most elevated watershed part in the western half of the Bande Turkestan Ridge. The length of the uplift along the axial line is 100 kilometres, the maximum width being 10 kilometres. The trend is almost east-western. In the south and east, the boundaries of the uplift run along faults almost everywhere except for the localities where it plunges unfaulted beneath the surrounding Cretaceous strata. The southern fault aligned with the Bande Turkestan Fault is believed to be the main one. It is the fault along which all the oldest beds of the uplift are exposed. These beds consist of red-coloured sandstone and siltstone enclosing lenses of limestone with Late Moscovian microfauna (90). The topmost interval of the red-bed unit is supposed to be Permian. The total thickness is about 1,500 meters. The beds are succeeded with evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity by the Triassic strata consisting predominantly of marine fine terrigenous dark-coloured flysch-like rocks. The Triassic sequence is more than 4,000 meters in thickness. As mentioned above, the Triassic deposits resemble the Taurus Flysch Series from the Crimea Mountains (U.S.S.R.). The general structure of the uplift is that of a horst-anticline, most of the constituent structural features being linear folds. The folds are different in complexity due to the difference-in competency of the folded beds. Plastic argillite beds are deformed to various, frequently very complex folds. Vertical and isoclinal bedding is often encountered. Thick sandstone beds are simply folded with limbs dipping at 20-40 and exhibiting gentle bends of the crests and smoothly undulating hinges. The general trend of the folds is almost eastwestern. In the west and east blunt periclinal terminations are observed, and a large box-shaped anticline is outlined in the Cretaceous beds. The Balkhob Uplift The Balkhob Uplift is situated in an area of the north-eastern stretch of the river Bande Amir, which is known as the river Balkhob there. The uplift divides the Maymana Fault Block into two parts, the northwestern, relatively lowered, having a basement of the Afghanistan-North Pamir type. The length of the uplift estimated by the outcrop of the Folded Basement is 90 kilometres and the greatest width is 40 kilometres. The trend is north-eastern. Unlike the Bande Turkestan Uplift, which is a structure of east-west trend concordant with the strike of the Sedimentary Cover beds, the Balkhob Uplift is a typical discordant structure oriented across and askew with respect to the general strike of the Sedimentary Cover strata and the Folded Basement. The Folded Basement consists of Ordovician-Devonian, Lower Carboniferous, Persian, MiddleUpper Jurassic and Rhaetian stratified volcanogenic-sedimentary rock units common to the AfghanistanNorth Pamir Folded Region. The sedimentary rocks are cut through by small bodies of Early Carboniferous ultrabasic and Late Triassic sub-volcanic rocks. Formations of the Bainyan and Surkhab sub-types are easily recognizable among the Carboniferous-Permian strata. The former occur in the southern part of the uplift, on the extensions of the Bamyan structures, and the latter in the northern part, on the extension of the Surkhab structures (Figs 19, 20). All the sequences are deformed into linear or brachyform folds of a north-western strike.

327

The present-day structure of the uplift seems to be inherited from Neogene-Quaternary time, although it cannot be ruled out that the uplift may have existed and controlled sedimentation at least since Jurassic period. This supposition is supported by the fact that Jurassic beds are widespread to the east of the Balkhob Uplift while there are none at all to the west of it. In addition to the above mentioned large positive structures, the Maymana Fault Block includes many smaller uplifts, the most pronounced of which are the Zarchoy, the Kaflatun (Mirza Wolang) and the Pasnay. These are unilateral horst-like anticlines of a north-western strike out off by steeply-dipping faults in the south-west. The cores of all the three uplifts are composed of Ladinian-Norian rocks of the Folded Basement, and the limbs, of the Cretaceous Sedimentary Cover beds. A number of positive structures are recognizable in the Sedimentary Cover, the most pronounced of which are the anticlines in the north-eastern part of the block with the cores composed of Jurassic rocks. All the outcrops of the coal-bearing formations of the Darahe-i-Suf-Shabbashak coalfield are found within these anticlines. The strikes are north-eastern and almost east-western. Almost all the structures in the platform Sedimentary Cover of the Maymana Fault Block are simple. Nearly horizontal beds are gently bent in places, the bends depicting smooth troughs, shallow coffer folds, domes and flexures. Decollement faults can be observed in the Sedimentary Cover in some localities. For instance, in the area of the village of Duob Uluswali an erosion window reveals Cretaceous and Triassic beds contacting along a fault (Fig. 21). The contact is marked by a breccia. In this area the Cretaceous strata are folded into a series of flexures extending in a north-western direction. This faulted contact seems to be a plane along which the Platform Sedimentary Cover has slipped from the basement and has been folded, irrespective of the latter. In some localities the upper beds of the Triassic sequence are disharmonically folded, having been involved in slipping. These observations combined with the above mentioned evidence on the structure of the Platform Sedimentary Cover in the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block are indicative of abundant decollement folds within the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift. The orogenic formations fill in a number of superimposed negative structures in the north-western and southeastern parts of the Maymana Fault Block. The most interesting and peculiar structure is The YakowlangBamyan Graben, which is knee-like in plan. Its north-western segment is situated within the platform separating the Qala-I-Naw and Maymana Fault Blocks which are of the same age and origin. The nearly eastwest-trending segment of the graben occupies a position between the structural units of different age, i.e. between the structures of the platform and the Afghanistan- North Pamir Folded Region in the north and those of Mid-Afghanistan in the south. The length of the north-west-trending Yakowlang segment is 45 kilometres and that of the nearly east-west-trending Bamyan segment, 120 kilometres. The average width of the graben is seven kilometres. The graben is symmetrical in cross-section, the southern flank being steep and more lowered end the northern gently dipping and less lowered. This is a typical continental rift formed at the southern pericratonic termination of the North Afghanistan Platform and the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region. The graben is filled in with terrestrial red-coloured and variegated coarse and fine terrigenous detrital and lacustrine deposits. Lacustrine limestones and marls are abundant, bearing fresh-water fauna, as well as underwater and terrestrial flora. Volcanics including alkali rocks are also abundant. The deposits are Pliocene in age except for the basal beds, which seem to be Miocene or even Eocene-Oligocene. In Quaternary time the graben was an area of intensive activity of mineral water springs and accumulation of travertine. Another interesting structure formed during the orogenic period of the geological history of the Maymana Fault Block is the Sarlog Basin situated in the upper reaches of the river Kahmard. The basin is 2.5 by 2.5 kilometres in size, striking to the north-west parallel to the north-western segment of the Yakowlang.Bamyan Graben. The basin is filled in with typical platform type alkali volcanics of a basanite-trachybasalt formation of tentatively Middle Pleistocene age. There is, moreover, a number of other basins filled in with Neogene and Quaternary deposits commonly found in growing uplifts and intermontane basins. Faults are fairly numerous in the Maymana Fault Block, emphasizing its anticlinal, horst like structure. Most of them are extensive linear faults of a north-western strike concordant with the general trends of the folds. 328

They break the block into subparallel smaller blocks. Most of the faults are upthrusts and wrench-type faults having a magnitude of displacement within several kilometres along the horizontal plane and within several hundred meters along the vertical plane. Some of the faults are responsible for the formation of unilateral or normal grabens and horsts. Short wrench faults running across the strike of the majority of folds and faults are an exception. A system of contiguous subparallel faults extending northeast of the north-western segment of the Yakowlang-Bamyan Graben is of great interest. It is evident that these faults were formed by tension forces which operated during the formation of the graben. Most of the faults are Neogene-Quaternary in age. Some of them seem to have originated in the Paleogene. The Sheberghan Fault Block The Sheberghan Fault Block is the main oil- and gas-bearing region of Afghanistan (Figs 7-23). The structure of the block has been thoroughly studied by petroleum geologists who refer to it as the North Afghan Basement Uplift (161). A new name is given to the block here to improve the nomenclature of the structures and their names. Within the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift, the block occupies an extreme northern part, forming the third, most lowered and most eastward-displaced, step. The length of the block is about 250 kilometres, the maximum width being 100 kilometres. The trend is nearly east-western. In the south, the block borders on the Maymana Fault Block along a system of the Andarab-Mirza Wolang faults and flexure bends, and in the north, on the Murghab-Upper Amu-Darya Basin along the northern limbs of the Alburs-Mormul group of anticlines. The northern boundary is flexural, easily recognizable, and the southern boundary is flexural, too, but less prominent. In the east, the block is tentatively limited by the north-south trending stretches of the Pul-i-Khumri and Baghlan rivers, and in the west by a line passing through the meridian of the towns of Sheberghan and Sar-i-Pul. The latter boundary is indefinite and provisional. The Folded Basement is overlain almost everywhere by the Sedimentary Cover deposits and hence it has not been studied in outcrops. Judging by the structural pattern, neither the Afghaniststan-North Pamir, nor the Furuzkoh-Bande Turkestan type of the basement is applicable. It is very likely that we are dealing with an essentially new, third type of the basement here, the type represented chiefly by Proterozoic metamorphic rocks. This is, however, mere supposition so far. Petroleum geologists believe the basement to be Paleozoic. In the western part of the block, in the Sheram, Angot, Bayangor and other areas, the basement was encountered by drill boles at elevations of +220, -470, -660 end -750 meters, respectively. In the southeast the basement rocks outcrop along the periphery of the Rabatag Horst. The Triassic beds were penetrated by boreholes at different depths along the block's periphery. They consist of dark-coloured sandstones and shales either of the Surkhab or of the Bande Turkesten types. Their relations with the "Paleozoic" are uncertain. It is believed that they have not been deposited over the larger part of the block. The Platform Sedimentary Cover has a reduced section. The Lower and Middle Jurassic appears to have never existed. So far Upper Jurassic consisting of carbonate-terrigenous and salt-gypsum deposits have only been located on the north-western periphery of the block. They vary within 135 to 388 meters in thickness and appear to have never existed over the larger part of the area. The Cretaceous section is relatively complete, though in some localities breaks in sedimentation have been observed in the Neocomian, Upper Turonian, Coniacian, Santonian, and Campanian units. Basal horizons are scarce since their original deposition was not ubiquitous due to the existence of consedimentational paleotopographical landforms. The most complete Cretaceous section is known from the extreme northern periphery of the block, from the Kohi-Alburs-Shadyan Ridge. The.Neocomian-Lower Aptian beds consist of dark and red-coloured sandstones, clays and siltstones, 424 m thick. The Upper Aptian-Albian interval is represented by 205 meters of variegated and grey sandstones and argillites, Cenomanian-Turonian, by 339 meters of sandstones, clays and limestones, and the Coniacian-Campanian by 315 meters of limestones, marls end clays. The presence of gypsum was noted in all the intervals of the section. The total maximum thickness is 1,283 meters. Maastrichtian-Paleocene deposits occur throughout the territory of the block as a continuous blanket. The rocks are mostly limestones, reef limestones being found in the Paleocene interval. The thickness of the deposits was estimated to be 524 meters in the Kohi-Alburs-Shadyan Ridge. They overlie the Campanian with no angular unconformity, yet with traces of erosion. Eocene deposits seem to have existed throughout the area. However, as a result of pre-Miocene and Pliocene-Quaternary erosion, they were removed from the larger part of the area, and are now present only in 329

the cores of negative structures occurring in some localities along the northern, north-eastern end northwestern peripheries of the block. The deposits are marine sandstones, clays and siltstones with a subordinate amount of limestone, marl and gypsum. In the exposed part of the section they are 400 meters in thickness. The Eocene beds lie conformably on Paleocene limestone, although in places some indications of erosion can be seen. The orogenic deposits are represented by widespread, supposedly Lower and Middle Miocene variegated and red-coloured sandstones, clays and siltstones with a small amount of conglomerates and gravelstones (the Shafay and Kashtanga Formations 1,100-1,550 meters thick). They rest on the Eocene beds with distinct evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity and in the places where the Eocene beds are missing they overlie unconformably all the older formations. Pliocene deposits were not encountered within the block. They had, apparently, never existed there. Quaternary deposits, variable in origin, fill in the lows traceable in the present day topography. They vary in thickness from several meters to several hundred meters. Structurally, the block is a megasyncline gently dipping westwards. It is asymmetrical in cross-section, the southern flank being more elevated and steep compared to the northern. The core of the syncline consists of Miocene and Quaternary deposits, and. the flanks, of the Maastrichtian-Paleocene. The syncline is complicated by structures of the second order. These are the Sheram and Shadyan archshaped highs in the west and middle, the Rabatag horst like high in the southeast, and the Samangan graben in the northeast. A group of Alburs-Mormul anticlines extends along the northern periphery. The Sangcharak Trough extends in the south-western part of the syncline along its present-day axial line. All the abovementioned structures, as well as the minor folds complicating theme are reported here on the basis of the data presented in a book by V.I. Bratash et al. (161). The Sheram Arch The Sheram Arch consists of the central Sheram group of folds and the surrounding Bayangor and DarashaKarkol groups of folds. The folds can be distinguished by the outcrops of Maastrichtian-Paleocene and Suzak beds among Miocene red beds. Apart from the central arch, the proper Sheram group of folds includes the Kariz, Sozaykalan, Sozmakalan and Hawdan anticlines complicating the southern flank of the arch, as well as the Angot, Lut, Kashkari and Akhari anticlines situated southwest of the central arch. Geomorphologically, the central arch is a broad flat ridge consisting of Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones, the maximum elevation being 1,600 meters. The arch is 26 by 15 kilometres in size. Its elevation above the base is 400 meters. The general trend of the structure being north-eastern, the axial line is seen-to curve like an arc, convex to the south-east. At the apex the beds are almost horizontal or dipping 2-30, while in the flanks they dip 10-12 and even 30. The Bayangor group of folds includes the Zagdala, Khwaja Bulan, Homushli, Bayengor, Dehsaday and Beshkamar anticlines. Topographically, these are hills of nearly east-western trend. The hills appear to have a common basement. On the surface these are composed of Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones and Suzak clay beds. It is likely that this group of folds is separated from the main Sheram structures by a fault and, hence, may have undergone its own evolution. This supposition is supported by the fact that the Bayengor folds have east-western trends whereas the Sheram folds strike to the northeast. Other evidence is the occurrence of Jurassic beds at the base of the section in the Bayangor anticlines and the absence of these beds in the Sheram structures. The Darashakarkol group incluaes Uzunkuduk, North Kariz and other folds situated in a depressed area between the central Sheram Arch and the Alburs-Mormul group of anticlines. The folds are low (less than 100 meters in height) with limbs dipping at 5-15 ( On the surface these are composed of Lower Miocene red beds. Only a few of them expose Maastrichtian-Paleocene beds at the tops. To the east of the Sheram Arch there are the Chapchal and Akkupruk anticlines isolated from the other structures. These are oriented at a right angle to one another. The elevation of the Akkupruk anticline with Maastrichtian-Paleocene beds on the top is +1,100 meters and that of Chapchal, +1,500 meters. 330

The Shadyan Arch The Shadyan Arch is situated south of the Shadyan Ridge and east of the Sheram Arch. The arch consists of Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestone beds. In the northern flank the beds are overlain by Suzak clays and in the southern flank by Lower Miocene red beds. The western pericline of the arch is complicated by a flexure in which Upper Cretaceous rocks are raised to the surface. The dips at the top do not exceed 100, reaching 5060 in the flanks. Two highs of a lower order, Bukhara-Mazar and Urazami, rise in the centre of the arch. The Bukhara-Mazar High is 10 by 15 kilometres in size rising 250 meters above the base. The dips in the flanks are 8-10. The Urazami High is 15 by 2.5 kilometres in size rising 120 meters above the base. The dips in the flanks are 4-6. South of the Shadynn Arch the Orlyamish-Dalan group of folds occurs. The folds are composed of Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestone beds. The dips are low, the heights of the folds being 50 meters. The folds strike west and north-west. The Rabatag horst-type high The Rabatag horst-type high is situated in the extreme south-eastern part of the Sheberghan Fault Block. The high is isometric in plan slightly elongated nearly north-southwards, the latitudinal diameter being 35 and the longitudinal, 50 kilometres. This is the most elevated structure in the Sheberghan Fault Block. It rises to a few kilometres above the surrounding territory. The north-western part of the horst is most uplifted. There the Ordovician (Proterozoic?) rocks are brought up to the level of the surrounding Cretaceous-Paleogene bans. This is the only place where the Folded Basement can be observed in outcrops. Being situated at the contact between the Surkhab Zone, the Afghanistan-South Tajikistan Basin and the Sheberghan Fault Block, the horst's elements are structurally similar to the surrounding structures. Its Folded Basement consists of the stratified and intrusive formations of the Surkhab Zone (in the south). The Platform Sedimentary Cover deposits are similar to the contemporaneous formations of the Sheberghan Fault Block, and the orogenic complex resembles the Neogene deposits of the Afghanistan-Tajikistan Basin. Structurally, the Rabatag High is similar to the Sheram and Shadyan arches, all of them being dome-shaped positive structures, except that the Rabatag High was elevated much higher and acquired the shape of a horst. The Samangan Graben The Samangan Graben is situated in the extreme north-east of the Sheberghan Fault Block. Within the graben there is system of long (20-25 km.), narrow (1-1.5 km.) folds of a north-western strike. Most of the folds are anticlines. Topographically, these are narrow mountain ranges composed of Maastrichtian-Paleocene beds on the top. From east to west, the north-western strikes of the folds gradually change to north-north-western and northern ones (330.-350). The folds are box- or crest-like, asymmetrical with steep limbs dipping at 60~80. The western and south-western limbs are frequently faulted and overturned. The eastern and north-eastern limbs are more gentle and usually less faulted, the dips varying within 20-60. Cretaceous rocks outcrop at the tops of large anticlines. Many of the folds bifurcate, to become two-axis anticlines. Several groups of folds can be distinguished from the south-west to the north-east. These are Bastunok, Ergali, Babalar, and the last group called Eastern. The Bastunok group of folds distinguished north-west of the town of Samangan comprises the Bastunok, Sunok, Harcharon, Asiabad, Dalkhak, Suluktin, Hazret-Sultan, Tolgash, and other structures. Topographically, these rise as mountain ranges striking to the north-west. The folds are long and narrow, consisting of Paleocene limestone. The former five folds are oriented en-echelon. These have steep, in places overturned, south-western limbs and more gentle (30-60) north-eastern limbs. Judging by the shape of the tops, they can be classified as coffer folds. The largest of them is the Bastunok Fold. It is 14 by 2 km. in size and 600 m in height. The Ergali group of folds situated north-east of the town of Samangan are the Ergali, Ortakotal and Qarsaqol anticlines. The Ergali Anticline is an asymmetrical coffer fold extending for more than 40 kilometres to the north-west. Topographically, this is a system of ridges with the highest elevation of 2,000 meters. The limbs are steep, in places overturned. The south-western limb is faulted. The Ortakotal and Qaramqol anticlines bifurcate from the north-eastern limb of the Ergali Fold and, together with the elongated northern pericline of the latter, form a trident directed towards the Alburs-Mormul group of nearly east-west-trending folds. 331

The Babalar group of folds includes the Babalar, Kat, Dukoh, South Babalar, Koh-i-Chal, Shahishor and other anticlines. Geomorphologically, the Babalar Anticline is manifested as a ridge consisting of Paleocene limestone with the highest elevation of +1,934 meters. The arch of the fold is broken by a series of faults. As a result, Upper Aptian-Albian rocks are raised to the surface. The fold is 28 by three kilometres in size, having a height of 1,000 meters. The strike is north-western. The Eastern group of folds includes the Gaukhar, South Gaukhar, Gabar and Baysakal anticlines situated in the extreme east of the graben. The Alburs-Mormul group of anticlines The Alburs-Mormul group of anticlines occur in the area of the Kohi-i-Alburs, Shadyan and Khwaja Tut Ridges. The anticlines mark the northern limits of the Sheberghan Fault Block and Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift. They are confined to a flexural bend in the Platform Sedimentary Cover extending along the boundary between the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift and the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin. The magnitude of the bend is several kilometres, of which a thousand of meters were measured in the outcrops of the Koh-i-Alburz, Shadyan and Khwaja Tut ridges elevated above the piedmont plain extending northwards. The bend is accompanied by rupture of the strata and -faulting of both the Sedimentary Cover and apparently the Folded Basement. Apart from the direct geological evidence available, this is proved by the results of geophysical surveys. On the magnetic map the Alburs Ridge is marked by an intensive positive anomaly and on the gravity map by a dense pattern of gravity contour lines. The seismic lines shot across this gravity gradient revealed that it corresponds to a fault whose magnitude of displacement, estimated on the top of the reflecting horizon (Paleocene limestone), is more than 1,000 meters. In the Alburs Fold, the displacement is likely to reach 2,500-3,000 meters. The Sheberghan, Alburs, Mornul-Tashqurgan and Baghlanak groups of folds were delineated from west to east. The cores of the folds consist of Cretaceous rocks and the limbs of Maastrichtian-Paleocene. The folds strike to the west. They are asymmetrical, the northern limbs being steep, in places vertical and even slightly overturned to the north, and the southern gently dipping. The Sheberghan group of folds includes the Yatim Tag, Khwaja Gogerdak and Yalangach anticlines situated in the extreme west of the structural zone considered.. They occur within one large high. The folds are small in size, their limbs dipping at 5-10. The Alburs and Mormul-Tashqurgan groups of folds include the Alburs, Ali-Mogol, Aq Darya, Tashqurgan, Weizon, Mormul and other anticlines situated in the middle of the zone under consideration. All the folds are hypsometrically high, open to various levels of Cretaceous sequence and highly faulted. The limbs are very steep, in places overturned. The Baghlanak group of folds occur in the area of the Khwaja-Tut Ridge where absolute elevations exceed 2,000 meters. Taken together, they form a large anticlinal uplift whose hinge - undulates, forming four independent folds separated by small bends. In the northern limbs Paleogene Suzak, Alay, Turkestan and Sumsar beds and Miocene red beds can be found. The southern limbs have been little studied. They are frequently overturned, faulted and hidden beneath Lower Quaternary and Recent deposits. The Sangcharak Trough The Sangcharak Trough is mapped south of the Sheram group of folds marking the most depressed axial part of the Sheberghan Syncline. The trough is delineated by continuous outcrops of Quaternary deposits traceable in the areas underlain by Miocene red beds in the south-west of the fault block. On the same extension, westwards, the Dawlatabad Trough occurs which belongs to the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin. Faults are not numerous in the Sheberghan Fault Block. Apart from inextensive and low-magnitude faults complicating the axial parts and. limbs of the individual folds, four regional faults were traced. The largest of them is the Alburs-Mormul Fault (Fig. 7-1) running along a system of the above mentioned Alburs-Mormul anticlines. Tracing the latter, the fault breaks the Sedimentary Cover and, obviously, the Folded Basement of the block along the northern and north-eastern margin of the megasyncline forming a semi-arc in plan. Apparently, the fault is responsible for a sharp flexural bend in the Sedimentary Cover beds and for variousmagnitude displacements of the fold limbs north and south of it. The fault extends for 300 kilometres, the dip 332

of the fault plane being almost vertical. The fault is of Neogene-Quaternary age, though it is quite possible that it originated and acted in Jurassic-Paleocene time, controlling the distribution of sediments. Another major fault cuts across the block from the south- east to the north-west, running between the Khulm (Samangan) and. Darya-i-Safed river valleys. The fault extends for 200 kilometres. Almost throughout its length the fault crosses homogenous Maastrichtian-Paleocene, Eocene and Miocene rocks. Triassic stratified and intrusive formations, and Cretaceous deposits outcrop at the south-eastern end of the fault. It is a strikeslip fault whose south-western wall is downthrown with respect to the north-eastern one. The magnitude of displacement remains uncertain and appears to vary from place to place. Yet another major structural feature is a ring fault system outlining the Rabatag horst-shaped high. The horst body bounded by faults is uplifted for one to four kilometres with respect to the surrounding strata whose age is the same as of the upthrusted beds. Salt-gypsum deposits outcropping along the north-western segment of the fault might have contributed to the origin of the horst and the delineating faults. One more major fault in the Sheberghan Fault Block bounds the Samangan Graben on the southwest. It is a typical oblique strike-slip fault, extending for about 100 kilometres. Along this fault, a system of north and north-west-striking folds of the Samangan Horst are downthrown and shifted to the south-east with respect to the north-eastern part of the Shadyan Arch, indicating that the feature is a dextral wrench fault. The magnitude of separation is unknown. It appears to be more than two or three kilometres. All the faults considered break the Cretaceous-Paleogene and. Miocene strata, their present-day geometry being inherited from the Neogene-Quaternary. Of a peculiar nature and, possibly, youngest in age are the north-west-striking wrench faults cutting across the nearly east-west-trending anticlines of the Khwaja Tut Ridge. The broken parts of the anticlines seem to have been moved forward along the faults like a set of keys to the north-northwest beyond the limits of the Sheberghan Fault Block. Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin. The general outlines of this structural unit are delineated by continuous outcrops of Cenozoic deposits in the plains and low foothills of North Afghanistan. Only a small portion of this negative structure of the Turan Young Platform is situated within the state frontiers of Afghanistan. Most of its area is situated within SouthEast Turkmenia and South-West Tajikistan. The length of the Afghan part of the basin extending along the frontier with the U.S.S.R. is about 1,000 kilometres, the maximum width being 125 kilometres. It is oriented to the east-north-east. The boundaries of the basin are complex and winding, coincident with the original and recent outlines of the surrounding positive structural units. The boundary with the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift is not linear everywhere. Some of the local negative structures of the basin occur within the uplift, which makes it impossible to draw a linear boundary between them. But in general, the boundary is more or less paleogeographical. The contact between the basin and the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region is more distinct, mostly running along the Hohan-Eshkamysh Fault, although it is not a primary paleogeographical but a secondary tectonic boundary produced by recent movements. Only between the Hohan and Eshkamysh segments of the fault, is the boundary paleo-geographical one extending along the eastern side of the Badakhshan Foredeep. The boundary is nonlinear, winding in parallel with the trends of the adjacent mountain ridges. The present structure of the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin is distinguished by the lower level of the Folded Basement, the Platform Sedimentary Cover and the orogenic formations correlateable with those in the adjacent areas. The ancient structure of the basin differs from that of the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift in the specific assemblage of the formations, the greater thickness, the more complete sections, the smaller number of breaks in sedimentation, and other factors. The Folded Basement is very deep within the larger part of the basin and has been little studied. Only in the east of the basin, can the basement be observed in outcrops, being represented by stratified and intrusive formations similar to those of the Afghanistan North Pamir Folded Region. Yet, it is hard to say how far this type of basement extends westwards beneath the basin's sedimentary rocks, particularly, after it was established that all the known structural complexes of the Afghanistan North Pamir Folded Region plunge beneath the sedimentary cover of the eastern part of the Maymana Fault Block. Based on the data of 333

structural analysis and the data available from the U.S.S.R., it can be assumed, that the Folded Basement is of the Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan type under the larger part of the Murghab half of the basin. Naturally, the basement is likely to be the same on the extension of the south-west spurs of the Gissar Ridge, whereas eastwards, under the larger part of the Upper Amu Darya Basin proper, the basement seems to be of the Qara-Teghe type (consisting of Precambrian? metamorphic rocks). The Platform Sedimentary Cover, as seen from the outcrops in the east of the basin, starts with LowerMiddle Jurassic terrestrial coal-bearing beds (1,250-1,450 m thick) resting unconformably on all the older formations. It is not known whether they extend throughout the basin. These may turn out to be a marginal facies of the basin. The Upper Jurassic section, including Upper Bathonian beds, consists of terrigenouscarbonate rocks at the lower part (250-1,150 m) and lagoonal-marine and terrestrial evaporite and terrigenous deposits at the upper part (250 to 1,150 m thick). The Cretaceous beds (350-2,550 m thick) are almost totally terrigenous with a small amount of limestones, mostly of marine and only rarely, at the base, of terrestrial origin. The Cretaceous section is almost continuous; only some basal horizons pinch out in areas bordering on the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift and the Afghanistan North Pamir Folded Region. MaastrichtianPaleocene chiefly terrigenous deposits (200-600 m thick) overlie the Campanian with evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity. The Eocene beds, 400 to 620 m thick, consisting predominantly of fineterrigenous deposits of marine origin, overlie the Paleocene conformably. Anhydrite occurs in the Gaurdak section. A distinctive feature of the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin is the abundance of Neogene-Quaternary orogenic deposits accumulated during the most active period of the development of the basin as a negative structure. The greatest thickness of the deposits is recorded in the Badakhshan Foredeep (13,400- 14,750 m). They rest unconformably on all the older formations, having unconformities at the Pliocene and Pleistocene bases. The structure of the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin is not uniform. The basin is divided into two smaller basins by a meganticline traceable in the south-western spurs of the Gissar Ridge. These are the AfghanistanSouth Tajikistan more depressed basin with nearly north-south-trending steep-limbed markedly elongated folds diverging fan-like to the north, and the Afghanistan-South Turkmenistan less depressed basin with gently dipping, broad and short folds of nearly east-western and west-north-western trends. Below follows the description of the basins as given in the book by V.I. Bratash et al. (161).

Afghanistan-South Tajikistan Basin According to the position of the basin between the mountains of the Gissar-Alay and the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region, it is often referred to as an intermountain basin. As mentioned above, a distinctive feature of the Afghan part of the basin, apart from the great thickness of the Neogene-Quaternary formations, is the fan-like northward divergence of the folds. The centre of the divergence is the town of Pule Khumri. Most pronounced are the anticlines, which appear as mountain ranges in the present topography. These are coffer- shaped crest-like or angular folds. The echelon-like arrangement of the folds is a common feature of the area. Structures produced by salt tectonics were noted near the town of Talikan. All the structural units of the Afghan portion of the basin extend continuously onto the U.S.S.R. territory, where they are known as the Surkhan, Wakhsh and Kuliab megasynclines, and Kafirnigan and Ab-i-Garm meganticlines. To emphasize the fact that these are the same structures they are referred to in Afghanistan under the same names. Besides, a peculiar Eshkamysh Zone of fault-line folds was distinguished in the south-east of the basin. The Surkhan Megasyncline or the Mazare Sharif Basin The Surkhan Megasyncline or the Mazare Sharif Basin (Figs 7-24) occupies an extreme western position in a series of the above-mentioned structures. In the south, it borders on the northern foothills of the Koh-i-Alburs - Shadyan Ridge. In the north, its extension is the Surkhan-Darya Valley in the U.S.S.R. The total thickness of the Meso- Cenozoic strata is seven or eight thousand meters. The basin is characterized by a relatively undisturbed magnetic field and vague, mostly isometric, anomalies. Magnetic field values decrease gradually to the north, towards the Amu Darya River and to the south, towards the Sheberghan Fault Block.

334

On the gravity map, the basin is divided into two parts with the boundary between them apparently being a fault running along the meridian of Mazar-Sharif. The eastern part of the gravity map shows a series of gravity highs and lows of north-south trending. The highs mark the Ghanj, Mohamman-Jandaghar and AytaTepa Anticlines. The folds are long, narrow with steep limbs and faulted tops, as evidenced by drilling in the Mohammad-Jandaghar Anticline. The depth down to Paleocene limestone beds varies between 300-900 meters on the tops of the anticlines and 2,500-3,000 meters in the synclines. In the west the structure of the basin is different. South of the Amu Darya River, the gravity contour lines slowly change in trend from-north to west marking a gradual rise of the floor of the basin in a westward direction. The essentially calm gravity field in the western part of the basin is only disturbed by two slightly pronounced gravity highs. One of them mapped in the Imam-Sayb Area is oriented to the northwest. The other manifested by a bend of gravity contour lines is outlined 20 kilometres south-east of the village of Khalif. A subsequent seismic survey revealed the Sandukli Anticline in this area. The anticline, 13 by 5 kilometres in size, is situated on the extension of the Khalif-Repeter Zone striking to the north-east. The indicated size of the anticline (13 by 5 km.)was estimated by a -1,500-meter closed depth contour line on a structural map plotted from seismic data. The Ghanj Anticline is mapped on the alignment of the Kokaity oil field (U.S.S.R.). The size of the anticline estimated on the Paleocene limestone is 15 by 3 kilometres. The closure is 150 meters, the limbs dip at 3035. The depth to the top of Paleocene limestone unit in the anticline arch is 550-600 meters. The Mohammad-Jandagher Anticline is separated from the Ghanj Anticline by a narrow, deep trough. The size of the anticline estimated on the top of the Paleocene limestone is 7.5 by 1 kilometre, the closure is 100120 meters, the western limb dipping at 40-450 and the eastern, at 35-100. The depth to the top of Paleocene limestone unit is 850-1,000 meters. The elevation of the top is 550-600 meters. The Ayta-Tepa Anticline is six kilometres by one kilometer in size as estimated on the Paleocene limestone top and 100-150 meters in closure. The elevations of the tops of the Paleocene limestone are +90-100 meters. The Kafirnigan Meganticline (Figs 7-25) is situated east of the Surkhan Megasyncline. It consists of two parts separated by the Mir Ali Trough. The eastern part is topographic ally mere elevated. Many minor anticlines were located there. The anticlines are of a north-southern and a nearly north-southern strike, narrow and long, composed of Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestone. Almost the whole Cretaceous section is exposes in the arch portions of the most elevated Kartaw and Karabatur anticlines. en-echelon folds constitute a group of structures of a nearly north-southern trend. These are the Kartaw Karabatur and Sehtali groups of folds. The Kartaw group of folds situated in the east comprises the Buryutau, Sekuduk and Kartaw anticlines. A distinctive feature common to all of them is the high steepness of the eastern limbs. The Kartaw Anticline is 36 by 4 kilometres in size. The Karabatur group of folds mapped south of the previous group comprises the Karabatur, Akkol, North Badom and Badom anticlines. They have steep western limbs which are locally over-turned. The Karabatur Anticline is 27 by 5 kilometres in size, the closure being 1,500 meters. The Sehtali group of folds includes the Sehtali, Khayrabad, East Karabatur-Kshilak and Karabatur-Kshilak anticlines. The western limbs of the anticlines are steeper than the eastern ones, and are overturned in some places. The Karabatur-Kshilak Anticline manifests traces of intersection of the nearly north-southern Kafirnigan and the west-eastern Alburs-Mormul trends of folding. The western part of the Kafirnigan Meganticline includes the Shamar and Shibogli Anticlines whose extension on the right bank of the Amu Darya River are the Koyki-Tau and Tayuk-Tau anticlines. The Wakhah Megasyncline The Wakhah Megasyncline (Figs 7-26a) consists of two parts. The southern part is known as the Baghlan Trough. The axial part of the megasyncline is hidden beneath Quaternary deposits. Lower Quaternary and Neogene deposits outcrop in the limbs. In some places, particularly near faults, Paleocene limestones are exposed. As evidenced by the gravity data, the most depressed area of the megasyncline is situated south of the town of Qunduz, where the top of the Folded Basement seems to be as deep as 7.5 or 8 kilometres. 335

Miocene red beds and Pliocene variegated deposits outcrop from beneath the Quaternary in the area south of Qunduz. In the Baghlan Trough their thickness exceeds 4,500 meters. North of Qunduz, the gravity map shows only a few insignificant gravity highs. The seismic survey conducted in the area of the Basez gravity high revealed a brachyform anticline 3.5 by 2.5 kilometres in size end about 100 meters in closure. The Ab-i-Garm Meganticline The Ab-i-Garm Meganticline (Figs 7-26b) is easily recognizable topographically, rising above the adjacent Wakhsh and Kuliab megasynclines. Its elevated position is marked by outcrops of Upper Cretaceous rocks in the arch portions of the Ambar, Hanabad, Khwaja and Majar anticlines. The outcrops form a horseshoe pattern in plan, which closes in the Hanabad Area. The Hanabad Anticline is recognized in the topography as the Koh-i-Jawlanna Hill having a maximum elevation of 1,292 meters. The top portion of the fold is composed of Eocene rocks. Paleocene limestones outcrop from beneath the Eocene beds in deep dry valleys. Neogene red beds are exposed in the limbs and periclines. Under the general nearly east-western strike the axis of the fold is convex southwards. The beds in the northern limb dip within 20 and those in the southern, at 25-30. In the south-eastern portion of the fold, the dips increase to 45-55. The fold is 20 kilometres in length, 5.5 kilometres in width and over 1,000 meters in closure. The core portion of the Ambar Anticline is composed of Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestone. CenomanianCampanian beds are exposed in the arch portion. The fold is 20 kilometres is length, five kilometres in width and 1,500 meters in closure. In the western limb the beds dip at 30 to 80 and in the eastern, at 30 to 60. The Khwaja Anticline is also composed of Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestone in the core portion and of Eocene and Miocene beds in the limbs. The anticline is ten by four kilometres in size and 900 meters in closure. The northern part of the fold is broken by faults along which pre-Maastrichtian beds are lifted to the surface. The eastern limb is overturned; in places the limb is flat-lying. The dips in the western limb reach 50 (Two faults of a north-southern strike are inferred on the plunge of the western limb. The faults separate the Khwaja Fold from the Majar Anticline. The Majar Anticline is composed of Eocene rocks in the core and of Neogene in the limbs. In the western limb the beds dip at 10 to 50 and in the eastern at 10 to 80. The Kuliab Megasyncline or the Badakhshan Foredeep The Kuliab Megasyncline or the Badakhshan Foredeep (Fig. 7-26) occupies an extreme eastern position in a series of megastructures of the Afghanistan- South Tajikistan Basin. Structurally, this is a typical foredeep, which was formed as a compensation-type structure on the boundary between the Late Hercynian folds of the Afghanistan- North Pamir Folded Region and the Young North Afghanistan Platform. The larger part of the megasyncline is situated within the U.S.S.R. The remaining part situated in Afghanistan is 100 kilometres in extension and about 80 kilometres in width. The megasyncline is filled with thick Neogene and Anthropogene molasse which is deposited over a wide area extending southwards as far as the town of Pule Khumri and including the ends of the Ab-i-Garm and Waksh megastructures. The greatest thickness (17,000 meters) of the Neogene-Anthropogene deposits was recorded in the Kuliab Megasyncline which comprises the Kokcha Graben infilled with dislocated terrigenous-deposits of Pliocene age more than 11,000 meters in thickness in a single continuous section. In the west, the Kokcha Graben is bounded by the Rustak Fault whose magnitude of displacement is over 11,000 meters. Within the graben the vertical separation of the Folded Basement from the surrounding Hercyanides amounts to 15 or 17 thousand meters. All the deposits infilling the Kuliab Megasyncline form simple gentle folds of a nearly north-south strike. The dips in the limbs do not exceed 30, the western limbs frequently being steeper than the eastern ones. The folds are two to four kilometres in width and up to 50 kilometres in extension. A series of longitudinal faults disintegrate the folds. Salt tectonic structures have been reported in some areas south and east of Talikan. The Eshkamysh Fault-Line Zone The Eshkamysh Fault-Line Zone embraces the structurally complex areas confined to the Eshkamyah Fault running in the south-eastern part of the Afghanistan - South Tajikistan Basin. The width of the zone varies 336

within 5-20 kilometres, the length exceeding 100 kilometres. The zone strikes to the north-east. In the southwest it ends in the town of Pule Khumri end in the north-east in the town of Keshm. The zone is underlain by highly dislocated Jurassic, Cretaceous and Neogene strata. The folds are elongated from the south-west to the north-east, parallel to the Hohan-Eshkamysh Fault and to the Hercynian folds of the North-West Badakhshan. Kimmeridgian-Tithonian salt-gypsum stocks and domes are found in the north-east of the zone. Two of them, Namakab and Qala-Afghan, are known for their salt mines. The beds occurring within the zone are not uniformly dislocated. The Meso-Cenozoic strata are frequently deformed into very complex- folds in the vicinity of the Hercynian structures. In the Chal River drainage basin, the Lower-Middle Jurassic coal- bearing beds are crumpled into isoclinal, recumbent and overturned folds broken by a treat number of faults and intruded by porphyrite stocks and dykes. The Jurassic and Cretaceous beds are highly dislocated in the areas to the south and- east of the Narakab salt mines. Seven folds of variable preservation were mapped within the Eshkamysh Fault-Line Zone. The best preserved folds, Okhankamir, Chagkhan and Pule Khumri, are composed of Maestrichtian-Paleocene deposits on the surface. The folds are narrow and elongated. They are 11 by 2.5, 5 by 1.5 and 1.5 by 0.5 kilometres in size, respectively. The dips in the limbs vary from 20 to 80.

South-West Gissar Meganticline As mentioned above, the South-West Gissar Meganticline (Fig. 7-63) separates the Afghanistan-South Tajikistan and the Afghanistan-South Turkmenistan basins. Only the extreme southern periclinal part of the meganticline is situated within Afghanistan. It is outlined by Cretaceous beds outcropping from beneath the Quaternary in the extreme western part of the Afghan bask of the Amu Darya River. The southern periclines of the Khami-Ab, Khan-Tepa and Khalif anticlines were located by geological and gravity surveys on the right bank of the Amu Darya River.

Afghanistan-South Turkmenistan Basin The greater part of the basin is situated within the Turkmenian SSR. Only Some parts of its minor structures occur in Afghanistan. The largest of them (from south-west to north-east) are as follows: the Kalar, Qalay Mor-Qaysar, North Karabil-Dawlatabad and Obruchev troughs; the Kushk Zone of anticlines, the Maymana Arch, the Anakhoy Uplift the Akhcha Step and the Repetek-Kalif Fault-Line Zone. The general trends of the structures are nearly east-western and west-north-western. The Kalar Trough The Kalar Trough (Fig.7-51) is situated within the northern foothills of the Syah Budak, Kohi-Band-i-Baba and Badkhizat ridges surrounding the trough as a semi-arc amphitheatre. The most depressed part of the trough is in the lower and middle reaches of the Kushk River Valley. The axial part is covered by unconsolidated Quaternary deposits with Neogene and Paleogene deposits exposed at the flanks. The trough has been little studied. In the gravity map, it is marked by an extensive zone of negative anomalies. In the south, southeast and south-west, the trough is bordeted by the Laman Structural Nose and two zones of anticlines, Bande Ghandaw and Kizil-Bulak, which, in turn, comprise minor local anticlines. The Kushk Zone of Anticlines The Kushk Zone of Anticlines is situated on the extension of the western. pericline of the Bande-Turkestan Uplift. The anticlines consist of Paleogene argillaceous rocks with Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestone beds outcropping from beneath the latter in deeply incised dry valleys. Topographically, the anticlines appear as smooth, nearly east-west-trending elongated hills with maximum elevations of 1,000 meters. Northwards, the height of the hills decreases regularly. The zone includes the Islim, Babatag (Marginal), Tumba (Changurak), Berdiklig, Mangam and Qarachop anticlines. The first three are situated in the areas adjacent to the U.S.S.R.Afghanistan frontier, and the others, in Turkmenia. The folds are oriented en-echelon and parallel to one 337

another. All the folds are asymmetrical. The northern limbs are steep with the beds dipping at 10 to 45, while the southern ones are very gentle with dips of less than 10. The Qalay Mor-Qaysor Trough The Qalay Mor-Qaysor Trough (Fig. 7-52) is negative structure of east-west trend whose western part situated in Turkmenia is referred to as the Qalay Mor Trough, and the eastern part, in Afghanistan, is known as the Qaysor Trough. The Qalay Mor Trough separates the Badkhyz Arch and Takhta Bazar Uplift in the north from the Chemenobid Zone of anticlines in the south. The Qaysor Trough separates the Maymana Arch in the north from the western extension of the Bande Turkestan Uplift in the south. In the gravity maps, the trough is marked-by a zone of negative gravity anomalies. The trough is filled in with Neogene-Quaternary deposits whose thickness in the U.S.S.R. is 1,500 meters, decreasing to 400 meters in the west of the trough. The maximum width of the trough is 50 kilometres. As it flattens westwards and eastwards, it splits into a series of individual positive and negative structures. The Maymana Arch The Maymana Arch is situated on the extension of the Mamana Fault Block outlines in the Parspamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift. On the gravity map, the arch is marked by a zone of relatively high gravity values. The arch is of nearly east-western trend. The Karabil hill corresponds to the arch in Turkmenia. The arch is characterized by an elevated basement and the small thickness of the Platform Sedimentary Cover. Well 1 drilled in the Khwaja Qol Anticline, in the central part of the arch, encountered basement granite at a depth of 956 meters. The topography is hilly, gradually decreasing in elevation from 1,350 meters in the south to 600 meters in the north. A number of anticlines and synclines occur against the background of the gently inclined hilly relief. The Jigdalek, Khwaja Qol and Kara-Qul groups of anticlines separated by the Almor and Or-Tepa troughs have been recognized in the area. The Jigdalek group of anticlines or the Jigdalek Swell (Fig. 7-57) border on the Qalay Mor-Qaysar Trough to the north, stretching as a zone of north-west-striking geosutures complicated by the Almor-Jigdalek Fault, which can be traced by hot springs in many areas such as Khwaja Sepilan and others. The anticlines mapped in the Jigdalek Zone are Jigdalek, Ali-Gul and. Khwaja Gogerdak. Gcomorphologically, the Jigdalek Anticline rises as a rampart of a nearly east-west trend cut across by the left tributary of the Maymana River. Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestone beds outcrop in canyons and locally on the top of the anticline. Miocene red beds are exposed in the limbs and pericline. The highest elevation of the anticline is 1,353 meters. The size of the anticline is nine by four kilometres on the Miocene base, the closure being not less than 200 meters. The beds in the limbs dip at 4-12, occasionally reaching 30 The anticline is broken by a fault of nearly east-west trend into two parts. The southern limb is down- thrown. The magnitude of displacement is estimated to be 170-260 meters. The Ali Gul and Khwaja Gogerdak Anticlines have been little studied. The former is situated wholly within Afghanistan, and the latter lies along the frontier between Afghanistan and the Turkmenian SSR. The Almor Trough (Fig. 7-53) is mapped north of the Jigdalek group of anticlines. Topographically, it is recognizable as a low-cut by the upper reaches of the Maymana River. The trough has a fan-like pattern in plan, broadening southwards. It is filled in with Quaternary deposits with Neogene variegated and red beds outcropping from beneath. The trough has been little studied. The Khwaja Qol group of anticlines or a swell (Fig. 7.58) is situated north of the Almor Trough. It includes the Gaday Qala, Khwaja Qol and Karabil anticlines located on the extension of the Pasnay - Khwaja Qul Fault. The former two are linearly elongated folds of north-western trend, 9.5 and 15 kilometres in extension and 4.5 and 5 kilometres in width, respectively, consisting on the surface of Miocene red beds. The elevations of the tops are 938 and 973 meters, decreasing north-westwards. In the Khwaja Qol Fold, the dips vary from 5 to 23 in the northern limb, reaching 50-60 in the southern limb. The existence of the Karabil Anticline is inferred on the border with the Turkmenian SSR in an area of a gravity high. The Or-Tepa Trough (Fig. 7-54) is situated north of the Khwaja Qol group of anticlines. Topographically, it is recognizable as a low filled in with fluvial deposits of the Meymana and Shirin-Tagaw rivers. Miocene variegated and red beds outcrop in scattered local highs. The trough has an oval shape in plan, being elongated nearly east-westward. Little is known about its geology and structure. 338

The Karakul group of anticlities or a swell (Fig. 7-59) is situated north of the Or-Tepa Trough, on the extension of the Andarab-Mirza Wolang fault system. These are the Karakul and Jalayer folds. The Karakul Anticline is built up of Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestone overlain by Miocene red beds at the limbs. The core is exposed down to the Upper Barremian. The highest elevation of the Paleocene limestone top is 1,413 meters, while the surrounding hilly plain is as low as 500 meters. The size of the fold is 22 by 9 kilometre measured on the Paleocene limestone. The dips vary within 12-40 in the northern limb and within 10~30 in the southern limb. A fault of north-western trend breaks the fold into two parts, the north-western limb being downthrown. A gas-discharging sulfur-water spring is found in the fault zone. The Jalayer Anticline is delineated by Neogene red beds outcropping from under the Quaternary beds, elevated topography, and an increase in the gravity values on approaching the anticline. The North Karabil - Dawlatabad Trough The North Karabil - Dawlatabad Trough (Fig. 7-55) is situated on the extension of the Sheberghan Fault Block in the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift. In Turkmenia, it is known as the Karabil Trough, and in Afghanistan, as the Dawlatabad Trough. In the south, it borders on the Maymana Arch, and in the north, on the Andkhoy Swell. It joins the Obruchev Trough via a saddle between the Uchaji Uplift and the Andkhoy Swell. The trough is filled in with unconsolidated Quaternary deposits. Neogene red beds outcrop near the Maymana Arch and along the western border of the Sheberghan Fault Block. The elevations of the Paleocene limestone top are -1,600 and -1,800 meters, those of the Neocomian base being -3,000 and -3,600 meters in the most depressed part of the trough. The Neocomian is believed to be underlain by KimmeridgianTithonian and Callovian-Oxfordian beds which may be represented by Turkmenian facies. The top of the Folded Basement is supposed to be at a depth of -4,500 and -5,000 meters. The basement rises rapidly towards the Sheberghan Fault Block, and the Sedimentary Cover becomes thinner. The Andkhoy Uplift or Swell The Andkhoy Uplift or Swell (Fig. 7-60) is situated on the extension of the Alburs-Mormul group of anticlines being separated from the latter by the so-called Sheberghan Saddle. Topographically, the uplift is a gently rolling plain underlain by fixed eolian sands with scattered outcrops of pre-Quaternary deposits. In the gravity map, the Anakhoy Uplift is marked by a positive anomaly of nearly east-west trend, about 65 kilometres in length and 20-30 kilometres in width. Local gravity highs have been mapped in Dagar-Dagar, Dashte Kasim and Qaramqul areas where the Juma and Asek anticlines were located. Another gravity high, Jarquduk, was established in the area southwest of the town of Sheberghan. The high is indicative of a buried anticline. The northern flank of the Andkhoy Uplift plunges steeply towards the Obruchev Trough seemingly producing a sharp bend in the Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestone beds. The Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones plunge westwards, reaching an elevation of -1,900 meters in the vicinity of the state frontier. Eastwards, the difference in elevation between the top of the Andkhoy Uplift and the Sheberghan Saddle is as small as 200 meters. Further eastwards, the Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestones rise from -700 meters in the saddle to +500, +600 meters in the Sheberghan structures. As evidenced by drilling data, the Quaternary and Neogene beds are 670-690 meters thick in the Ahss and Juma anticlines. The Callovian-Oxfordian limestone beds were encountered at a depth of 3,346 meters (-2,926 m elevation). The top of the Folded Basement is likely to be at -4,500 or -5,000 meters. All the anticlines occurring within the swell are smooth and gentle. The dips in the limbs are 5-9, the closures varying within 200-350 meters. The extension and width of the folds estimated on the Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestone, are 10-12 and 5-10 kilometers, respectively. In the Ahss Anti- dine, Paleocene limestone is encountered at a depth of 846 meters, in Juma at a depth of 862 meters. The Akhcha Step The Akhcha Step is mapped north of the Sheberghan group of structures and the Andkhoy Uplift. As evidenced by seismic reflection data, the Maestrichtian-Paleocene limestone beds gradually flatten to the north of the Alburs-Mormul Fault after a sharp flexural bend and still plunging to the north and north-east, form a structural nose protruding towards the town of Akhcha. North of the Andkhoy Uplift, they form a saddle separating the Andkhoy and Jangale-Kolon Uplifts. The Jangale-Kolon Anticline and the Akhcha 339

structural nose form the Akhcha Step. Between the Jangale-Kolon Anticline, the Sheberghan group of structures and. the Anakhoy Uplift, a syncline occurs in which the top of the Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestone beds is lowered to -1,700 meters, whereas in a well drilled from the top of the Jangali-Kolon Anticline the limestone beds were encountered at a depth of 1,065 meters (elevation -774 m). The top of the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian beds was found at a depth of about 3,000 meters. The Obruchev Trough The Obruchev Trough (Fig. 7-56) is bounded by the Anakhoy Uplift and the Akhcha Step in the south and by the Repetek-Khalif Zone of Faults in the north. In the east, a small structural high separates it from the Surkhan Megasyncline of the Afghanistan-South Tajikistan Basin. On the gravity map, the trough is delineated by an extensive zone of negative values with a gradient increasing westwards. Only Quaternary deposits can be encountered on the surface of the trough. The elevation of the Maastrichtian-Paleocene top beds is inferred to be about -2,200 meters in the axial portion of the trough, rising to 500 meters on the northern side, near the Kara-Tepa Uplift. The depth to the top of the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian salt-gypsum beds is estimated to be -4,000 to -5,000 meters. The Repetek-Khalif Fault-Line Zone The Repetek-Khalif Fault-Line Zone mapped in Torkmenia extends in Afghanistan for more than 50 kilometres to an intersection with the Khalif-Sherabad zone of faults. The zone is recognized by abruptly increasing gravity gradients and by geomorphological and geological evidence, e.g. by the MaastrichtianPaleocen limestones outcropping from under Quaternary wind-blown sands. Three anticlines occur within the Afghan area of the zone. These are Kara-Tepa, Khalif-I and Khalif-II. The Kara-Tepa Antic line is marked on the surface by an outcrop of Maastrichtian-Paleocene limestone beds which seems to be a remnant of the northern limb of the fold. The beds dip at 32 with an azimuth of 10. They are 60 meters in thickness. In the gravity map, the anticline is indicated by a gravity high. The size of the fold is 13 by 5 kilometres estimated by a closed gravity contour line. The fold is believed to be confined to a burned salt dome. The Khalif-I Anticline is mapped by a pronounced bend in the gravity contour lines and by a local gravity high. Mapped on the top of Paleocene limestone (the reference seismic reflector), the fold is estimated to be 12 by 6 kilometres in size. The fold is bisected by the Khalif-Sherabad Fault. The Paleocene limestone top is downthrown to -1,050 meters in the western part and upthrown to -500 meters in the eastern one. The Khalif-II Anticline is mapped by a local gravity high traceable in an area five by three kilometres in size. The seismic survey revealed the existence of an intricate fold there with a faulted top. Paleocene limestone beds occur at a depth of more than 1,000 meters.

Region of Middle Kimmerian Folding A narrow, in places squeezed out region of Middle Kimmerian Folding extends in the middle of the country, separating the structures of Northern and Southern Afghanistan. Combined with the contemporaneous formations of the South Pamir, it is referred to as the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region. The Afghan part of the region is known as Middle Afghanistan (92, 95, 98, 100, 102, 142, 152, 414).

Afghanistan- South Pamir Folded Region This is a narrow area, extremely complex in structure, extending throughout the country and forming an arc in plan, convex to the south-south-east. In the north, it borders on the Turkmen-Khorasan Folded Region, the North Afghanistan Platform and the Hercynides of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region along the Hari Rod and Central Badakhshan faults. In the south, the region borders on the South Afghanistan and Nuristan-Pamir Median masses along the Qarghanaw and Panjsher faults and the Bagharak intraformational 340

massif of granitic rocks. The region consists of two parts, Middle Afghanistan in the west, and Central Badakhshan in the east, which are separated by the Charikar Uplift of the Kabul Stable Mass. The extension of the region within Iran has not been established so far. Its extension in the U.S.S.R. is the South Pamir Region. By analogy with the northern Hercynides, it seems convenient to call it the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region. The total length of the territory is more than 1,500 kilometres, and. that of the Afghan part, 1,200 kilometres, its width varying from 0 to 70 kilometres (in the U.S.S.R., up to 150 km.). The Afghan part is about 40,000 sq. km. in area. Paleotectonically, the area had been an extensive geosyncline in the north of the Mediterranean Geosyncline Belt. At present, this is a complex, tightly compressed. folded and faulted area whose original size was much greater. It is distinguished by narrow linear outlines, a dense network of faults, pronounced zoning, linearity of folds, and a nappe structure easily recognizable in many areas. The general trend is nearly east-western in the west, and north-eastern or almost north-southern in the east. Individual structural units strike to the northeast in both parts with the exception of some units of nearly east-west trend found in a number of Precambrian fault blocks in the western part of the territory. As far as the age of the main phase of folding is concerned, the region is a Middle Kimmerian structure. Its final geosycclinal cycle lasted from the Carboniferous through the Jurassic. The principal orogenic movements which completed the cycle occurred in the Early Cretaceous, having possibly commenced at the end of Late Jurassic. Consequently, as far back as the Early Cretaceous and possibly Late Jurassic, the territory evolved as an area of growing rises separated by troughs filled in with red molasse and characterized by different configuration, size and origin. The epicontinental platform sea of North Afghanistan advanced to the area in the Late Cretaceous. At that time, the area was a stabilized quasi-craton. The sea deposited thin essentially carbonate sediments, which covered all the older formations unconformably. In post-Cretaceous time the area underwent Paleogene and Neogene-Quaternary tectonic adjustments and accumulated volcanogenic-terrigenous deposits of porphyry and. molasse formations. As a separate structural unit comparable with the South Pamir and being its extension in Afghanistan, this territory, referred to as Middle Afghanistan, was described by V.I. Dronov (92, 95, 98, 100, 102, 142, 152, 414). The Central Badakhshan portion of the territory was regarded by all investigators as part of the South Pamir structural province (162, 214-216, 386, 393, 417), while the Middle Afghan portion was interpreted by various investigators in different ways. The geologists of the German Geological Mission considered it to be a northern part of the Farah Fault Block (1-16). V.I. Slavin (386, 393) believed that the territory belonged to the Hercynides of North Afghanistan and the northern side of the Farah Rod Trough. V.E. Khain et al. (111114, 212) interpreted it as a Basement Uplift of a median mass rising between geoanticlinal intermontane systems which were subject to uplifting during the orogenic period. Yu. S. Perfiliyev et al. (162) described the region as the South Hari Rod Fold System of Early Alpine age. The region is underlain by autochthonous and allochthonous, variously metamorphosed stratified formations of Precambrian, Paleozoic-Mesozoic and Cenozoic ages. The formations are invaded by diabase, gabbroplagiogranite and granitoid intrusions of Precambrian, Early Cretaceous and Paleogene ages (Sketch map 12). The composite section includes the following structure-formation complexes: Lower, Middle and Upper Proterozoic, Lower-Middle Paleozoic, Carboniferous-Jurassic, Lower and Upper Cretaceous, MaastrichtianPaleocene, Eocene-Oligocene, Neogene, and Quaternary. Each complex has its own internal structure frequently participating in the formation of a certain type of megastructural units, among which structures of the Folded Basement are distinguished, such as fault blocks consisting of Precambrian rocks, and those of the main or final geosynclinal cycle, such as structure-facies zones consisting of Carboniferous-Jurassic rocks, and structural units of the orogenic period, such as original or superimposed basins filled in with Upper Mesozoic-Cenozoic deposits. In addition to these, the area includes quasicratonic structural units composed of Upper Cretaceous limestone beds, as well as nappes and imbricated zones in which many or all of the above mentioned structure-formation complexes are allochthonous. Structural Units of the Folded Basement This group includes fault blocks consisting of Lower, Middle and Upper Proterozoic rocks. From west to east, these are the Kohe Qaftarkhan, Kohe Zaw, Hazarsang, Bende Bayan, Sarjangal, Kohe Kejak, Kohe Baba, Paymuri, Qala, Paghman, Tangshew and Chasnud. Generally, the blocks are linear, fusiform, lentiform or wedge-shaped. They are oriented in parallel with the general trends of the area, although each of them is 341

bounded by faults on all sides and surrounded by discordantly arranged structural units of younger structureformation complexes. According to the age of the constituent rocks and the supposed age of the structures, three groups of blocks have been recognized. These are the Early Proterozoic, Middle Proterozoic and Late Proterozoic.

Early Proterozoic Fault Blocks The fault blocks of supposedly Early Proterozoic age are Kohe Zaw, Paymuri, Paghman and Tangshew. These are composed of metamorphosed in amphibolite facies compositionally variable gneisses, crystalline schists, quartzites, marbles, amphibolites and metavolcanic rocks, 4,500 to 5,500 meters thick. The intrusions are represented by concordant or discordant massifs consisting of rocks of diabase, gabbro-plagiogranite and migmatite-granite formations. The Kohe Zaw Fault Block (Fig. 7-27a) was distinguished and reported by V.I. Donov et al. (26, 35, 414) in the north-west of the area, in the Kohe Zaw Ridge south of the Ab and Chashte-Sharif villages. The block is wedge-shaped in plan thinning out eastwards. It is 140 kilometres in length, the maximum width being 15 kilometres. The strike is nearly east-western. In the north, it is bounded by the Main Hari Rod Fault, and in the south by the Kohe Zaw Fault. The structure of the block is relatively simple. It is a large-monocline of nearly east-western trend with the strata dipping at 15 to 70. Elongated brachyform folds stand out against the monocline background. The folds vary in width from several tens of meters to several kilometres and in length from 2-3 hundred meters to 2-3 kilometres. The folds are complicated by high-order structures. A general southward vergence of the structures is characteristic of the area. The Paymuri Fault Block The Paymuri Fault Block (Fig. 7-34a) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) in the north-eastern part of the Kohe Baba Ridge, in the lower course of the Paymuri River. The block is lentifona in plan, the longer axis being oriented to the north-east. It extends for 35 kilometres, the maximum width being seven kilometres. The block is bounded by faults on all sides. A zone of imbricated Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous slightly metamorphosed limestone (Hajigak Series) extends along the northern boundary fault. The internal structure of the block has been little studied. The constituent metamorphic rocks are crumpled to form a series of shallow broad brachyform folds, intruded by small stock- like granite bodies supposedly of Oligocene age. The folds strike to the north-east. The Paghman Fault Block The Paghman Fault Block (Fig. 7-34e) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) in the Paghman Ridge. The block is wedge-like in plan. The southern edge is broad, and the northern edge is narrow. The block is 110 kilometres in length, the maximum width being 25 kilometres. It strikes to the north-east. The block is bounded by faults. In the east-north-east, it borders on the Kabul Stable Mass along the MukurChaman Fault and, in the south, on the Helmand-Argandab Uplift along the Qarghanaw Fault. It is separated from the Turkman Zone by the major fault of a north-eastern strike. The block itself is broken by north-easttreading faults into lower-order fault blocks. The internal structure has been little studied. The metamorphic rocks composing the block are deformed into large and minor, mostly brachyform, folds of a north-eastern strike. In the vicinity of the faults, the folds become more complex, tight, exhibiting a vergence towards the faults. Intrusive rocks form concordant lenticular and tabular migmatite-granite bodies supposedly of Early Proterozoic age (Eastalef Complex) and concordant lentiform bodies of a gabbro- monzonite-diorite formation dated tentatively as Early Cretaceous (Paghman Complex). The Tangahew Fault Block (Fig. 7-35c) was reported by V.M. Moraliov et al. (351), I.M. Sborshshikov and V.I. Dronov et al. (157). The structures occurring within the block can be observed in the lower courses of the river Shewa known there as the river Tang-Shew. They extend into the U.S.S.R. as structures of the Shipad Fault Block recognized in the south-west of the Yazgulem Ridge. The block is shaped like a narrow wedge, extending to the north-north342

west for 75 kilometres, its maximum width being 10 kilometres. The block is bounded by faults on all sides. The rocks occurring within the block are less metamorphosed than in the previous blocks. These are crystalline schists, quartzites and marbles dated tentatively as Lower Proterozoic by analogy with the Shipad Series in the U.S.S.R. (73). The structures found within the block are linear brachyform folds diverging to the west-north-west. Well preserved folds are rare. Monoclinal beds, occasionally vertical, are more frequent there. The general structure of the block is that of an anticline whose core is found on the left bank of the river Panj.

Middle Proterozoic Fault Blocks The Hazarsang, Sarjangal and Bande Bayan fault blocks are dated as Middle Proterozoic with a great deal of uncertainty. The blocks consist of low-grade amphibolite and greenschist metamorphic facies of compositionally variable crystalline schists, quartzites, limestones, marbles, amphibolites and metavolcanics, having a thickness of more than 5,000 meters. Intrusive rocks of diabase and gabbro-plagiogranite formations form small concordant or discordant massifs which are hard to map. The Hazarsang Fault Block The Hazarsang Fault Block (Fig. 7-27) was described by V.I. Dronov et al. (143, 152, 414) in the west of the area, in the Hazarsang Ridge. It has a specific form different from that of all the Precambrian blocks. It is hemispheric rather than linear in shape, apparently having originally been part of a dome. The southern edge is an undulatory hemisphere asymmetrically protruding southwards containing a body of supposedly Early Cretaceous granite (Hazarsang Complex). The northern edge is straight, trending nearly east-west. The maximum length of the northern periphery is 85 kilometres, the maximum width being 30 kilometres. The block is bounded by faults almost everywhere. The exception is the extreme southern portion which is seemingly sealed by granite, and has been little studied. Linear and brachyform folds occur within the block, the orientation of their long axes emphasizes the hemispheric shape of the block. The same shape is accentuated by the arc-like orientation of the faults dissecting the block into a number of slabs, particularly its northern part. The same regularity is discernable in the form of the granite body protruding southwards, and even in the outlines of the extraneous imbricated zone occurring in the valley of the river Tagaw-i-Takchah. It is remarkable that all the above-mentioned formations are of different ages. Indeed, the folds are believed to have been formed during the Middle Proterozoic phase of folding; the granites were apparently intruded in the Early Cretaceous, and the formation of the Tagaw-i-Takchah imbricate zone and arc-like faults seems to have taken place during a period of recent tectonic movements. The obvious heterochronism of the events (granite masses intruding the folds and. the faults cutting across both), and. the same regularity repeated in all the features indicate a longterm unilateral tendency in the block's development. On the other hand, it may be supposed that the Hazarsang Fault Block existed in the Middle Proterozoic as a dome, and all the subsequent processes which took place inside or around it were controlled by the already formed structure. This supposition seems to be most suitable for the explanation of the fact that the block is enveloped by younger structures of the zones bordering on it from the south. The Bande-Bayan and Sarjangal Fau1t Blocks The Bande-Bayan and Sarjangal Fau1t Blocks (Fig.7-28a) were distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) in the ridges bearing the same names, south of the head of the Hari Rod Valley. The Bande-Bayan Fault Block is situated south of the Sarjangal Fault Block and. is the largest in the system of Precambrian fault blocks of Middle Afghanistan. It extends for 210 kilometres, its largest width being 17 kilometres. The block of nearly east-west trend is fusiform in plan, thinning westwards. In the south, it borders on the Gokemullo and Surkhbum imbricate zones along the Bande Bayan Fault, and in the north, on the superimposed Lal Basin of Neogene age along the Lal Fault. The Sarjangal Fault Block is situated between the Hari Rod Valley and the Lal Basin. It is 110 kilometres long and up to 10 kilometres wide. It trends nearly east-west and is fusiform in shape, having a thinning eastern end. In the north, it borders on the Monara-Jam Graben along the Major Hari Rod Fault, and in the south, on the Lal Basin along the Sarjangal Fault. 343

The internal structures of the blocks are poorly studied. Judging by the results of several traverses, systems of east-west trending linear folds and monoclines occur within the blocks, the cups in the limbs varying in a range of 10 to 60. The beds are predominantly monoclinal dipping southward. In some places, particularly in the south of the Bande-Bayan Fault Block, monoclinal bedding is complicated by a cascade of very complex higher-order structures.

Late Proterozoic Fault Blocks The structural units of Late Proterozoic age are the following fault blocks: Kohe Qaftarkhan, Kohe Kejak, Kohe Baba, Qala and Chasnud. The rocks occurring within them are phyllite or a low-grade and greenschist metamorphic facies of compositionally variable sandstones, shales and siltstones enclosing beds and lenses of limestone, dolomite, chart and volcanic rocks. The thickness of the rocks varies within 2,000 to 5,000 meters. As to the age of the rocks, these were dated as Upper Proterozoic in the Kohe Qaftarkhan Fault Block only where the rocks are overlain by fossiliferous Cambrian beds (152, 424). Late Proterozoic age seems to be the most reliable in the Qala Fault Block. Late Proterozoic age of poorly metamorphosed dark-coloured fine terrigenous rocks occurring in the Kohe Kejak and Kohe Baba Fault Blocks is tentative. The possibility is not ruled out that these rocks are predominantly Carboniferous-Triassic in age and include the Central Pamir and South East Pamir types of rocks (79, 84, 85). Yet, the rocks and, consequently, the structures of the blocks are provisionally dated as Late Proterozoic. The Kohe Qaftarkhan Fault Block The Kohe Qaftarkhan Fault Block (Figs 7-27e) was identified by V.I. Donov et al. in the ridge bearing the same name, west of the town of Herat (152, 414). The block is oriented to the north-east and has a lens-like shape in plan. It is ten kilometres in length and up to four kilometres in width. The block is bounded by faults on all sides. The Folded Basement exhibits Late Proterozoic linear folds and monoclines. The dips in the limbs of the folds and monoclines vary from 10 to 90 (Fig. 31). The Upper Proterozoic rocks are overlain unconformably by fossiliferous Cambrian strata. This fact suggests that the structures of the block are Late Proterozoic. The Upper Proterozoic and Cambrian strata are overlain unconformably by Middle-Upper Jurassic limestones, indicating pre-Middle Jurassic, possibly Early Kimmerian, age of the tectonic movements within the block. The Kohe Kejak Fault Block The Kohe Kejak Fault Block (Fig. 7-28b) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. in the Kohe Kejak Ridge, north-east of Srukhbum village (152, 414). The block is 55 kilometres in length and up to six kilometres in width. The shape is lens-like in plan, and the strike is north-eastern. The block is limited by faults on all sides. The rocks are deformed to linear folds of a north-eastern strike. The dips in the limbs vary from 5 to 90. There are extensive areas of monoclinal bedding. The Kohe Baba Fault Block The Kohe Baba Fault Block (Fig. 7-28) was described by V.I. Dronov within the Kohe Baba Ridge (152, 414). The block extends for 130 kilometres with a maximum width of 37 kilometres. The block trending nearly east-west is lentiform in plan. It is bounded by faults on all sides. The folds occurring within the block are linear, of nearly east-west and northeast trends; there are occasional isoclinal folds. The folds are overlain unconformably by flat-lying Upper Cretaceous limestones and, in the east, by Paleogene volcanics of the Kohe-Kafaran Basin. The Qala Fault Block The Qala Fault Block (Fig. 7-34b) was identified by V.I. Dronov et al. in the ridge bearing the same name (35, 414). The block is 100 kilometres in length, 15 kilometres in width, lentiform in plan and of northeastern trend. The boundaries are all faults. The folds encountered in the block are brachyform and linear. Bedding is monoclinal in many areas. An interesting problem is presented by the conglomerates outcropping 344

on the left side of the Qala Valley, downstream the village of Qala. The conglomerates contain all types of rocks occurring within the block. They are overlain conformably by siltstone and shale beds which are supposed to be of Carboniferous-Early Permian age. If this is the case, this locality is one of the few areas in Middle Afghanistan, where Late Proterozoic structures are overlapped unconformably by Late PaleozoicKimmerian ones. The Chasnud Fault Block The Chasnud Fault Block (Fig. 7-36a) was first reported by I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Donov et al. (154) from the axial part of the Central Badakhshan, east of the Tengshew Fault Block. The block is wedge-shaped in plan, thinning southwards. It is 80 kilometres in length and up to 15 kilometres in width. The orientation is nearly north-southern. In the west, it borders on the Tangahew Fault Block and the Shewa Zone along the Chowid Fault, and in the east, on the Nakhchir Par Zone along the Siakhjar Fault. The block is composed of sedimentary-volcanogenic rocks of supposedly Late Proterozoic age crumpled so as to form a system of brachyform folds of a nearly north-southern strike with dips in the limbs varying within 30 to 80. The general structure of the block is horst-like. The volcanic rocks are acid altered redstones, intruded by subvolcanic bodies of the Chasnud complex. In the opinion of G.G. Semionov et al. (141), these volcanics belong to the Baikalian orogenic formation. In spite of the different grades of metamorphism of the stratified and intrusive rocks because of their different ages, and in spite of the different types of dislocation, all the blocks are combined into one group on the basis of their common structural position with respect to the general structure of the area. All the blocks are uplifts of the Precambrian Basement overlain by younger structure-formation complexes.

Early-Middle Paleozoic Structural Units As evidenced by the outcrops in the Kohe Kaftarkhan Ridge, the Lower-Middle Paleozoic structureformation complex lies unconformably on the Upper Proterozoic rocks without forming any independent megastructures. The Lower-Middle Paleozoic rocks occur in nappes and. imbricated zones together with other deposits. The section consists of predominantly marine carbonate rocks. The Lower Cambrian portion consists of red-coloured fine terrigenous deposits (1,500 m thick) possibly of terrestrial origin, and the Upper Cambrian part includes intermediate and basic marine volcanics (100-200 m thick). In general, the exposed formations are of the quasi-cratonic type. No pronounced unconformities were encountered, although some indications of stratigraphic breaks were noted at the base of the Middle Cambrian, at the top? of the Upper Cambrian, at the base of the Lower Devonian, and of the base of the Upper Devonian. No Upper Silurian rocks have been found in Middle Afghanistan so far, and nothing is as yet known about this part of the section. The exposed section of the Lower-Middle Paleozoic sequence was estimated to be within 2,250 to 4,800 meters in thickness. No intrusive rocks of this age have been found in Middle Afghanistan.

Structural units of the main geosynclinal cycle As mentioned above, in Middle Afghanistan and the South Pamir the main or most recent geosynclinal cycle lasted from Carboniferous through Jurassic. The initial inversion movements occurred here in Late TriassicEarly Jurassic time, as a result of Early Kimmerian folding. This phase of folding was particularly intensive in the South-East Pamir (79) and in structurally similar areas of Middle Afghanistan (Nalbandan, Sange Dushoh, and other zones). The main phase of folding is ascribed to the Early Cretaceous time, although some earlier movements may have occurred in the Late Jurassic. It is this main phase of folding that is responsible for putting a stop to marine geosyncline development and converting the area into a Middle Kimmerian folded structure. Subsequent movements, particularly those of Neogene-Quaternary age, greatly complicated the area, diminished its original dimensions and transformed it into a folded block-type nappe. The structures of the main geosynclinal cycle are preserved as remnants in the present-day structural mosaic. An analysis of the facies in the remaining sections helped in identifying synsedimentary troughs and highs. These structures are here referred to as structural-facies zones. The evidence available made it possible to distinguish twelve structural-facies zones within the Afghan part of the area. These are (from west to east) Rod-i-Kafgan, Haftkala, Sange Dushah, Khwaja Morad, Nalbandan, Qarghanaw, Abul, Chorband, Turkman, Shewa, 345

Nakhchir Par, and Warw. By comparison with the South Pamir, the zones are classified into two types, the Central Pamir and South-East Pamir ones.

Zones of the South-East Pamir Type This group of zones includes Sange Dushah, Khwaja Morad, Nalbandan, Qarghanaw, Abul, Chorband, and Turkman. All the zones are characterized by the section of the South-East Pamir type (79): thick (4,0005,000 m), fine terrigenous rocks of Carboniferous-Early Permian age (counterpart of the Bazar Darah Series), thin (150-625 m) carbonate-cherty beds of Upper Permian-Garnian (in places including Lower Norian), - and a thick (2,000-3,000 m) fine terrigenous rocks of Norian-Rhaetian age (counterpart of the Istyk Series). Early Kimmerian folding manifested itself in Triassic-Early Jurassic time. The Jurassic beds, 315 to 550 m thick, lie unconformably on the folded Carboniferous-Triassic and consists of terrigenous-carbonate rocks. All the deposits are of marine origin. Intermediate-and basic volcanics occur in the Karganaw and Nalbandan zones. Like in the South-East Pamir, there are some zones that evolved as relatively uplifted or relatively downwarped areas.

Relatively Downwarped Zones This group of zones includes Khwaja Morad, Nalbandan, Chorband and Turkman. Among the zones under consideration these four are marked by the most complete and thickest Carboniferous-Triassic section. The Khwaja Morad Zone The Khwaja Morad Zone (Fig.7-31) was recognised by V.I. Dronov et al. (143, 152, 414) in the middle course of the river Khwaja Morad. The zone is lens-like in plan. It is 70 kilometres in length reaching 10 kilometres in width. The trend of the zone is north-eastern. In the north-west, it borders on the Haftkala and Sange-Dushah zones and in the south-east, on the Nalbandan zone. The boundaries are uncertain and are supposed to be faults. The section consists of Carboniferous-Triassic rocks. Neither underlying nor overlying deposits have been observed. The Carboniferous-Lower Permian portion is a black slate formation (4,0005,000 m thick), the Upper Permian- Lower Norian, is a carbonate formation (150-520 m thick) and the Norian-Rhactian is a fine-terrigenous flysch formation 2,000-3,000 m in thickness. The specific feature of the zone is the middle part of its section comprising topmost beds of the Lower Permian and the lowermost Norian beds. This portion of the section consists of compositionally variable limestones, dolomites, limestone-dolomite conglomerates, marlin, inhales and sand~ stones. Traces of erosion and breaks of sedimentation were noted at three levels: the bass of the Triassic, the base of the Pamir horizon and the base of the Kubergandinian horizon. The rocks form linear and brachyform folds striking to the north-east. They are Early Kimmerian in age. The counterpart of the Khwaja Morod Zone in the U.S.S.R. is the Intermediate Zone of the South-East Pamir (79). The Nalbandan Zone The Nalbandan Zone (Fig. 7-32)was outlined by V.I. Dronov et al. (143, 152, 414) in the drainage basins of the Khwaja Morod, Tagab-i-Eshlon, Nalbandan and other rivers. The zone is situated to the east-south-east of the previous one running parallel to it. The zone, lentiform in plan, extends for 100 kilometres, being up to 20 kilometres in width. The north-western boundary is uncertain and is drawn provisionally in most localities. The south-eastern boundary runs along faults (Figs 23, 24). The section in the Nalbandan Zone is more complete than that in the Khwaja Morod Zone. In addition to the Carboniferous-Triassic strata, it includes thick Lower and Middle Jurassic beds. The Carboniferous-Lower Persian and. Norian-Rhaetian beds are similar to those in the Khwaja Morod Zone, while the Upper PermianCarnian ones are very different. Their thickness is a third of that of the corresponding rocks in the Khwaja Morad Zone, (150 meters only) and their composition is predominantly cherty the latter indicating a 346

deepwater environment existing at the time of their deposition. The Carboniferous-Triassic beds are deformed into linear north-east-striking folds of Early Kimmerian age. The Lower-Middle Jurassic beds, 150 m thick, rest unconformably on the Carboniferous-Triassic and consist of limestones, sandstones, and shales. The limestones are predominantly argillaceous grading to marl. The Jurassic beds are deformed to brachyform north-east-striking folds of Middle Kimmerian age. They are overlain unconformably by Upper Cretaceous limestones, Eocene-Oligocene volcanics, variegated terrigenous rocks, and Neogene coarse conglomerates. In the U.S.S.R., the Carboniferous-Triassic beds of the Nalbandan type occur in the Marginal Zone of the South-East Pamir, and the Lower-Middle Jurassic, in the Gurumda Zone (79). The Chorband Zone The Chorband Zone (Fig. 7-28e) is a newly-distinguished zone situated in the Chorband Ridge north of the Mid-Afghanistan highway (the section between Maydan and Panjaw). The zone is lentiform in plan, extending for 125 kilometres with a maximum width of 20 kilometres. The strike of the zone is nearly eastwestern. It is underlain by dark-coloured flysch-like alternating sandstone, shale and siltstone beds exceeding 5,000 meters in thickness. According to the evidence reported by H. Mensink (293), the beds are dated as Jurassic. The section is likely to include Carboniferous-Triassic strata, yet neither their section nor their relation with the Jurassic have been ascertained. The Jurassic beds are folded to form linear folds and overlain unconformably by Upper Cretaceous limestones and Eocene-Oligocene volcanics. The Turkman Zone The Turkman Zone (Fig. 7-34) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) in the Turkman River drainage basin. Like most of the previous zones, it has the shape of a lens elongated in N-E direction. Its length is 120 kilometres and maximum width 25 kilometres. In the north-west, it borders on the Hajigak imbricated zone and the Qala Fault Block, and in the south-east, on the Paghman Fault Block. The boundaries on both sides run along faults. The zone is underlain by dark-coloured fine terrigenous rocks of slate and flysch-like formations with a thin horizon of Upper Permian-Carnian carbonate-cherty rocks in between. The total thickness is assumed to be within 7,000-8,000 meters. The section is similar to that in the Nalbandan Zone. The folds encountered in the zone are linear north-east-striking structures of Early Kimmerian age. No Jurassic rocks have been found in the Turkman Zone. The youngest beds consist of Upper Cretaceous deposits resting unconformably on the Carboniferous-Triassic.

Relatively Uplifted Zones This group of structures includes the Sange Dushah, Abul and Qarghanaw zones. The Kubergandian-Carnian sequence in these zones exhibits easily recognizable indications of relative uplifting, such as more abundant and more prominent breaks in sedimentation than in the previous zones, the presence of beds of bauxite-type rocks and the hardground type rocks, reef structures, etc. The Sange Dushah Zone The Sange Dushah Zone (Fig. 7-31a) is a structural unit identified within the Khwaja Morod Zone extending to the north-east along the border with the Haftkala Zone. It is two to three kilometres in width and ten kilometres in length. The most representative section was described from the lower course of the Khwaja Morod River known as the Sange Dushah or Dahane Shah gorge. The complete section of the rocks is exposed in excellent outcrops along the river channel. It consists of 500 meters of Kubergandian-Pamirian thick-bedded and massive limestones and dolomites unconformably overlain by 315-meter thick unit of Lower-Middle Jurassic beds. Reef limestones occur at the top of the Murghabian horizon and bauxite-type rocks are found at the base of the Pamirian horizon. No Carboniferous-Lower Permian rocks have been found so far, although they are likely to occur and be of the same type as those in the Haftkala Zone. The 347

Jurassic section consists of sandstones, shales and limestones. The Kuberganian-Pamirian and Lower-Middle Jurassic beds are deformed into distinct brachyform folds, and the Jurassic beds into simple folds. The Sange Dushah Zone occupies an intermediate position between the Haftkala and Khwaja Morad zones both in geography and section type. The Qarghanaw Zone The Qarghanaw Zone (Fig. 7-33) was recognized by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) in the Qarghanaw River drainage basin north of the Mid-Afghanistan highway (in the section between Sharah and Sarchashma). The zone is wedge-shaped in plan. It is 40 kilometres in length and two to three kilometres in width, the strike being nearly east-western. The zone is bounded by faults. The section consists of two conformable units, the Carboniferous-Lower- Permian and the Kubergandian-Carnian. The former is composed of sandstones, shales and siltstones enclosing beds and lenses of conglomerates and gravelstones. At the top 400 meters of andesite-basalt volcanics occur. The exposed thickness of the whole unit is more than 1,000 meters. As in the previous zone, the actual thickness is likely to be 4,000 or 5,000 meters since the lower portion of the section is not exposed there. The Kubergandian-Carnian unit consists of limestones, including reef limestones (at the base), and dolomites. Unconformities, bauxite-type horizons and rocks of the hard-ground type occur in the Pamirian and Carnian sections. The unit is 625 meters thick. No Norian-Rhaetian deposits have been found in the zone. The beds are crumpled to form nearly east-west trending brachyform folds of Early Kimmerian age. The folded strata are unconformably overlain by Upper Cretaceous limestones. The Abul Zone The Abul Zone (Fig. 7-33a) is identified for the first time in the area of the village of Abul, south of the Bande Bayan Ridge. It is lens-shaped in plan and extends to the north-east for 50 kilometres, the widest part being 20 kilometres. The zone is bounced by faults on all sides. It has been little studied. The section, 2,000 or 3,000 m thick, consists predominantly of black sandstones, inhales and siltstones of Norian-Rhaetian age. Reef Megaladona limestones are exposed from beneath the Norian-Rhaetian beds in fault wedges or thrust sheets. Such reef limestones occur normally within relatively uplifted areas. It is remarkable that the Callovian-Oxfordian limestone beds (250 m thick) are also represented by reef facies. Faults are observed at the contacts of all the exposed units of the sequence. The limestone beds are commonly deformed into brachyform folds and. the ssndstone-shale-siltstone strata to linear folds. Both types of folds strike to the northeast. The northern part of the zone is covered by Paleogene volcanic and Neogene salt-gypsum deposits.

Zones of Central Pamir Type This group includes the Rod-i-Kafgan, Haftkala, Shewa, Warw and Nakhchir Par zones. The CarboniferousCarnian portion of the section consists of the rocks of marine origin while the Norian-Middle Jurassic unit is made up of rocks of marine origin in some zones and of terrestrial deposits in other zones. Accordingly, the zones are subdivided here into zones of marine sedimentation and zones of mixed sedimentation.

Zones of Marine Sedimentation This group includes the Haftkala and Warw zones. The former developed as relatively uplifted area, and the latter partially as a depressed (the base of the section) and partially as an uplifted area (the Murghan-Carnian portion). Both zones had undergone Early Kimmerian folding. The Haftkala Zone The Haftkala Zone (Fig. 7-30) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (143, 152, 414) in the Haftkala River drainage basin as part of the Kohe Safed and Kohe Pud Ridges. It is lens-shaped in plan, extending to the north-east for 70 kilometres, the widest part being six to seven kilometres. The zone is bounded by faults on all sides. 348

The zone is underlain by Carboniferous-Triassic rocks carrying marine fossils and resting conformably on the Devonian. No Jurassic deposits have been found there. Unlike the previous zones of the SouthEast Pamir type, in which over 90 per cent of the Carboniferous Triassic unit consist of fine terrigenous rocks of slate (Carboniferous-Lower Permian) and flysch-like (Norian-Rhaetian) formations, the Haftkala zone is predominantly composed of rocks of a carbonate formation deposited in the environment of a relative uplifting. This is evidenced by: (1) the alternation of thin limestone and dolomite beds; (2) the occurrence of reef limestones; (3) the presence of breaks in sedimentation marked by the occurrence of quartz sandstones, bauxites and bauxite-type rocks, or rocks of the hard ground type. Breaks are found at the top of the Lower Carboniferous, in the Pamirian horizon of the Upper Permian, and. at the base of the Norian. The latter two are marked by the presence of bauxite or bauxitetype rocks. The thickness of the Carboniferous-Triassic unit is 1,100 meters. The Norian-Rhaetian deposits occur on the karst surface of the Carnian reef limestone with well defined erosion and compose a thin (100 m) unit of variegated sandstones, siltstones and limestones abundant in Norian-Rhaetian fossils of the South-East Pamir type. The rocks are folded into brachyform north-east-striking folds of Early Kimmerian age. It is remarkable that the Carboniferous-Carnian sequence of the zone resembles that of the Central Pamir (West Pshart, Jilgakul, Kalaktash), while the Norian-Rhaetian sequence is similar to that of the South-East Pamir (the Bor Tepa Formation of the Axial Zone). The Warw Zone The Warw Zone (Figs 7-35a) is identified for the first time as a constituent part of the Shewa Zone. It is distinguished on the basis of the evidence reported by V.I. Dronov et al. (89, 154). The zone is situated in the extreme north-west of Central Badakhshan, in the drainage basins of the Darah-i-Kuf, Darah-i-Begaw, Darah-i-Gomai, Jamurih-i-Bala rivers. The zone is wedge-shaped in plan thinning southwards, the orientation being nearly north-southern. Its extension is 55 kilometres, the widest portion being six kilometres. The zone is bounded by faults on all sides. In the west, it borders on the structures of the Afghanistan- North Pamir Folded Region along the Central Badakhshan Fault, and in the east, the Amurn imbricated zone along the Gulzari Fault. No Carboniferous rocks have been encountered within the zone. The Permian-Carnian sequence consists of volcanogenic-terrigenous-carbonate rocks, 2,180 meters thick. At the base 430 meters of shales and intermediate and basic volcanics occur. These are followed by 1,750 meters of limestones and dolomites. Thick reef limestones are abundant within the Murghabian horizon and at Ladinian? and Carnian levels. Traces of erosion are found between the Permian and Triassic strata. The Norian-Rhaetian portion of the sequence consisting of black shales reaching 1,000 meters in thickness rests conformably on the Carnian. No younger deposits were found. Structurally the zone is a syncline of nearly north-southern trend with its axis plunging to the north (Fig. 25). The western limb, is well preserved, while the eastern one is broken by faults. The fold exhibits a tendency to diverge eastwards. It is supposed to be of Early Kimmerian age. The Warw zone extends into the U.S.S.R., where it is underlain by carbonate rocks and shales mapped in the mouth of the Wanch Valley.

Zones of Mixed Sedimentation This group includes the Nakhchir Par, Shewa and Rod-i-Kafgan zones. Of these, only the Nakhchir Par Zone has developed as a depressed area, whereas the other two zones evolved as relatively uplifted areas. All the zones had not undergone Early Kimmerian tectonic movements, and, hence, the Trias-Jurassic sequence is continuous. The folds occurring within the zones are of Middle Kimmerian age (Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous).

349

The Nakhchir Par Zone The Nakhchir Par Zone (Fig. 7-36) was distinguished by I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (154) in the drainage area of the river Nakhchir Par, in Central Badakhshan. The zone trends nearly north-south. It is wedge-shaped in plan, thinning southwards. In the west, it borders on the Shewa Zone and. the Chasnud Fault Block along the Siakhjar Fault, and in the east and south-east, on the South Badakhshan Fault Block (consisting of Archean rocks) along the Bagharak intraformation massif of granitic rocks. The zone is 165 kilometres in length, the widest portion being 45 kilometres. The principal part of the zone, is underlain by Norian-Rhaetian and Lower-Middle Jurassic sandstones, shales and siltstones variably metamorphosed near granite intrusions. The rocks form a continuous sequence 4,000 or 5,000 meters in thickness. As evidenced by the abundance of terrestrial plant remains, the predominant part of the sequence is of continental origin. Marine metamorphosed limestones, sandstones and shales dated tentatively as Permian-Carnian outcrop from beneath the Norian-Middle Jurassic deposits in the cores of positive structures. The bedding seems to be conformable. The apparent thickness of the rocks varies within 100 to 400 meters. Folds of Permian-Carnian age have not been encountered. The type of folding in the Norian-Middle Jurassic rock sequence varies from place to place. In some places the beds are nearly flatlying (Fig. 26). In most areas, however, they are crumpled into rather complex linear end brachyform folds, where the beds dip at 30-50. In some localities the beds are almost vertical (Fig. 27). The trends of the folds are nearly north-southern or north-eastern. The folded beds are unconformably overlain by quasi-cratonic Upper Cretaceous limestones exposed in the Koh-i-Tashay-Darrah Ridge. The structures of the Nakhchir Par Zone extend into the U.S.S.R., where they are known as the structures of the Bartang-Panj and Kudara Zones of the Central Pamir. The Shewa Zone The Shewa Zone (Fig. 7-35) was reported by I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (154) from the drainage area of the river Shewa in Central Badakhshan. The zone extends northwards as a wedge, narrowing to the south and pinching out in the area of the village of Jurm. The zone is bounded by faults on all sides. In the west, it borders on the structures of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region along the Rawand Fault. In the east, it borders on the Nakhchir Par Zone and the Cbasnud Fault Block along the Chowid fault of nearly N-S trend. The zone is complex in structure, consisting of a system of thrust sheets, fault wedges and nappes of different ages. Two types of Carboniferous-Jurassic deposits are present, one is referred to as the Furmoragh type and the other as the Hetef. The Carboniferous-Jurassic deposits of the Furmoragh type occur in the south-west. They are frequently metamorphosed. Limestone is metamorphosed to marble, and terrigenous rocks to maculose and knotty slate. The rocky are poor in organic remains, and, therefore, the age of the majority of stratigraphic units is tentative. The section of supposedly Carboniferous rocks consists of dark-coloured sandstones, shales and siltstones, 2,000 meters thick, usually occurring in the cores of anticlines. The most representative section is known from the left band of the river Kokcha, between the mouths of the Siakhjar and the Poinshar. The relation of the rocks to the older formations remains uncertain. The Permian-Carnian- section consists of marmorized limestone, 400 meters thick, resting conformably on the supposedly Carboniferous rocks. Representative outcrops are known from the right side of the Siakhjar Valley, extending from the mouth of the river to the village of Furmoragh. Similarly as in the Nakhchir Par Zone, the Norian-Middle Jurassic section is a monotonous dark-coloured series of sandstones, shales and siltstones. The thickness of the series is not known exactly. It appears to be more than 1,000 meters. The series overlies the Permian-Carnian limestones with a distinct conformity. The section ends with 300 to 500 meters of Middle-Upper Jurassic limestones lying conformably on the previous series. The strata considered are deformed to brachyform, grading to the linear folds of a north-western strike. Faults are found at the contacts of many units. Their strike is north-western, similar to that of the folds. The 350

faults cut all the sedimentary strata, breaking them into a system of thrust sheets and fault wedges of a northwestern strike. In the U.S.S.R., a similar type of deposits is found in the Central Pamir, in the upper course of the river Rakzou and. in the drainage areas of the Bashurwdarah, Hawrezdarah, Hat-Fat, and other rivers. The Hetef type of deposits is found in a nappe traceable in the middle course of the Shewa Valley as well as in the drainage areas of the Hetef, Safardarah and other rivers. Only Norian-Jurassic beds are exposed within the nappe. The rocks are poorly metamorphosed and abundant in organic remains. Therefore, all the units are easily identifiable. Thus, on the basis of fauna and lithology, one can easily distinguish Norian-Rhaetian, Lower and Middle Jurassic, Bathonian-Callovian and Callovian-Oxfordian beds. The Norian-Rhaetian sequence, 1,500-2,000 meters thick, consists of black-coloured, regularly interbedding sandstones, shales and siltstones carrying terrestrial plant remains. The Lower Jurassic seems to overlie the Norian-Rhaetian with a gap, yet with no angular unconformity. It consists of 150-200 meters of variegated and red-coloured sandstones and siltstones. The Middle Jurassic unit, 200 to 250 m thick and consisting of dark-coloured sandstone, shale and siltstones with terrestrial plait remains, rests conformably on the Lower Jurassic. The Bathonian-Callovian beds lie conformably on the previous unit. These consist of regularly interbedding dark calcareous limestone and marl, 150 to 200 m thick, containing marine fauna. The Callovian-Oxfordian conformably overlies the previous unit and consists of light-coloured massive and thick-bedded limestones and occasional reef limestones, 300 to 400 meters thick. All the strata are conformably folded into the large syncline of a north-western strike. In the U.S.S.R., a counterpart of these strata are contemporaneous formations exposed in the Yasgulem Ridge of the Central Pamir. The comparison of the Shewa and Nakhchir Par Zones shows that they differ not only in their sections, but also in the strike of the folds and faults. In the Nakhchir Par Zone, they strike to the north-east and in the Shewa Zone to the north-west. Taken together, they form a fan opening to the north-north-east. The centre of the fan is situated in the Jurm area with the Chasnud Fault Block composed of Upper Proterozoic volcanics lying in the middle. The Rod-i-Kafgan Zone The Rod-i-Kafgan Zone (Fig. 7-29) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (143, 152, 414) in the drainage area of the river Rod-i-Kafgan, south-east of the Hazarsang Fault Block. The zone is lentiform in plan. It extends to the north-east for 100 kilometres, the maximum width being 25 kilometres. The zone is bounded by faults almost every-where. In some localities the boundary with the Hazarsang Fault Block is sealed by granites of supposedly Early Cretaceous age. The geological section of the zone is represented by Norian-Middle Jurassic beds. It is similar to the Hetef type section of the contemporaneous deposits from the Shewa Zone. Neither older nor younger rocks have been found. The Norian-Rhaetian beds consist of dark-coloured irregularly alternating sandstones, shales and siltstones abundant in terrestrial plant remains. The beds are 4,000 meters thick. The Lower Jurassic deposits overly the beds with a distinct conformity, yet with a possible gap. The Lower-Jurassic sequence consists of 200 meters of variegated sandstones and argillites. These are followed by dark sandstones and siltstones of Middle Jurassic age. All the strata are crumpled conformably to form a series of linear folds of a northeastern strike. The folds diverge to the centre of the zone, being overturned inwards. Almost all the zones considered developed under conditions of para- and miogeosynclines with the exception of the Qarghanaw and Nalbandan zones. These two exhibit some features of eugeosynclines which is proved by the occurrence of intermediate and basic volcanics (152). Intrusive rocks of Carboniferous-Jurassic age have not been encountered. It is not ruled out, however, that small subvolcanic bodies associated with the volcanic rocks of the Qarghanaw and Nalbandan Zones do occur in the area, but it is difficult to map them as independent geological bodies from the evidence available.

351

Early Orogenic Structures This category of structures includes residual troughs filled in with red-coloured deposits of Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous age. The most representative structure of this type is the Yazgulem Trough located in the U.S.S.R. Similar to it in Middle Afghanistan is the trough traceable in the core of the Hetef Syncline in the Shewa Zone filled in with red-coloured sandstones and conglomerates of Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous age. The beds are only a few tens of meters in thickness. It is possible that red sandstones and conglomerates of the Tulak-Sarchashma stripe were accumulated in a similar trough. They are about 1,000 meters thick. Presently the rocks build up a thrust sheet extending parallel to the Qarghanaw Fault. If the assumption on the Early Cretaceous age of the Hazarsang granite complex is valid, the granites have intruded at the beginning of orogenic cycle. The red molasse-like sediments accumulated in the negative structures, while the granitic rocks invaded the positive elements.

Quasi-cratonic Structures In Late Cretaceous time, the Middle Afghanistan and South Pamir regions saw a temporary stabilization of tectonic activity. After the Early Cretaceous upward movements, which uplifted and dried the territory, it was peneplanated and then, in the Late Cretaceous, epeirogenically lowered and flooded by an epiplatform sea. The sea advanced southwards, from the North Afghanistan Platform. As a result, a thin intermittent mantle of rudist limestone was, apparently, deposited unconformably on all the older formations. The limestone thickness is variable within a few tens to a few hundred meters. The limestone is frequently underlain by basal conglomerates. The previously ubiquitous limestone cover is preserved now either in flatlying outliers, or in steep, occasionally vertical thrust sheets and wedges in imbricated zones. The examples of the former are Upper Cretaceous limestone outliers in the Koh-i-Baba Ridge, the Turkman River drainage basin and other localities, and those of the latter are imbricated zones in the Koh-i-Bande-i-Bedak, Koh-iNaspanj, Kohe Sanghar and other ridges. At the end of Maastrichtian time and, possibly, at the beginning of the Paleocene, The Middle Afghanistan and South Pamir regions began to rise again. The sea retreated gradually, leaving one area after another. Intermediate and acid volcanics varying in thickness from 1,000 to 4,000 meters accumulated in residual basins where sedimentation was still going on. Sandstone and- conglomerate beds accumulated at the margins wedging inwards. The counterpart volcanics in the U.S.S.R. are those of the Bartang Series, 4,000 meters thick, and volcanogenic terrigenous-conglomeratic rocks of the Chechekta Series, 2,000 meters thick. Other examples of volcanic rock occurrences in Middle Afghanistan are those in the Koh-i-Tashay Darrah in the Nakhchir Par Zone (1,000 m thick), and in the area of the village of Bazrak on the left bank of the River Hari Rod. Together with the Upper Cretaceous limestone beds the volcanics build up conformable structures of the quasi- cratonic type. It is possible that intrusion of granitic rock bodies occurred in Central Badakhshan during the formation of Maastrichtian-Paleocene volcanics, yet they were tentatively dated as Oligocene.

Late Orogenic Structures This group of structures originated in the Middle and Late Paleogene. After the formation of the Maastrichtian-Paleocene volcanogenic-terrigenous strata the territory of Middle Afghanistan and the South Pamir was peneplanated and deformed later to form a system of basins and uplifts. These newly formed structures are the Tashiktash and Jiemba-y-Jelga basins (79) in the South Pamir, and the Doy, Talaw, Kohe Kafaron and other basins (152, 414) in Middle Afghanistan. In origin these are volcano-tectonic. They vary in size from 20-30 to 200-300 square kilometres. The basins are normally elongated, lentiform, almond-shaped or ellipsoidal in plan. All of them are synclines. The flanks are composed of Eocene-Oligocene acid and intermediate redstone volcanics, reaching 400 meters in thickness. In the cores there occur Oligocene variegated and red-coloured sandstones and siltstones with beds and lenses of conglomerates and intermediate to basic volcanic a, totalling 1,000 meters in thickness. 352

The Doy Basin The Doy Basin (Fig. 28-l) [Footnote: 28 is the number of the figure; 1 is the number assigned to the basin in the figure.] was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) on the extension of the Haftkala Zone. In plan, it is a semi-arc gently convex north-westwards with the parallel margins and the long axis oriented to the east-north-east. It is 70 kilometres long and up to 10 kilometres wide. The boundaries of the basin run along faults in many localities. It has the structure of a graben. Eocene-Oligocene volcanics outcrop at the sides of the graben and in transverse highs. The interior is composed of Oligocene terrigenous rocks. The dips in the flanks vary within 10 to 50; in the axial part, the beds are almost horizontal. The Talaw Basin The Talaw Basin (Fig.28-2) was reported by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) from the drainage area of the river Talaw. The basin is 70 kilometres long and up to 12 kilometres wide. The trend is nearly east-western, diverging to the north-east. The southern and south-eastern boundaries are unfaulted and, possibly, run along the original outlines of the feature. The northern and north-western boundaries are faults. The interior of the basin comprises several stratigraphic units. At the floor volcanic rocks of Eocene-Oligocene age occur, which are succeeded by unconformably lying, thin terrigenous deposits of Oligocene age. These are followed by Neogene coarse clastic rocks overlain by allochthonous sheets of Middle Paleozoic deposits (Figs 29, 30). The Kohe Kafaron Basin The Kohe Kafaron Basin (Fig. 28-3) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) within the Kafaron Ridge located between the Kohe Baba and Chorband ridges. The basin is oval in plan, the long axis being oriented to the east-north-east. The feature is 100 kilometres long and up to 17 kilometres wide. A nearly east-west-trending fault breaks the basin into two parts, the north-eastern and south-western. The northeastern part is infilled with Eocene-Oligocene volcanics intruded by the Hajigak Granite. The south-eastern part is built up of Eocene-Oligocene volcanics in the flanks and Oligocene terrigenous rocks in the core. The basin has the structure of a syncline. Some more basins seem to have existed in the area, but as a result of recent movements, they have been reduced and overlapped by the adjacent structural units. Only remnants are found now such as, for example, the outcrops of volcanic rocks in the Kohe Kaftarkhan, along the north-western margin of the Abul Zone, and in the Asgharat area. The emplacement of the majority of granite bodies in Middle Afghanistan was associated with the formation of the Eocene-Oligocene superimposed basins. It is likely that some of the bodies are older, possibly Paleocene, in age but these are undistinguishable. As a rule, granitic rock bodies intruded into the rises between the basins. There are some granite bodies intruding the basins such as the Hajigak Granite in the north-east of the Kohe Kafaron Basin.

Rejuvenated Orogenic Structures Structures of this type were formed in the Neogene period. The Eocene-Oligocene tectonic movements were followed by a period of general stabilization and peneplanation of the region. In the Neogene, the peneplain was disturbed again, and the region was divided into a system of basins and highs. The basins are of particular interest since they have preserved sedimentation evidence. Some of the basins were, apparently, uplifted and eroded, and others were reduced and overlapped by the adjacent structures. Only the largest of them remained. These are the Langhar, the Lal, the Rukh, the Tulak, the Sharah, the Tarbolaq, the Shorkul, the Asgharat, and others. All of them are situated in the western, Mid-Afghanistan, part of the region. The Langhar Basin The Langhar Basin (Fig. 28-4) was first mapped in the area between the Kohe Zaw and Hazarsang ridges. The basin is wedge-shaped in plan, thinning eastwards. It is 50 kilometres in length, the maximum width being five kilometres. The trend is nearly eastwestern. The basin is filled in with red-coloured and variegated conglomerates and sandstones of Pliocene age unconformably overlain by a thick mantle of Quaternary deposits. The Pliocene deposits are more than 300 meters thick (the base of the section is unexposed). The 353

sides of the basin are broken by the Kohe Zaw Fault in the north, and the Hazarsang Fault in the south. Now the basin appears as a graben. The Lal Basin The Lal Basin (Fig. 28-5) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) in the area between the Sarjangal and Bande-Bayan ridges. It has a lens-like shape in plan. It extends to the north-east for 100 kilometres, the widest portion being 15 kilometres. The boundaries are faults almost everywhere. In the south, it borders on the Bande-Bayan Fault Block along the Lal Fault, and in the north, on the Lal Fault Block, consisting of Middle Proterozoic metamorphic rocks, along the Sarjangal Fault. The basin is filled in with variegated conglomerates and sandstones of Pliocene age folded to form a syncline. The syncline is asymmetrical, the northern limb being steeper (40-60) than the southern (10-20). The Rukh Basin The Rukh Basin (Fig.28-6) was first mapped in the area of the village of Rukh within the Kasamurg (Siahkoh) Ridge. It was previously described as part of the Talaw Basin (152, 414). The basin is lentiform in plan, having wavy irregular outlines. It is 50 kilometres in length and 15 kilometres at the widest point. The trend is nearly east-western, oblique with respect to the north-east-striking structures of the Khwaja Morod and Nalbandan zones. A representative section is observed along the Sharah-Cheshte-Sharif highway. The basin is filled in with coarse and fine terrigenous, variegated and grey deposits of Neogene age. A distinctive feature is the presence of gypsum-salt beds. The deposits are over 1,000 meters in thickness. They lie on different Paleogene and pre-Paleogene beds and are overlain by nappe outliers consisting of Middle Paleozoic and Jurassic rocks. In general, the basin looks like a syncline complicated by a system of subhorizontal and steep faults. The Tulak, Sharab, Tarbolaq and Shorkul Basins The Tulak, Sharab, Tarbolaq and Shorkul Basins (Fig. 28-7,8,9,10) were distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) on the southern periphery of the region along the Qarghanaw Fault and Mid-Afghanistan highway. All the four structures occupy the same structural position, extending along the boundary of Middle Afghanistan and the Farah Rod Trough. They are hypsometrically deeper than the previous two basins. The structures under discussion are recent intermountain basins well defined geomorphologically and filled in with unfolded and unconsolidated Quaternary deposits. Slightly deformed variegated and grey conglomerate, sandstone, clay and gypsum beds of Neogene age outcrop from beneath the Quaternary deposits. The beds are monoclinally dipping inwards at 5 to 50, the dips reaching 70-80 near the faults. No pronounced anticlines or synclines are observed, although wave-like deformations of beds are present in some localities. Indications of salt-gypsum tectonics can be noted (Tarbolaq, Shorkul). The Asgarat Basin The Asgarat Basin (Fig.28-11) was first identified in the area of the village of Asgarat along the MidAfghanistan highway. The basin is wedge-shaped in plan, the long axis being oriented to the north-east. It is 50 kilometres in length and five kilometres in width on the broader edge. It is limited by faults on all sides. The basin has the shape of a graben infilled with Neogene poorly deformed, variegated and red coarse and fine terrigenous deposits overlain by the Quaternary sediments. Eocene-Oligocene volcanics outcrop from beneath the Neogene in the sides of the basin.

Recent structures Recent structures were formed by Neogene-Quaternary tectonic movements, as a result of which an extensive geosyncline of former times was disintegrated into a number of fault blocks and nappe-type structures consisting of remnants of Precambrian and Meso-Cenozoic structural units. Moreover, the original dimensions of the geosynclinal area were greatly diminished, and many structure-formation complexes of different age and origin formed in different environments and geographically distant areas were brought into contact and shuffled. The area responded to the movements by ruptures and differential displacements of the 354

resultant blocks with respect to one another. The most interesting structures thus formed are nappes and imbricated zones.

Nappes Structures of this type, being a function of extensive horizontal contractions of the region, are the most representative features of Middle Afghanistan. In no other region of Afghanistan do they manifest themselves on such a large scale. The most prominent nappes were distinguished by V.I. Dronov and S.M. Kalimulin in the west of the area (143, 152, 414). The largest of them are the Gok, the Shutur, the Kohe Aska, the Dehron, the Koh-i-Taraka, and others (Figs. 29, 30, 31). The Gok Nappe The Gok Nappe (Figs. 29-IV, 30-IV,V) occurs within the limits of the Talaw and Rukh basins in the water divide area of the Kasamurg (Syahkoh) Ridge drained by the upper courses of the Gok, the Gawmazar, the Talaw, and other rivers. This is the most extensive of all the known nappes. The nappe is 25 kilometres long from west to east and 10 kilometres wide from north to south. Although shown on a geological map of a 1:500,000 scale (140) as a continuous structure, the nappe actually consists of several imbricated thrust sheets (Fig. 29). The rocks composing them are fossiliferous Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous limestones, dolomites, sandstones and shales up to 800 meters in thickness. The nappe consists of a number of variously oriented brachyform and linear folds. The base of the nappe is subhorizontal, undulating. The autochtonous unit is a slightly folded sequence of Paleogene and Neogene small- to large-pebble conglomerates, sandstones, clays, gypsum, salt and other rocks. The Paleogene section includes volcanic rocks. Carboniferous-Triassic and Lower-Middle Jurassic fossiliferous intensely deformed strata of the Nalbandon Zone occurring in a normal stratigraphic succession are exposed from beneath the PaleogeneNeogene beds in erosion windows traceable along river valleys (Fig. 30-V). The Shutur Nappe The Shutur Nappe (Fig. 29-VI) is situated east-south-east of the Gok Nappe, within the limits of the Tarbolaq Basin, along the south-western side of the Bande-Bayan Ridge. It extends for 35 kilometres to the northwest, the maximum width being seven kilometres. In structure it is similar to the Gok Nappe. The allochtonous units consist of Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous fossiliferous rocks. Permian and Triassic beds of the Haftkala type are likely to occur at the top of the section. The autochtonous unit consists of Neogene variegated deposits of the Tarbolaq Basin outcropping from beneath the allochthon in deeply incised valleys. The base of the nappe is gently inclined southeastwards. The Kohe Aska Nappe The Kohe Aska Nappe (Figs. 29-III, 30-III) is situated to the west of the Gok Nappe. Geographically, it coincides with the outlines of the Kohe Aska Ridge of a nearly east-west trend. It is nine kilometres long and three kilometres wide. The rocks are thick-bedded and massive limestones and dolomites supposedly of Late Devonian-Early Carboniferous age. Structurally, the nappe is a gentle anticline of a nearly east-west trend cut by a horizontal fault at the base. The base of the nappe is subhorizontal. The autochthonous unit consists of Middle-Upper Jurassic and Tertiary variably deformed beds. The Dehron Nappe The Dehron Nappe (Figs. 29-I, II; 30-I, II) is found west of the Kohe Aska Nappe. It is composed of MiddleUpper Jurassic terrigenous and carbonate rocks fossiliferous throughout the section. It consists of several isolated thrust sheets of which the Dehron thrust sheet is situated in the extreme west (Fig. 30-I) and is followed to the east by the Abrawa (Fig. 30-II), Nasfanj, Kohe Zabot and other thrust sheets. The total length of the thrust sheets is 20 kilometres. They are oriented from west to east. Structurally, the thrust sheets occur as gentle monoclines, dipping to the north (Fig. 30-I, II). The base of the nappe seems to be either subhorizontal or gently downwarped. The autochthonous unit of all the thrust sheets consists of variegated gypsiferous, unconsolidated and compact limestones, siltstones and conglomerates of Paleogene and 355

Neogene age; in some localities Carboniferous-Lower Permian fossiliferous intensely deformed beds outcrop from under these rocks. The Koh-i-Taraka Nappe The Koh-i-Taraka Nappe (Fig. 7-27k; 31) is situated within the limits of the Koh-i-Taraka Ridge, west of Herat. The nappe is 20 kilometres long from west to east, and five kilometres wide from south to north. It is composed of Devonian-Lower Carboniferous fossiliferous gently deformed beds. The autochthonous unit consists of Neogene slightly folded variegated sandstones and conglomerates. The base of the nappe dips gently to the north. The distinctive feature of the above-mentioned nappes is their blanket-type occurrence within the intermountain basins on poorly deformed Eocene-Oligocene and Neogene beds. The nappes are, most likely, of gravity tectonics origin. Apparently, they represent very large landslides, which slipped down into depressions from the hillsides of rapidly rising and loosened uplifts. This occurred in the period of most intense differential movements, evidently in Late Neogene time just before the Quaternary epoch. In the north-east of the region, nappes are found in Central Badakhshan, in the Shewa Zone. Although these are less pronounced, since they do not overlap young rock units, there is no doubt about their allochthonous nature. As reported by I.M. Sborshchikov and V.I. Dronov (154), Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous rocks outcropping north of the Darya-i-Kalawch River, and Norian-Jurassic deposits of the Hetef type also form nappes.

Imbricated Zones Like nappes, imbricated zones are a distinctive feature of Middle Afghanistan, indicating that the region has been subjected to intense tectonic activity. Zones of imbricate structure are composed of variously metamorphosed and deformed Lower-Middle Paleozoic, Carboniferous-Jurassic, Cretaceous and PaleogeneNeogene strata brought into contact along steep fault planes. As a rule, no intrusive rocks are found in these zones. The zones are wedge-shaped or lentiform in plan, varying from several kilometres to 20-30 kilometres in length and from 200-300 meters to several kilometres in width. The imbricated zones are normally confined to zones of major faults, peripheries of Precambrian fault blocks or boundaries between the zones which differ in structure and facies. The imbricated zones consist of a series of en-echelon thrust sheets of different age, each sheet commonly consisting of lithologically similar and contemporaneous rocks. As a rule, the thrust sheets and fault wedges are steeply dipping. Conspicuous examples of such structures in the U.S.S.R. are the South Rangkul and. Akbaital imbricated zones from the Central Pamir. In Middle Afghanistan, similar zones are the Amurn, the Panjsher, the Hajigak, the Surkhbum, the Hokemullo, the Tagaw-i-Takchan, the Rabat-i-Sapcha, the Koh-i-Naspanj, and others. The Amurn Zone The Amurn Zone (Fig. 7-35b) was first identified in the north-west of Central Badakhshan. In the northwest, it borders on the Warw Zone along the Gulzari Fault, and in the south-east, on the Tangahew Fault Block along the Rawand Fault. The zone extends to the north-east for 60 kilometres. The maximum width is five kilometres. It is wedge-shaped in plan, thinning southwards. The zone extends into the U.S.S.R., Central Pamir, where it is known as the Wanch Zone. The thrust sheets and fault wedges encountered in the zone are composed of Cambrian, Ordovician, Lower Silurian or Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous, mostly carbonate, rocks. The Middle-Upper Ordovician sequence consists of fine terrigenous rocks. As a rule, the rock sequences are slightly folded, although in some localities almost vertical dips were noted. In some areas, the rocks are highly tectonized, like for example, the ruggedly and intricately folded Ordovician and Silurian rocks in the system of lateral ridges north-west of the village of Sharist (Fig. 32). Deep, narrow synclines are pronounced there owing to Lower Silurian limestones outcropping in their cores. A characteristic feature is the intricate bends in the crests of the folds and the numerous shear zones in massive limestones. Steep carinate folds are observed in Middle-Upper Ordovician slate strata. Disharmonic flow folds are found. in the Lower Silurian beds occurring on the left side of the Panj Valley (Figs 33, 34). 356

Extremely strong dislocations are observed in Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous limestone and shale beds near the Gulzari Fault between the Gulzari Pass and peak of 4367.0 m (Fig. 25). The folds are very tight almost isoclinal. When closely examined, the beds look monoclinal, and only at a great distance can one discern crests exhibiting traces of the material flowage and an increased thicknesses of the beds. The folds are overturned towards the adjacent syncline which is infilled with Triassic deposits. The Panjsher Zone The Panjsher Zone (Fig. 7-36e) is reported here for the first time. It extends along the north-eastern bend of the Panj River. In the north-west, it borders on various zones of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region along the Central Badakhshan Fault, and in the south-east, on the Nuristan-Pamir Median Mass, along the Panjsher Fault. The zone is 150 kilometres in length and up to five kilometres ~n width. It includes thrust sheets and fault wedges derived from the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region and Middle Afghanistan. All the rock sequences are faulted against one another. The fault planes often exhibit steep dips. A common feature are the zones of intensely sheared rocks among which primary rocks are hardly recognizable. At the same time, remnants of absolutely undislocated deposits are found. They include abundant well-preserved fossil remains (e.g. Permian beds in the north-east of the zone). Generally the zone appears as a graben. The Hajigak Zone The Hajigak Zone (Fig. 7-34c) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 413) in the area of the Hajigak Pass, between the Turkman Zone and the Kalu Fault Block. The boundaries of the zone are faults everywhere. The zone extends to the north-east for 40 kilometres with a width of 3-5 kilometres. It is lentiform in plan. Most of the zone is underlain by Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous limestones long since known as the Hajigak Series. Poorly metamorphosed black sandstones and shales carrying Late Triassic terrestrial plant remains of the Central Pamir type have recently been found in the area (158). It seems likely that Neogene variegated and, red-coloured beds from the Turkman Valley also belong to this zone. The Surkhbum Zone The Surkhbum Zone (Fig. 7-28c) was identified by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 413) in the area of the village of Surkhbum at the western end of the Madar Koh Ridge. The zone is bounded by faults on all sides. It extends to the north-cast for 100 kilometres, having a maximum width of seven kilometres. The zone has a lens-like shape in plan. It is underlain by Cambrian, Ordovician, Devonian, Carboniferous, Jurassic, Upper Cretaceous, Paleogene and Neogene rock units. They contact one another along fault planes. Of particular interest is the Lower Ordovician unit whose lowermost beds carry abundant fossils (444). It is worth mentioning, however, that Lower Ordovician rocks occur there in fault blocks wedged between the Neogene beds. The Hokemullo Zone The Hokemullo Zone (Fig. 7-33b) was identified for the first time in the area of the village of Hokemullo. It extends for 90 kilometres along the southern side of the Bande-Bayan Ridge west of the Surkhbum Zone. The widest portion of the zone is seven kilometres. The zone is wedge-shaped in plan. The wedge of a nearly east-west trend thins to the east. The zone is bounded by faults everywhere. It is underlain by Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Jurassic, Paleogene and Neogene beds which are brought into contact by faults. It is likely that some of the thrust sheets in the west of the zone are allochthonous units of the Shutur Nappe. The Tagaw-i-Takchah Zone The Tagaw-i-Takchah Zone (Fig. 7-27p) has been reported by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) from the Tagawi-Takhchah Valley in the Hazarsang mountain system. The zone is wedge-shaped, extending to the north-east for 60 kilometres, the broad edge being five kilometres in width. The narrow edge is oriented to the northeast. The zone, faulted on all sides is underlain by Cambrian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Paleogene and Neogene rocks brought into contact along fault planes. The Paleogene beds seem to plunge beneath the zone representing the base of the latter. If this is the case, the zone is likely to have been a nappe broken later by steep faults into a system of thrust sheets and. fault wedges.

357

The Rabat-i-Sapcha Zone The Rabat-i-Sapcha Zone (Fig. 7-27b) was mapped by V.I. Dronov et al. west of the Hazorsang Fault Block in the area of the Kohe Sangar and the low hills near the village of Rabat-i-Sapcha. The zone is lentiform in plan. It extends for 30 km. approximately to the east, the widest part being 10 km. In the south, it adjoins the Farah Rod Trough along the Qarghanaw Fault. In the north, its boundary is hidden beneath the Quaternary deposits. The rocks occurring within the zone are of Late Proterozoic, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Late Cretaceous and Neogene ages, brought into contact along fault planes. The Upper Cretaceous beds dip steeply, almost vertically, while the Devonian, Lower Carboniferous and Permian beds are characterized by low dips. The Neogene deposits fill in depressed areas. TheKoh-i-Naapanj Zone TheKoh-i-Naapanj Zone (Fig. 7-27c) was first identified in the area of the Koh-i-Naspanj Ridge west of the previous zone. It extends to the north-east for 40 kilometres, the maximum width being five kilometres. The zone is wedge-shaped in plan, thinning to the south-west. It is bounded by faults on all sides. The type of the Upper Cretaceous deposits is similar to that of the Rabat-i-Sapcha Zone. These two zones seem to have been parts of one structure which was separated and displaced with respect to each other. The zone has been little studied. The Guryan Zone The Guryan Zone (Fig. 7-27m) was first mapped west of the Kohe Taraka imbricated zone, north of the village of Rabaturk, extending between the contiguous Qarghanaw and Main Hari Rod faults. Thrust sheets and fault wedges of the zone are composed of Lower and Middle Paleozoic rocks shuffled between faulted Neogene beds. The zone is poorly exposed and, hence, little is known about it. It is mapped as a separate zone on the supposition that it will be verified by special field work. As repeatedly mentioned above, the faults that run in various directions breaking the region into size-variable fault blocks, wedges, thrust sheets, etc. are of great significance to the structure of Middle Afghanistan. It is likely that some of the faults originated and acted in the course of sedimentation, although the present-day pattern of all the faults is Neogene-Quaternary. Most of them are linear normal faults and upthrusts striking parallel to the trend of the folds. Many of the faults are wrench-type features with the displacement magnitude variable from several meters to several kilometres. Some of the wrench faults are parallel to the trend of folds, the others are running either across or obliquely to the latter. An interesting group of faults are subhorizontal ones which bound the nappes. Their planes are frequently wavy, often curved to form syncline-shaped structures, whose axes coincide with the central lines of the nappes. These faults are easily distinguishable into two types. The first type includes the faults running at the base of the nappes whose autochtonous units are older and commonly more rugged formations. These faults are accompanied by pronounced breccia zones and various evidence of movement. This type includes all the faults bounding the Central Badakhshan nappes. The faults of the second type outline the nappes whose autochthonous units consist of younger and usually less compact rocks. These are "ground-in" faults, which are not accompanied by breccias and exhibit no evidence of movement. Such faults bound the nappes occurring in the west of the area. The subhorizontal faults and those trending parallel to the folds seem to be older than the cross faults and oblique wrench-type faults.

Median Masses Geologists have been studying the world's median masses for a very long time, but there is still some disagreement concerning the origin, identification and classification of these structural units. Omitting the fundamental problems discussed by A.L. Yanshin in a special paper (445) and considered in other publications (214, 380), it is worth citing a definition of a median mass. We accept A.D. Shcheglov's, definition of a median mass which is as follows: "it is a stable block of the Earth's crust situated within a geosyncline zone, whose foundation consists of Precambrian metamorphic complexes. In fact, median 358

masses are remnants of ancient Precambrian structures, which remained as consolidated masses throughout the geosyncline period of evolution of a given area of the crust" (380). In accordance with this definition, two median masses can be identified in Afghanistan. These are the Nuristan-Pamir and South Afghanistan median masses. The two masses are markedly different in structure.

Nuristan-Pamir Median Mass In the Scheme of Tectonic Zoning (71, 232), the Nuristan-Pamir Median Mass includes the mountain systems of South Badakhshan, Wakhan and Nuristan. In plan it has the forts of a north-east-trending, slightly curved rectangle extending from southwest to north-east for 525 kilometres. Its maximum width is 125 kilometres, the total area being about 40,000 square kilometres. In the south-east, it borders on the structures of the Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region, in the north-west, on the structures of Middle Afghanistan and the South Pamir, and in the south-west, on the structures of the Kabul Stable Mass. This is a most extensive area of outcropping of ancient metamorphic rocks uplifted to an elevation of 5-7 thousand meters. At the same time, this is an area of highly intensive granitoid magmatism. Young stratified deposits occur sporadically. The mass was closely related to the structures of Middle Afghanistan and the South Pamir throughout the geological history. [Footnote: In the opinion of V.I. Donov, the Nuristan-Pamir Median Mass is part of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region.] The existence of rigid structures in this part of Afghanistan has been postulated by many investigators (13, 116, 162, 322, 328, 386, 393, 420, 438). Here, the mass has been described for the first time within the outlines delineated by V.M. Chmyriov. The mass is not uniform. It consists of the South Badakhshan and. Nuristan fault blocks and the Wakhan Zone. Besides, two imbricated zones, Zebak and Anjuman, are distinguished along the South Pamir faults. The geological history and structure of the constituent elements of the median mass are different (Sketch Map 13). The South Badakhshan Fault Block The South Badakhshan Fault Block (Fig. 7-1) was reported by Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (151), I.M. Sborsbchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (373, 413). It was combined previously with the South-West Pamir and referred to as the Badakhshan Massif (328). Geographically, the block coincides with a mountain system whose main ridge is the Kohe Lal. In the north-west the Bagarak massif of granitic rocks merges the block with the Nakhchir Par Zone. In the south-west, the block borders on the Hazret-Sultan structures along the Upper Kokcha section of the Central Badakhshan Fault, and. in the south an~ south-east, the Nuristan Fault Block along the Anjusian and Zebak faults. The block is oval-wedged in plan, narrowing to the south-west. In the U.S.S.R., the extension of the block are mountain ranges of the South-West Pamir. Taken together, they form a north-east-trending fault block, almond-shaped in plan. The total length of the block is 350 kilometres with 130 kilometres in Afghanistan. Its maximum width is 90 kilometres. The total area is about 20,000 sq. km., that of the Afghanistan portion being about 8,000 sq. km. This is the earliest structure in Afghanistan and the South Pamir, the ancient core of High Central Asia and a remnant of the structures dating back to the Kenoran consolidation. The original outlines of the block are unknown. At present the block is limited by Neogene-Quaternary faults and intraformational bodies of young granites. In the U.S.S.R., this structural unit was distinguished long ago by many investigators. The structural features and specific problems of related metamoprhism of the unit were thoroughly described by B.P. Barkhatov (13), V.I. Budanov et al.. (40, 41) and B.Y. Khoreva et al. (218, 219). In Afghanistan, the fault block was outlined and studied by A. Dezio (61), A. N. Mayorov et al. (266), V. M. Moraliov et al.. (351), Sh. Sh. Denikayev, V. P. Feoktistov et al. (151). The stratigraphic section of the fault block consists of one part made up of gneisses, quartzites, amphibolites and calciphyres altered to granulite and almandine-sillimanite subfacies of an amphibolite facies of metamorphism. The rocks are 6,700 to 9,200 meters thick. They are supposed to be Archean in age. As evidenced by the data available from the South-West Pamir (40, 41, 218, 219, 307), the rocks had undergone several phases of regional metamorphism and remetamorphism. The absolute ages determined for the metamorphic rocks from the South-West Pamir are as follows: 2,700-2,460 m.y. (Pb-isochronous age of marble); 1675100 m.y. K-Ar age, and 1,720-1,750 m.y. Rb-Sr (isochronous) age of phlogopite from the 359

Lajwar-Dara deposit (219). The first of the above-mentioned figures corresponds to the Archean-Proterozoic boundary, apparently indicating the main period of metamorphism of the rocks from the South-West Pamir and South Badakhshan. The other two figures stand for the Middle Proterozoic, possibly indicating subsequent metamorphism, e.g. the time of formation of phlogopite dykes in the area of the Lajwar-Dara deposit. The general structure of the fault block appears to be dome- or arch-like. The major axis of the dome coincides with the nearly north-south-trending bend of the Panj River or with the Abharw Anticline recognized by B.P. Barkhatov (13). The most ancient formations of the Ghor and Sare Sang series are exposed there. The beam in the core strike markedly to the north. At the flanks the beds dip at 25 to 50. A less pronounced dome-shaped structure of a lower order occurs in the upper reaches of the Kokoha River in the area of the Sare Sang deposit. An extensive area is underlain by rocks of the Sare Sang deposit. An extensive area is underlain by rocks of the Sara Sang Series. Only in the most depressed localities have the rocks of the Kohe Lal Series survived. A synclinal bend is found between this and the previously mentioned positive structure. The syncline is composed of the Kohs Lal rocks. The north-western flank of the structure is intruded by the Bagarak intraformational granitic rock massif. The above mentioned major structures are complicated by lower-order folds whose width varies from 2-3 kilometres to 20-30 kilometres. Most of the folds are brachyform and gneiss-domal with gently dipping limbs and shallow cores. Occasionally cross-folds are found with obscure axes and bends between anti-dines and synclines. The dips vary from~ 2-3 to 50. All the folds are complicated by minor folds exhibiting disharmonic folding in some places. Flow folds are often observed resulting from intrabed redistribution of the material in the course of ultrametamorphism. The general trends of the major structures are north-eastern and nearly north-southern. Lower-order features tend to deviate to the north-west and north-east. In the middle of the block, structures of a nearly east-west strike occur. Intrusive formations are represented by small, almost concordant bodies of ultrabasic and migmatite-granite rocks. The former have apparently been formed during the period of geosyncline development, and the latter, during a phase of ultra-metamorphism. Young granitic rock massifs surrounding the fault block on the northwest and south-east are of the intraformation type. They are believed to be emplaced during the Paleogene tectonic and igneous activity in the South Pamir and Middle Afghanistan. The youngest structural features of the block are faults. They break both the stratified and intrusive formations, including the granites of supposedly Paleogene age. The present-day structural pattern suggests that the faults were formed during Neogene-Quaternary time, though some of them seem to have originated in earlier periods, being rejuvenated in the recent time. Most of the faults are linear sructures of a nearly north-south trend which is parallel to the strike of the folds. They vary from 2-3 kilometres to 20-30 kilometres in extension. Some of the faults have a semi-circle configuration apparently due to the influence of the dome-like folds. In the middle of the block well-defined cross faults occur broken by north-southtrending faults into individual segments. The Nuristan Fault Block The Nuristan Fault Block (Fig. 7.2) was distinguished within the limits presented here by Sh.Sh. Denikayey et al. (145, 146), and I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (413, 420). Previously, it had been considered to be part of the Pamir-Nuristan Median Mass (386) and the East Afghanistan Mass (1-16, 162, 328). Geographically, the fault block coincides with the Central and East Hendukush. It is limited by faults on all sides. The Panjsher Fault separates it from the structures of Middle Afghanistan, The South Pamir fault system comprising the Anjuman, Zebak and Wakhan faults separates it from the South Badakhshan, SouthWest Pamir and Wakhan, the Altimur Fault, from the Kabul Stable Mass, and the Konar Fault, from the structures of the Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region. The block is wedge-shaped in plan, thinning to the northeast. It extends for 415 kilometres in length, its maximum width being 125 kilometres. The block is about 25,000 square kilometres in area. It is oriented to the north-east. Only a small portion of the block extends into the U.S.S.R. (Namangut-Eshkashim Area). The geology and tectonics of the area have been studied by G. Andritsky (7, 8), V.U. Narodny, S.D. Shvarkov et al. (309), Sh.Sh. Denikayev, V.P. Feoktistov et al. (145, 146, 151), L.N. Rossovaky (363), V.I. Slavin (393), and other investigators. 360

The fault block consists of three units of which the lower unit is believed to be the folded basement. The middle unit is the parageosynclinal sedimentary cover, and. the upper unit is represented by recent orogenic complex. Accordingly, the rock types, grade of metamorphism and tectonics of the units differ. The lower unit consists of metamorphosed in amphibolite facies compositionally variable gneisses, quartzites, crystalline schists, marbles, amphibolites and metavolcanics grouped into the Nuristan Series. The thickness of the series varies within 8,500 to 10,500 meters. The section of the series is continuous. It is abundant in subconcordant gneiss-granite bodies. There are also small-size subvolcanic metagabbro and diabase bodies. Both the stratified and intrusive formations are supposed to be Early Proterozoic in age. The folds of the unit, apparently produced by the Early Karelian orogeny, are ruggedly complicated and in places totally reworked by later movements and young intrusions. In the present-day structural pattern, they are represented by north-east- striking linear folds. The width of the folds varies from several tens of meters to several kilometres, the length of some folds reaching 20-30 kilometres. The folds are deep and steeplimbed. The dips in the limbs vary within 30 to 800. The limbs undulate along the strike, repeatedly varying from gentle to steeply dipping. The major folds are complicated by minor ones which include plication and flow folds. Boundinage structures are frequently observed. Extensive areas exhibit monoclinal dipping of the strata. The middle unit consists of compositionally variable black and dark grey sandstones, shales and siltstones metamorphosed to variegated slates and knotted schists enclosing beds of marble and metamorphosed limestone The limestone and marble beds divide the section into three parts. The lower, terrigenous part, 2,000-2,500 m thick, is believed to be Carboniferous-Lower Persian, the middle, carbonate part, 350-600 m thick, Upper Permian-Carnian, and the upper, terrigenous part 1,000- 1,500 m thick, Norian-Rhaetian. Since organic remains are rare, the ages are uncertain. The sequence resembles the Carboniferous-Triassic rock unit from the South-East Pamir. It is believed that originally the Carboniferous-Triassic strata rested unconformably on the Lower Proterozoic metamorphites, though at the present time the contact is obscured either by young intrusions or by faults. The folds of this unit are linear, striking to the north-east, parallel to the trends of the folds of the lower unit. The width of the largest folds varies from several hundred meters to several kilometres, and the extension, from a few to 20-30 kilometres. The folds are deep and -steep-limbed. The dips in the limbs vary from 25 to 80. Most commonly the beds dip at 50-70. Over extensive areas the dipping is monoclinal. In the northeast, extensive fields of Carboniferous-Triassic rocks outcrop, being intruded by small granite bodies. On the contrary, in the south-west, vast areas are underlain by granites and ancient metamorphic rocks, while Carboniferous-Triassic deposits occur sporadically, mostly as outliers on the top of young granites. The most extensive outcrops of Carboniferous-Triassic rocks have remained within the limits of graben-like structures. Some of the grabens are bounded by faults on two sides and some are unilateral. Frequently, one flank of the grabens is fused by granites and the other is faulted. All the grabens strike to the north-east, parallel to the trends of the folds. A typical-example of unilateral grabens is the Alingar Graben which coincides with the north-eastern mouth portion of the Alingar Valley. The graben is 55 kilometres in length and up to 10 kilometres in width. Its north-western side is faulted, and the south-eastern side is fused by the Laghman Granite. The internal structure of the graben is anticlinal. Upper Permian-Carnian metamorphosed limestones outcrop in its central part, and Norian-Rhaetian sandstones and shales, in the limbs. The folds of the unit are Early Kimmerian and the grabens are Neogene-Quaternary in age. A great contribution to the structure of the Nuristan Fault Block was made by supposedly Early Cretaceous and Oligocene intrusions. The Early Cretaceous intrusions are represented by isometric, stock-like discordant rock masses of a gabbro-monzonite-diorite formation (Nilaw Complex). The Oligocene intrusions are sheetlike, linear, concordant granitoid rock masses (Laghman Complex). The outcrops of these masses are most abundant in the uplifted south-western portion of the block. The derivatives of the masses are abundant in the rocks of the lower and middle units. The intrusions seem to have been emplaced in the period of orogeny and later tectonic and igneous activity within Middle Afghanistan and the South Pamir. Complex and overturned folds encountered in the extreme south-west of the fault block along the border with the Kabul Stable Mass are worthy of note. These are recognizable in the conformably folded Precambrian and Carboniferous-Triassic strata intruded by Early Proterozoic and Oligocene granites. This suggests that 361

the folds are at least Oligocene or post-Oligocene in age. Evidently, the formation of the folds was associated with the dynamic action of the Kabul Stable Mass during its northward movement. The upper unit consists of unconsolidated grey-coloured and variegated coarse terrigenous molasse beds of Pliocene age. These deposits occur in the extreme south-east of the block. They fill in superimposed basins apparently produced by recent orogenic movements which acted in the Nuristan Fault Block and in Afghanistan as a whole. The faults traced within the fault block are relatively numerous, frequently linear, north-east striking, running either subparallel or obliquely with respect to the folds. Most of them are normal or upthrust faults almost always manifesting strike-slip displacements. The most extensive faults reach 150-200 kilometres in length. The Wakhan Zone The Wakhan Zone (Fig. 7-3) , [Footnote: V.I. Dronov includes this zone in the Middle Afghanistan Geosuture which is a system of zones of the South-East Pamir type marked by relative downwarping.]of somewhat different size was previously located by I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov and others (373, 420). Here, it is reported as a zone including the Afghan portions of the Wakhan and Mustag ridges. In the northwest, it borders on the South-West Pamir along the South Pamir fault system (13), and in the north-east, it grades into the structures of the South-East Pamir without interruption. In the south, the zone borders on the Nuristan Fault Block and the Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region along the Wakhan and Tushkuprok Faults (Fig. 7-XIV, XXXIII). The zone is wedge shaped in plan, thinning to the west. The length of the zone is 200 kilometres, the maximum width is 50 kilometres, the total area being about 7,000 square kilometres. The strike is nearly east-western. The zone was studied by A.Kh. Kafarsky and other investigators (198, 200). Taking into consideration the evidence available from the adjacent South-East Pamir (79), the section of the zone appears to consist of four units separated by angular unconformities. The first unit is Carboniferous-Triassic. This unit, in turn, consists of three parts. The Carboniferous-Lower Permian part, 1,800 m thick, consists of sandstones, inhales and siltstones of a black slate formation, the Upper Permian-Carnian part 350 m thick, of limestones and cherts, and. the Norian-Rhaetian (1,600 m thick), of sandstones, shales and siltstones of a flysch formation. The total thickness of the unit is 3,750 meters. The rocks are little altered in case they occur far from intrusions, and in the vicinity of the latter they are metamorphosed to a grade of knotted or mottled schists. The strata are deformed into linear, nearly eastwest-or east-north-east-trending folds. In the Wahjir River drainage basin, the folds strike to the south-east. The folds are deep, steep-limbed, grading to isoclinal. (Figs 35-40). In the north of the zone, the folds tend to diverge northward. The folds ares from tens to several kilometres in width and from several hundred to tens of kilometres in length. The dips in the limbs vary from 30 to 50 and more. The folds are Early Kimmerian in age. In the type of section and folding, the Carboniferous-Triassic sequence of the zone is similar to the contemporaneous sequences of the Marginal Zone of the South-East Pamir (79) and the Nalbandon and Turkman zones of Middle Afghanistan. The second unit is Jurassic. The unit, consisting predominantly of carbonate rocks with a subordinate amount of fine-terrigenous deposits, rests unconformably on the Carboniferous-Triassic (Figs 41, 42). The unit starts with red basal sandstones and conglomerates. Its total thickness is 415 m. The rocks are deformed to brachyform folds of south-east strike. The folding in Middle Kimmerian (Late Jurassic-Cretaceous). The unit extends into the USSR, where its counterparts are the Jurassic beds of the Guramdin Zone of the South-East Pamir (79). Within Afghanistan, similar deposits occur in the Nalbandan Zone. The third, Eocene-Oligocene unit, 150 m thick, is composed of redstone-altered acid and intermediate volcanics of a porphyry formation. The rocks occur in flat-lying lava flows broken by faults (Fig.43). The rocks extend into the South-East Pamir, USSR, Where they are referred to as the Tashiktash Series (73, 79). The fourth, Pliocene unit, 120 m. thick, consists of compact and unconsolidated, grey and variegated sandstones and conglomerates forming outliers of a sub-horizontal rook sequence which filled in an ancient intermountain valley. Numerous intrusions of Oligocene granite (batholith formation in the Wakhan and Mustag complexes) were emplaced during the Paleogene tectonic and igneous activation of Middle Afghanistan and South Pamir (Figs 44, 45). 362

Linear faults of N-E and N-W strike intersect one another. Approximately E-W-trending faults are less common. These are the oldest faults, being intersected and displaced by the N-W-trending faults. The largest features reach 20-30 km. in length. In the south-east of the zone, there is an overthrust traceable in Eocene-Oligocene volcanics. The feature is of nearly E-W strike. The present-day structural pattern suggests that all the faults are of Neogene-Quaternary age.

Imbricated Zones Structures of this type occur along the Zebak and Anjoman faults. In the recent structural pattern these appear a relatively small remnants of structural units whose original tectonic nature remains unknown. Lithologically, the deposits of the zones are of the Central Pamir type. Their occurrence in the region is rather surprising. One of the possible explanations in that they were accumulated there in large troughs surrounding the South Badakhshan Fault Block and were later squeezed by this block as a result of recent movements. They also could have been overthrusted and moved into the region in the recent time, being preserved as nappe outliers within a geosuture zone of steep faults. The problem needs special investigations. Zabak Zone Zabak Zone (Fig. 7-1a) has been outlined by the authors in an area of Zebak village. The zone, lentiform in plan, is oriented to the north-east. It is 30 kilometres long and up to 5 kilometres wide. The zone comprises en-echelon thrust sheets and fault wedges composed of Norian-Rhaetian, Miocene and Pliocene rocks. The Norian-Rhaetian sequence consists of black-coloured sandstones, shales and siltstones of the Central Pamir type. It is not ruled out that the topmost beds of the sequence in the Nakhchir Par Zone grade conformably into Lower-Middle Jurassic deposits. The Miocene and Pliocene sequences consist of poorly metamorphosed variegated, red and grey coarse-clastic deposits. The Miocene has not been studied sufficiently. Clastic material in the Pliocene beds is represented by local granites, gneisses and Norian-Rhaetian shales. Anjoman Zone Anjoman Zone (Fig. 7-lb) is recognized for the first time. It extends along the east-west-trending sections of the Anjoman and Munjan valleys. The zone of west-eastern trend and lens-shaped in plan is 35 kilometres long and 5 kilometres wide. It is underlain by Upper Permian-Carnian, Norian-Rhaetian, Cretaceous and Miocene strata. Intrusive rocks are represented by the Lagman granites of supposedly Oligocene age. Commonly, the stratified and intrusive rocks contact each other along steep faults, though Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (151) reported a case of some granites seemingly overlapped transgressively by Cretaceous beds. This fact deserves intent attention and should be verified in future. The Upper Permian-Carnian sequence consists of metamorphosed limestones. The Norian-Rhaetian sequence is similar to that in the Zebak Zone. It consists of black sandstones, siltstones and shales abundant in terrestrial plant remains of the Central Pamir type. The Cretaceous deposits are represented by rudistid limestones having obscure relations with red sandstones and conglomerates of unidentified age. The Miocene is also represented by red sandstones and conglomerates. The Permian-Triassic strata are more deformed than the Cretaceous and Miocene ones.

South Afghanistan Median Mass [Footnote: According to V.I. Dronov, the territory of the median mass is the Region of Late Kimmerian Folding.] This median mass includes the Mazarajat Mountains, the South Afghanistan Plain, the South Afghanistan Mountains and a system of ridges in the Tarsak, Arghestan, Dari Rod and Lura Rod drainage areas. In plan, the mass has a shape of an irregular trapezium narrowing southwards. The northern side is 750 and the southern 450 kilometres long; the trapezium is 500 kilometres in height and about 300,000 square kilometres in area. In the north, the mass borders on the Middle Afghanistan structures, and in the west, south and east 363

adjoins the folds of the Region of Alpine Folding. This is the only large structure lying wholly within the limits of Afghanistan. The existence of rigid stuctures in this part of Afghanistan was postulated by many investigators (9, 13, 116, 142, 144, 152, 163, 322, 393, 437). Inside, the mass is not uniform. It includes the Helmand-Argandab Uplift, the Farah Rod and Dari Rod troughs, and the Seystan superimposed basin. These components are greatly different in geology and geological history (Sketch Map 14). Helmand-Argandab Uplift This structural unit was first distinguished by S.S. Karapetov (142) as the Helmand-Argandab Median Mass. Later it was shown on the Tectonic Map of Afghanistan (1;1,000,000) in the Region of Early Alpine Folding as an uplift bearing the same name (413, 420). The same structure referred to as the Central Afghanistan Stable Mass was described by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414). Other investigators considered it to have somewhat different dimensions and described it either as the Helmand Fault Block or the Helmand Zone (116, 214, 386, 438). Geographically, the uplift embraces the east-south-eastern part of the Hazarajat Mountains. In plan; it has a shape of an iron base whose point is oriented to the north-east. The uplift is 450 kilometres in length, up to 200 kilometres in width and about 70,000 square kilometres in area. In the north-east, it borders on the structures of Middle Afghanistan along the Qarghanaw Fault, in the north-west, adjoins the Farah Rod Trough along the Helmand Fault (Fig. 7-IVIII), and in the south-east, the Dari Rod Trough and the Region of Alpine Folding along the Mukur-Tarnak and Mukur-Chaman faults (Fig. 7-XIX, XX). The south-western boundary is obscure. Gradually dipping in this direction, the uplift plunges beneath the Neogene-Quaternary deposits of the Seystan Basin. From bottom to top the uplift is composed of the folded basement, sedimentary cover and orogenic formations (Fig. 46). The folded basement consists of marine, typically geosynclinal, variously metamorphosed and intensely deformed rocks of Middle-Upper Proterozoic age. Their total thickness ranges within 10, 950-14,500 meters. The sedimentary cover lies unconformably on the folded basement. It consists of less metamorphosed and less deformed marine terrigenous carbonate rocks of Vendian-Paleozoic and Mesozoic age, their thickness varying from 2,073 to 10,000 meters. The orogenic complex, overlying unconformably the sedimentary cove; consists wholly of terrestrial volcanogenic-terrigenous rocks of Cenozoic age. Intrusive rocks are represented by Middle and Upper Proterozoic, Cretaceous, Paleogene, Miocene and Early Quaternary metagabbros, migmatite-granites, gabbro-diorites ultrabasics, gabbro-plagiogranites, gabbromonzonite-syenites, syenites and granitoids. Derivatives of a granitoid formation are most abundant. Structures of the Folded Basement This class of structures includes fault blocks and highs composed of Middle and Upper Proterozoic rocks. In accordance with the definite or supposed dating of the rocks, the structures are classified into Middle and Upper Proterozoic ones.

Middle Proterozoic Structures The rocks of supposedly Middle Proterozoic age outcrop in several areas within the Helmand-Argandab Uplift. However, they form distinguishable structures along the north-western periphery of the uplift only, where they constitute the foundations of the Bashlang and Waras fault blocks. Bashlang and Waras Fault Blocks Bashlang and Waras Fault Blocks (Fig. 7-4,5) were distinguished S.S. Karapetov (142) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) in the Bashlang and Waras ridges extending along the north-western periphery of the HelmandArgandab Uplift. The blocks, trending from south-west to north-east, are arranged in-line. In the north-west, 364

they border on the Farah Rod Trough along the Helmand Fault, and in the south-east, adjoin the Helmand Zone along the Bashlang and Waras faults (Fig. 7-XIX, XXXI). The Bashlang Fault Block is wedge-shaped, its point being oriented to the north-east. it is 100 kilometres long and up to 20 kilometres wide. The Waras Fault Block of east-north-east trend has a lens-like shape. It is 250 kilometres long and 25 kilometres wide. Paleotectonically, the blocks are believed to have been one structure wedged between the HelmandArgandab Uplift and Farah Rod Trough (93). In the present structural pattern the blocks are horst-like uplifts. Each of the blocks consists of distinct units. Their folded basements consist of supposedly Middle Proterozoic compositionally variable gneisses, schists, quartzites, marbles, amphibolites and metavolcanics regionally metamorphosed in amphibolite and greenschist facies. The rocks are 5,350 to 7,500 meters in thickness. They are deformed to linear and brachyform folds of the north-east strike. In some areas, metamorphic rocks are crumpled to form gneiss-dome folds. Intrusive rocks form small subconcordant and discordant metagabbro and migmatite-granite bodies. Both folding and intrusive activity are believed to be associated with the Late Karelian orogeny. Several small intrusive massifs of ultrabasic rocks, whose age is uncertain, are found within the Waras Fault Block. They have been tentatively ascribed to Early Cretaceous and correlated with the Mollayakub Complex occurring within the Farah Rod Trough, though it is not ruled out that they belong to a different complex of Middle Proterozoic age. The sedimentary covers of the fault blocks rest unconformably on the folded basements and consist of Aptian-Albian terrigenous-carbonate rocks 900 meters thick. Originally, the sedimentary rocks may have covered both blocks with a continuous coat. But they survived in narrow graben-synclines only along the north-western peripheries of the blocks.

Upper Proterozoic Structures Structures of this age occur as basement arches of variable size and shape traceable in the extensive fields of the Sedimentary Cover within the Helmand-Argandab Uplift. The largest of these are the Malakhel, Malestan and Shekhristan arches (142, 144, 152, 206). The arches are composed of dark sandstones, siltstones and schists metamorphosed in a phyllite and low-grade greenschist facies, and a small amount of limestones, dolomites and acidic to basic volcanics. The rocks are 5,600 to 7,000 meters in thickness. They are believed to be of Late Proterozoic age. Their relations with Middle Proterozoic formations remain uncertain. The rocks are unconformably overlain by Vendian-Paleozoic deposits (Figs 47.49). The Upper Proterozoic strata are crumpled to form linear harmonic and isoclinal folds of variable heights with the widths ranging from several dozen or hundred meters to several kilometres. The folds vary from several hundred meters to several kilometres in length. They strike to the east and east-north-east, the dips in the limbs being normally very steep. Intrusive rocks are represented by derivatives of a metagabbro formation (Chekanak and Tamazan complexes). They form small isometric or lentiform massifs in the fields dominated by Upper Proterozoic deposits. Both folding and intrusive activity are associated with the Baikalian cycle of diastrophism. The Malakhel Arch This name was given to an outcrop of Upper Proterozoic rocks found in the southeast of the HelmandArgandab Uplift (144, 152, 206). The arch is wedge-shaped in plan. It reaches 100 kilometres in extension and 30 kilometres in width striking to the north-east. In the present structural pattern, the arch is a core of a large anticlinorium whose limbs are composed of Vendian-Paleozoic and Mesozoic Sedimentary rocks. The interior structure of the arch is complex. Linear harmonic and isoclinal folds striking to the east and northeast are most abundant. The Malestan Arch The Malestan Arch is mapped in an area of the village of Malestan, north of the Malakhel Arch (144, 152). It is represented by three subparallel outcrops of Upper Proterozoic rocks recognizable in a continuous field of Paleozoic and Trias-Jurassic deposits. The Malestan Arch proper is 100 kilometres long and 5 kilometres wide. Two outcrops lying to the north of it are 22 and 30 kilometres long and 3 and 3.5 kilometres wide, 365

respectively. The Malestan outcrop is bounded by faults on all sides. The boundaries of the other two outcrops are undisturbed in the south-east and faulted in the north-west. Each of the outcrops is actually a core of an anticline complicated by steep faults on one side or all the sides. The outcrops indicate elevated position of the folded basement in this part of the Helmand-Argandab Uplift. The Shakhristan Arch The Shakhristan Arch is known as the most extensive outcrop of Upper Proterozoic rocks within the Helmand-Argandab Uplift (142, 156, 206). It is 200 kilometres long and 50 kilometres wide. Its strike is north-eastern. Outcrops of Permian-Triassic rocks divide the arch into two smaller antiform structures each of which is marked by a chain of granitoid massifs of Oligocene age. In the present structural pattern, the arch is a core of a very large anticlinorium plunging to the south-west.

Structures of Sedimentary Cover As mentioned above, the Sedimentary Cover of the Helmand-Argandab Uplift consists of poorly metamorphosed and slightly folded terrigenous-carbonate rocks of Vendian-Paleozoic and Mesozoic ages. Metamorphism and folding are ascribed to Late Cretaceous. As reported by V.I. Dronov et al. (152), the Sedimentary Cover is laterally inhomogeneous varying in lithology and age. Five structural-facies zones were distinguished within the uplift. The zones are Argandab, Kandahar, Logar, Tirin and Helmand in the Argandab and Kandahar (?) zones, the Sedimentary Cover starts with the Vendian, in Logar, with the Ordovician, in Tirin, with the Upper Devonian and in the Helmand Zone, with the Lower Permian deposits. Argandab Zone Argandab Zone (Fig. 7-8). This zone was first distinguished by Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144) and S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206). Later the outlines of the zone were revised by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414), who included into the zone the peripheral part of the Helmand-Argandab Uplift which is located south-east of the granitoid massifs of the Argandab Complex. The north-western boundary of the zone is sealed by granitoids, the south-eastern boundary running along the Mukur-Tarnak Fault. The zone is lentiform in plan, extending for 250 kilometres in length and up to 40 kilometres in width. It is of north-eastern strike. The folded basement consists of Middle and Upper Proterozoic rocks. In the present structural pattern, the basement rocks outcrop in a number of antiform structures the largest of which is the Malakhel Arch. The Sedimentary Cover is most complete in this zone as compared to other zones of the uplift. It starts with a VendianCambrian carbonate formation (870 m) followed by an Ordovician-Lower Permian fine-terrigenous formation (4,335 m) which is capped by Upper Permian-Jurassic carbonate formation (3,870 m) including a Rhaetian-Liassic fine-terrigenous formation (40-600 m). The Cretaceous is represented by a BarremianAptian coarse- and fine-terrigenous formation (450-1,365 m). The total thickness of the sedimentary strata varies within 6,250-10,000 meters. Quartz sandstones are abundant in the Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous, and dolomites in the Upper Permian and Middle-Upper Triassic portions of the sequence. Indications of erosion are observed at three levels inside the Frasnian, at the top of the Lower Permian and at the top of the Upper Jurassic. Bauxites are found at the second and third levels. The Barremian-Aptian sequence lies unconformably on all the older formations. Like in other areas of the uplift, the sedimentary strata are deformed to brachyform, yet linear, gently-dipping, shallow folds. Monoclinal bedding is observed in many areas, flip angles in the limbs of the folds and monoclines vary from 15-20 to 50-70. Disharmonic folding is traceable in plastic members (Fig. 50). The orogenic complex is represented by several small out-crops of redstone-altered acidic to basic volcanics of Eocene-Oligocene age. Intrusive rocks are not characteristic of the Argandab Zone. Small subconcordant and discordant massifs of Middle and Late Proterozoic metagabbro and migmatite-granite rocks are encountered in the Folded Basement (Waras and Chekanak Complexes). Small discordant massifs of ultrabasic, gabbro-plagiogranite, gabbro-monzonite-syenite and granitoid rocks of Early Cretaceous, Cretaceous-Paleocene and Oligocene ages (Tugai, Khwajan, Zarkashon and Argandab complexes) are intruded into sedimentary beds and orogenic formations. 366

The general structure of the Argandab Zone is an anticlinorium of a north-eastern strike. The axis of the structure plunges to the south-west. The core of the anticlinorium is the Malakhel Arch exposing the rocks of the basement. The core is surrounded by sedimentary strata ranging in age from Vendian to Jurassic, Barremian-Aptian beds outcrop in periclinal areas. Kandahar Zone Kandahar Zone (Fig. 7-8a) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (152) within the outlines of the Argandab Zone previously outlined by Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144) and S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206). Geographically, the zone coincides with the Main Argandab Batholith and a chain of granitoid massif a which extend from the batholith to the northeast and south-west. The emplacement of these massifs is attributed to a specific structure of the Kandahar Zone, particularly to its high permeability, which is proved by the presence of plutonic rocks exposed along this belt, such as basic rocks of the Chakanak Complex, intermediate and basic volcanics of the Kanqala Series, ultrabasic rocks of the Tugai Complex, etc. In plan, the zone has a linear outlines. It is 475 kilometres long and up to 30 kilometres wide. The zone strikes to the north-east. It may have been limited originally by faults which were sealed by the Argandab Granite in the Paleogene. Granites assimilated a large part of the zone's territory and obscured many features of its original structure. Judging by roof pendants and granite inliers, it may be assumed that up to Jurassic time the geological history of the zone was similar to that of the Arghandab Zone. However in the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, the geological history of the Kandahar Zone was different. A series of ophiolite rocks (Kanqala Series) was formed in the zone at this time. It includes a substantial amount of greenstone-altered intermediate to basic volcanics, cherts and shales. The thickness of the Kanqala Series is 1,000 meters though this is not the complete initial thickness of the rocks since the base of the sequence is not exposed and the top is eroded. The accumulation of the rock sequence was accompanied by the formation of the Tugai ultrabasic complex and was completed by the intrusion of the Khwajan gabbro-plagiogranites. The emplacement of the latter is related to the uplifting of the zone and the folding of the constituent volcanogenic-sedimentary formations. The uplifting and the resultant break in sedimentation were short in time, for in the Barremian the zone was covered by the sea again (Fig. 51). A sequence of coarse- and fine-terrigenous rocks with a small amount of carbonate deposits (the sequence is referred to as the Anagay Series, 450 m thick, was accumulated within the zone during the Barremian and Aptian time. Beginning with the Late Cretaceous, the zone developed as an uplift. The orogenic complex is represented by Eocene-Oligocene, Neogene and Quaternary volcanogenicsedimentary strata which accumulated in superimposed basins. The bulk of the Argandab granitoid rocks were emplaced during the orogenic cycle of the history, supposedly in Oligocene. In the present structural pattern, the granitoid massifs form a linearly elongated magmatogenic structure. Logar Zone Logar Zone (Fig. 7-8b) was outlined by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) in the upper reaches of the Logar and Argandab rivers. It partially corresponds the Logar Trough outlined by the geologists of the German Geological Mission (42, 115). The zone is wedge-shaped in plan with the narrow end situated in the southwest. The zone is 300 kilometres long and up to 35 kilometres wide. It strikes to the north-east. The boundaries have not been established everywhere and in many localities they are tentative, commonly drawn along major faults. The Dashte Nawer Plateau divides the zone into two parts, the north-eastern and southwestern, which are different in structure. The Folded Basement is exposed in the Malestan Arch (152) where it consists of poorly metamorphosed fine-terrigenous Upper Proterozoic rocks similar to those of the Malakhel Arch. The Sedimentary Cover starts with Ordovician strata. It is likely that Vendian-Cambrian rocks have not been deposited there. The zone is distinguished by the abundance of poorly metamorphosed fossiliferous Ordovician-Permian deposits. The Mesozoic sequence is represented by Triassic-Jurassic beds occurring chiefly in the south-west of the zone. The Ordovician-Lower Permian strata, 3,465 meters thick, consist predominantly of terrigenous rocks and a small amount of limestones found in the Devonian and Lower Carboniferous intervals, reef limestones occurring in the Lower-Middle Devonian. The Upper Permian and Triassic-Jurassic strata, 2,450 meters thick, are chiefly composed of carbonate rocks. The total thickness of the sedimentary strata is 5,915 meters, which is nearly twice as less compared to that recorded in the Argandab Zone. However, no substantial breaks in sedimentation have been recorded (Fig. 52). The Lower-Middle Paleozoic sections from the 367

Kandahar Zone are typical of Afghanistan as a whole and perhaps of the entire Middle East. They are comparable with the well known representative Lower-Middle Paleozoic sections from Czechoslovakia (the Paleozoic of the Barrandov area). Orogenic rocks are represented by Early Quaternary volcanics of the Dashte Nawer Series, which occur in a nearly north-south-trending superimposed basin. Intrusive rocks are not characteristic of the zone. The general structure of the zone is an anticlinorium whose axis plunges south-eastwards. The minor structures are linear and brachyform folds whose axes are oriented subparallel to the strike of the anticlinorium. Tirin Zone Tirin Zone (Fig. 7-7) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) within the limits of the Helmand Zone outlined by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206). The zone, linear in plan, narrows to the north-east. It is 430 kilometres in length and up to 50 kilometres in width. The Folded Basement outcropping along the periphery of the zone is composed of Upper Proterozoic poorly metamorphosed fine-terrigenous rocks. The Sedimentary Cover starts with Upper Devonian beds. Vendian-Cambrian and Ordovician-Middle Devonian deposits seem to have never been accumulated there. The Upper Devonian-Jurassic strata (3,270 m) are essentially similar to the contemporaneous formations from the Logar and Argandab zones differing from them by a smaller thickness, absence of breaks in sedimentation, a smaller amount of quartz sandstones, finer terrigenous deposits, and a smaller amount of reef limestones. These details indicate that in Late Devonian-Jurassic time the Tinin Zone was a relatively subsided area. A distinctive feature of the zone is the occurrence of fossiliferous Rhaetian deposits of a schwab facies (207), which have not been found in any other areas of Afghanistan. Another specific feature of the Tirin Zone is the abundance of Lower Cretaceous deposits of a shallow-sea and terrestrial facies, which suit the definition of marine molasse. The deposits are 600 meters in thickness. They have been accumulated in a residual trough. The orogenic complex is represented by Eocene-Oligocene, Pliocene and Quaternary volcanogenicsedimentary rocks which infill superimposed basins. Intrusive rocks are scarce. Several small granitoid massifs are known in the south-west of the zone. They are believed to be of Oligocene age and ascribed tentatively to the Argandab Complex. Structurally, the zone is a synclinorium whose axis plunges to the south-west. The structures observed inside the zone are brachyform and linear folds striking to the north-east. Helmand Zone Helmand Zone (Fig. 7-6). The earliest description of the zone was given by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206). Later its outlines were revised by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414). This is the largest zone among the structuralfacies zones of the Helmand-Argandab Uplift. In the north-west, the zone borders on the Bashlang and Waras fault blocks, and in the south-east adjoins the Tirin Zone. It has a wedge-shaped outlines with the narrow north-eastern edge. The zone extends for 430 kilometres, its maximum width being 80 kilometres. It strikes to the north-east. The Folded Basement is composed of sandstones, siltstones and shales metamorphosed to a phyllite facies and to a low grade of a greenschist facies, and a small amount of limestone, dolomite and acidic to basic volcanics. The rocks are known as the Barmanay Series (142). The thickness of the rocks is 5,600-7,000 meters. They are supposed to be Late Proterozoic age. The Sedimentary Cover starts with Lower Permian beds. Vendian-Cambrian, Ordovician-Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous strata appear to have never deposited within the zone. The Lower Permian sequence consists of carbonate-terrigenous rocks ranging within 285 to 470 meters in thickness. These were accumulated in areas of earliest sedimentation. The bulk of the Sedimentary Cover consists of Upper Permian and Triassic carbonate strata which once covered the whole area of the zone. They are preserved only in the south-western part of the Helmand Zone. Their thickness is 1,670 to 2,770 meters. The Jurassic 368

sequence consists of terrigenous-carbonate rocks 203 to 335 meters thick occurring sporadically in residual troughs. The total thickness of the sedimentary strata is 2,073 to 3,105 meters. The orogenic complex of volcanogenic-sedimentary facies does not occur in the Helmand Zone. Intrusive massifs emplaced during the orogenic cycle consist of Late Cretaceous-Paleocene, Oligocene and Miocene rocks of a gabbro-monzonite-syenite (Surkhabad Complex), granitoid (Helmand Complex) and syenite (Barkar Complex) formations. Most abundant rocks are Oligocene granites of the Helmand Complex, which compose two chains of massifs exposed within the Shakhristan Arch. Structurally, the zone is an anticlinorium, the Shakhristan Arch being its core. The anticlinorium axis plunges south-westwards. There is a great difference between the structural features observed in the Folded Basement and in the Sedimentary Cover. The basement exhibits linear, narrow, deep holomorphic, occasionally isoclinal folds while the Sedimentary Cover is folded to brachyform broad shallow folds.

Structures of Orogenic Complex The structures of the orogenic complex are superimposed basins filled with Cenozoic volcanogenicsedimentary terrestrial deposits. These are classified into Eocene-Oligocene, Neogene and Quaternary basins. Remnants of Eocene-Oligocene basins are found in several areas of the Helmand-Argandab Uplift as the outcrops of the Tangay volcanic series, though no well-defined structures can be established on the present erosion surface. There are several basins of Neogene age, which are situated chiefly in the south-western part of the uplift. The largest of them is the Tirinkot Basin recognizable in the area of the village of Tirinkot. In plan, the basin has an oval shape oriented from west to east. The basin is 40 kilometres in length and 10 km. in width. It is filled with Neogene coarse- clastic variegated and grey deposits. Eocene-Oligocene volcanic rocks of the Tangay Series outcrop at its sides. An example of a well-preserved Early Quaternary basin is provided by the Dashte Nawer Basin. Unlike the Eocene-Oligocene and Neogene basins commonly subparallel with the trend of the pre-Cenozoic structures, the Dashte Nawer Basin extends from the south to the north, i.e. its strike is discordant with respect to all the older structures. The basin is 120 kilometres long, the maximum width being 35 kilometres. It is underlain by flat-lying volcanics of andesite-dacite composition, 400 to 600 meters in thickness. Farah Rod Trough This structural unit was distinguished by V.I. Slavin (386) and S.S. Karapetov et al. (142) who referred to it as the Farah Rod Trough but considered it to have different outlines. As far as the outlines presented here are concerned, this structure was shown as a relative trough within the Region of Early Alpine Folding in the composite tectonic map of Afghanistan on a scale of 1:1,000,000 (413, 420). The monographic description of this structure was given in the work by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 413), where it was referred to as the SouthWest Afghanistan Fold System. In the early investigations the structure was believed to have different outlines and was referred to as the Farah Rod Fault Block or Farah Rod Zone (42, 116, 438). Geographically, the trough embraces the west-south-western part of the Hazarajat mountainous region. The trough has a shape of a wedge with the narrow north-eastern end. Its length is 650 kilometres, the maximum width being 300 kilometres and the total area 85,000 square kilometres. In the north, it borders on the structures of Middle Afghanistan along the Qarganaw Fault, in the south-east, on the Helmand-Argandab Uplift along the Helmand Fault, and in the west adjoins the Alpine structures of West Afghanistan along the Asparan-Kishmaran Fault (Fig. 7-XXIII, XXIV). In the south-west, the structures of the Farah Rod Trough plunge beneath the Neogene-Quaternary Seystan Basin. The Precambrian basement is not exposed within the trough. As evidenced by the geophysical measurements taken by the German Geological Mission, it lies in the depth of 11,000 meters in the east and 4,000 meters in the west (42, 116).

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The Sedimentary Cover is of a great thickness and variable in structure and facies. The sediments are chiefly of marine origin. Nine structural-facies complexes have been distinguished in the sequence. These are Vendian-Cambrian (?), Carboniferous-Lower Permian, Upper Permian-Norian, Rhaetian-Liassic, Middle Jurassic, Upper Jurassic-Hauterivian, Barremian-Aptian, Upper Aptian-Albian, and Upper Cretaceous (?). Volcanogenic-terrigenous rocks are most abundant in all the units mentioned above. The orogenic complex lies strongly unconformably on the Sedimentary Cover. It consists of terrestrial volcanogenic-terrigenous rocks of Cenozoic age. The orogenic complex is subdivided into five units: Eocene-Oligocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene and Quaternary. Pre-Cretaceous, Cretaceous, Paleogene and Miocene intrusions consist of the rocks of an ultrabasic, diabasediorite (subvolcanic), gabbro-monzonite-diorite, andesite-dacite (sub-volcanic), granitoid and diabase-diorite (dyke) formations. Intrusive rocks are not widespread in the area under discussion.

Structures of Sedimentary Cover The sedimentary rocks occurring within the trough are laterally variable in lithology. Taking into account this variability, particularly within the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous interval, seven structural-facies zones have been distinguished. These are Zuri, Farsi, Harut Rod, Syahdeh, Anardara, Huspas Rod and Khash Rod. According to the location and structure of the zones they are combined into marginal zones and inner zones.

Marginal Zones This group includes the Zuri, Khash Rod and Huspas Rod zones. A common feature of all the zones is the occurrence of products of Late Jurassic-Hauterivian volcanism. Zuri Zone Zuri Zone (Fig. 7-9) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (143, 152) in the north-west of the Farah Rod Trough. In the north, it borders on the structures of Middle Afghanistan along the Qarganaw Fault, in the northwest, on the Region of Alpine Folding of West Afghanistan along the Kishmaran Fault, and in the south-east, on the Farsi Zone along the Rode Tag (Fig. 7-XXXV) and Bande-Hoja (Fig. 7-XXVIII) faults. The Rode Tag Fault, running in the south between the Zuri and Farsi zones, divides the Zuri zone into two subzones, Shayda and Pirowuli. The Shayda Subzone is situated southwest of Qala-i-Mir Daod. It has a shape of a quadrangle oriented to the north-east and bounded by faults on all sides. The long side is 50 kilometres and the short side is 20 kilometres. The Pirowuli Subzone is situated in the Kohe Bande Sehtegh and Pirowuli ranges, south-west of the Shayda Subzone. It is wedge-shaped in plan, with its narrow edge pointing to the north-east. The subsone is 65 kilometres long, the maximum width being 20 kilometres. It is assumed that the subzones were separated as a result of the recent movements, particularly, due to a slip which occurred along the Rode Tag Fault. The stratigraphic sequence of the Zuri Zone is not certain. According to the adopted stratigraphic classification (152), the Permian limestones and dolomites occurring in Kohe Gulanji, Kohe Gologha and Selsela Koh-i-Bande Bedak ridges are supposed to be the oldest rocks. Their thickness varies from 238 to 336 meters, the contacts with the surrounding strata being faulted. It is not ruled out that the rocks constitute some portion of an allochthonous thrust sheet. The zone is underlain mostly by volcanogenic-terrigenous rocks dated supposedly as Upper JurassicHauterivian. They form two series, Pirowuli (5,000 m) and Zuri (3,100 m). The Pirowuli volcanics are greenstone-altered and schistose porphyroids represented by quartz keratophyres and quartz plagioporphyries. The Zuri volcanics are less altered and virtually unfoliated dacite-andesites. The relations between the two rock sequences remain uncertain. The Pirowuli Series is believed to be older in age. In addition to igneous rocks, both series include schists, siltstones, cherts, limestones, conglomerates and gravelstones. The amounts of these with respect to volcanics remains unknown. The proportion is believed to vary from place to place, one type of rocks replacing the other in some localities. 370

The structural features of the series within the Shaida Subzone have not been ascertained because of the great thickness of Cenozoic deposits. The Pirowuli Subzone is better exposed, and structural features are easily discernable in both series, The south-western part of the subzone (Kohe Sehtegh) is a brachyform anticline whose long axis is oriented to the north-east. The anticline plunges in the same direction. Dark shales outcrop in the core, and foliated porphyroids in the limbs. The beds in the limbs dip at 30-60. The anticline is complicated by a series of minor folds and is dissected by a linear steep fault of a north-eastern strike. The rocks underlying the Pirowuli and Zuri series are unknown. In the Shayda Subzone, the series appear to be unconformably overlain by coarse- and fine-terrigenous rocks of Barremian-Aptian (1,500 m) and Late Aptian-Albian (140 m) ages (Palosi and Golanji series). Both series contain small amounts of limestones, including reef limestones. The beds are deform-ed to simple brachyform folds of a north-eastern strike. Intrusive rocks form small granitoid massif a of supposedly Early Cretaceous age. Khash Rod Zone Khash Rod Zone (Fig. 7-12) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (152) in the east-south-east of the Farah Rod Trough. In the north-west, it borders on the Syahdeh and Huspas Rod zones along the Gulestan Fault (Fig. 7-XXIX), and in the south-east, the Wares and Bashlang fault Blocks along the Helmand Fault. In an area of the Molla-Yakub Pass, the two faults come together and the Khash Rod Zone pinches out. The southwestern boundary of the zone is hidden beneath the Neogene-Quaternary beds of the Saystan Basin. In plan, the zone is wedge-shaped, the north-eastern edge pinching out. The zone is 450 kilometres long, the maximum width being 65 kilometres. The zone is underlain by Carboniferous-Lower Permian (?), Upper Permian-Norian, Upper JurassicHauterivian, Barremian-Aptian, Upper Aptian-Albian and Upper Cretaceous (?) strata totalling 10,700 to 15,000 meters in thickness. Carboniferous-Lower Permian strata outcrop in the north-eastern part of the zone. They are composed of sandstones, shales and siltstones of the Mene Bum Series, 4,000 to 5,000 m thick. The underlying rocks are unexposed, and the relationship with younger deposits remains unknown. Upper Permian-Norian beds outcrop in the same north-eastern part of the zone. They consist of compositionally variable sandstones, conglomerates, limestones, gravelstones and intermediate-to-basic volcanics. Reef limestones are rather common. The rock sequence is 2,000 to 2,500 meters thick. Its relationships with older and younger formations have not been established. Upper Jurassic-Hauterivian deposits are most abundant occurring ever the greater part of the area. They form two series, Nawzad and Alekoi. The Nawzad Series, 1,000 to 1,500 m thick, is supposed to be older than the Alekoi Series. It consists of greenstone-altered intermediate to basic volcanics and a small amount of cherts, shales and limestones. The Alekoi Series, 2,000 to 4,000 m in thickness, is believed to be younger. It consists of irregularly interbedded schistose sandy-shaly-silty rocks and subordinate intermediate-to-basic volcanics. The relationships of the two series with older and younger units, and their interrelations remain uncertain. Barremian-Aptian beds, referred to as Aspmurda Series, 500 to 800 m thick, outcrop in the north-eastern part of the zone. They consist of sandy-silty rocks and a small amount of conglomerates, marls and gravelstones. Their relationship with the Upper Jurassic-Hauterivian strata is unknown. Upper Aptian-Albian Kayan Series (495 m thick) occurs mostly in the north-eastern part of the zone too. It consists of terrigenous-carbonate rocks which lie unconformably on the Barremian-Aptian. The sequence starts with basal red conglomerates which have a small amount of basaltoid volcanics. Deposits of supposedly Late Cretaceous age survived the erosion in the north-east of the zone only, in the drainage area of Pushte Rod River. These are red conglomerates and sandy-silty rocks totalling 700 meters in thickness (Pushte Rod Series). The beds lie on the Aptian-Albian with evidence of erosion yet with no pronounced angular unconformity. Their relationship with younger beds has not been established.

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Most abundant intrusive rocks occurring in the Khash Rod Zone are ultrabasic and gabbro-diorite rock types. They are genetically and spatially associated with Upper Jurassic- Hauterivian volcanics (Molla-Yakub and Karabah complexes). They normally form small stock-shaped or lenticular bodies scattered in the fields of volcanic rocks. Intrusions of Triassic age are likely to be present in association with the Upper PermianNorian volcanic series, though they have not been distinguished as a separate complex. Worthy of mention is the fact that no granitoid rock types have been found in the Khash Rod Zone. The pre-Barremian and post-Barremian beds exhibit essentially different types of folding. The pre-Barremian beds are deformed to tight deep linear folds. In places, where crests of the folds are indistinct, the bedding seems to be monoclinal. The beds dipping to the south-east at 30 to 80 prevail. Overturned beds are observed in many areas. The beds and axes of folds strike to the north-east deviating in some localities to the east-north-east. The Barremian-Albian and Upper Cretaceous beds exhibit simple brachyform folding of a north-east strike. The difference in the types of the pre-Barremian and post-Barremian folds seems to be the result of the various competence of the beds subject to folding. Plastic volcanogenic-terrigenous beds of preBarremian age were crumpled to form more complex folds whereas more rigid Barremian-Aptian strata including thick limestone units were deformed to simpler folds. The general structure of the Khash Rod Zone was difficult to establish because of the complexity of the above mentioned structural features. Huspas Rod Zone Huspas Rod Zone (Fig. 7-11a) is outlined here for the first time, though its existence as a separate zone was suggested earlier (152). The zone starts from an area near the village of Dehkundi as a narrow thrust block consisting of red conglomerate, and broadens gradually extending along the Darya-i-Hadir, Darya-iQarajangal and Nawa-i-Kundalan rivers to the villages of Khwaja Rauf, Gulestan and Khurmalaq and farther towards Farah. In plan, the zone has wedge-shaped outlines. It narrows north-eastward. The zone is underlain by Upper Permian-Norian (?), Rhaetian-Liassic, Middle Jurassic, Upper JurassicHauterivian and Barremian-Aptian formations totalling over 6,000 meters in thickness. Same beds of the Upper Permian-Norian sequence outcrop along major faults particularly at the periphery of the zone. The outcrops are poorly studied. The only rocks which can be definitely dated as Upper PermianNorian are the intermediate to basic volcanics occurring in the drainage areas of the Darya-i-Qarajangal and Nawa-i-Kundalan rivers. The apparent thickness of the rocks exceeds 500 meters. Rhaetian-Liassic rock sequence known as the Qarajangal Series is widespread in the drainage area of the Qarajangal River. It consists of dark sandy-shaly-silty rocks totalling over 2,000 meters in thickness, Its contacts with the Upper Permian-Norian unit appear to be faulted in most localities. Middle Jurassic sequence, known as the Shonakay Series, was encountered only in one locality, on top of the Shonakay Mountain. At the base the sequence consists of limestones, 120 m thick, followed by sandstone, 30 m thick. The rocks lie conformably on the Rhaetian-Liassic, but their relationship with younger formations remains unknown. Like in the Khash Rod Zone, Upper Jurassic-Hauterivian strata consist of volcanogenic-terrigenous rocks. Volcanics are intermediate to basic in composition, altered to a greenstone facies. The total thickness is over 3,000 meters. Their relationship with older formations has not been established. Barremian-Aptian deposits are mainly limestones. Their thickness varies within 200-500 meters; the relationship with the Upper Jurassic-Hauterivian beds remains uncertain. Of interest are variegated to red sandstones and conglomerates widespread in the north-east of the zone and reaching several hundred meters in thickness. The age of the rocks is not established. G.A. Orlov et al. (354, 358) dated them as Upper Cretaceous. The authors ascribed them to Aptian. They appear to lie transgressively on older strata. Compositionally variable intrusive rocks form small massifs most of which exhibit genetic and spatial relationship with Upper Jurassic-Hauterivian volcanics. In most cases these are subvolcanic formations. There are also some small massifs of granitoid rocks (Farah Complex), which are believed to be emplaced during the orogenic cycle of the history. The Huspas Rod Zone is rather complex in structure; many structural features remain uninterpreted. Like in the Khash Rod Zone, the pre-Barremian strata are deformed to linear folds of a nearly eastern or north372

eastern strike. The Barremian-Aptian and Albian (?) beds are crumpled to brachyform folds striking to the north-east.

Inner Zones This group includes the Farsi, Harut Rod, Anordara and Syahdeh zones. A distinctive feature characteristic to all the zones is the absence of volcanics in the Upper Jurassic-Hauterivian interval and its flysch-like appearance. Besides, reef facies are abundant in the Barremian-Aptian sections in the Harut Rod and Anordara zones. Farsi Zone Farsi Zone (Fig. 7-10a) is distinguished for the first time. It is situated in the north-western part of the Farah Rod Trough. The zone is bounded by faults on all sides. In the north-west, it borders on the Zuri Zone along the Rode Tag and Banda Hoja faults, in the north, on the structures of Middle Afghanistan along the Qarganaw Fault, and in the south-east, on the Harut Rod zone along the Farsi Fault (Fig. 7-XXXVII). The zone is wedge-shaped in plan, narrowing to the north-east. It is 300 kilometres long and up to 60 kilometres wide. The section consists of two parts. The lower part, exceeding 5,000 meters in thickness, is composed of Upper Jurassic- Bauterivian flysch-like interbedded sandy-shaly-silty rocks. The upper part rests conformably on the lower and consists of inequibedded limestones of supposedly Barremian-Aptian age. The apparent thickness of the limestones is 100 to 200 meters. Both sequences, particularly the lower one, are strongly dislocated to form linear holomorphic and isoclinal NE-striking folds. Harut Rod Zone Harut Rod Zone (Fig. 7-10) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (143, 152, 414). This is the largest structural-facies zone in the Farah Rod Trough. In the northwest, it borders on the Farsi Zone along the Farsi Fault, in the south-east, the Syahdak and Huspas Rod zones along the Chorsang and Khwaja Rauf faults, and in the south-west, on the Region of Alpine Folding of West Afghanistan along the Asparan-Kishmaram Fault. In plan, the zone is wedge-shaped, narrowing north-eastward. It is 500 kilometres long and up to 100 kilometres wide. The geological section of the zone consists of Upper Jurassic Hauterivian, Barremian-Aptian and Upper Aptian-Albian formations, totalling 8,400 to 10,400 meters in thickness. Most of the zone is underlain by Upper Jurassic-Hauterivian flysch-like interbedded sandy-shaly-silty rocks containing marl and limestone members, interbeds and lenses (Shurbest, Petawzar and Zardab series). The total thickness of the rocks is 7,000 to 9,000 meters. Barremian-Aptian beds lie conformably on the Upper Jurassic Hauterivian strata and consist largely of limestones alternating with sandy-marly rocks (Kalmashaw Series). The thickness of the beds is 1,000 meters. Upper Aptian-Albian deposits lie on the Barremian-Aptian with evidence of erosion yet with no pronounced angular unconformity. Red and variegated conglomerates and sandstones occur at the base, and light thickbedded limestones at the top (Panj-Angusht Series). The deposits are 400 meters thick. Though the Upper Jurassic-Hauterivian and Barremian-Albian beds are conformable, they are deformed to different types of folds due to a difference in the competence of the two units. The Upper JurassicHauterivian thick terrigenous flysch-like strata are deformed to complex linear holomorphic and, occasionally, isoclinal folds, and the Barremian-Albian relatively thin predominantly carbonate beds to simple brachyform folds. The folds strike to the east-north-east. Taken as a whole, the zone is an anticlinorium whose core is situated in the Shurbest area where the oldest presumably Upper Jurassic rocks are exposed.

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Anordara Zone Anordara Zone (Fig. 7-.11) was first outlined by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) in an area of the village of Anordara. In plan, the zone has the shape of a wedge narrowing to the east-north-east. It extends for 200 kilometres in length and up to 40 kilometres in width, striking to the east-north-east. The section comprises Vendian-Cambrian (?), Valanginian-Hauterivian, Barremian-Aptian and Upper Aptian-Albian deposits totalling over 4,000 meters in thickness. Deposits of supposedly Vendian-Cambrian age have been found only in the Pushte Sabz locality (Figs 53, 54), where red sandstones, dolomites and basaltoid rocks, totalling 420 meters in thickness (Pushte Sabz Series), outcrop in the core of an anticline. The rocks are intruded by a stock of the Kohe Qalata graniteporphyries. The Pushte Sabz volcanogenic-Sedimentary rocks and granite-porphyries are the oldest units in the Farah Rod Trough. The underlying rocks have not been established. The rocks are unconformably overlain by Barremian-Aptian limestones. Valanginian-Hauterivian uppermost beds outcrop in the cores of narrow anticlines. Like in the Harut Rod zone, this interval of the section consists of flysch-like interbedding sandy-.shaly-silty rocks containing a small amount of marl and limestone. The exposed thickness of the rocks is 500 meters. Their relationship with the underlying formations remains uncertain. Barremian-Aptian deposits are most widespread in the Amordara Zone. The sequence consists wholly of limestone, predominantly reef limestone, reaching over 2,000 meters in thickness. Its relationship with the underlying rocks is variable; it lies unconformably on the Vendian-Cambrian, and rests on the ValanginianHauterivian with indications of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity. Upper Aptian-Albian unit lies on the Barremian-Aptian with distinct evidence of erosion, yet with no pronounced angular unconformity. It consists of 100 meters of red conglomerates and sandstones with basaltoid layers at the base, and 150 meters of limestone at the top. The sedimentary strata are deformed to brachyform linear folds. Paleotectonically, the zone seems to have developed as a relatively uplifted area (152). Syahdeh Zone Syahdeh Zone (Fig. 7-10b) is distinguished for the first time. It is situated in the extreme north-eastern part of the Farah Rod Trough. The zone is lenticular in plan extending for 250 kilometres in length and 40 kilometres in width and striking to the north-east. The zone is underlain by intensely folded, flysch-like interbedding dark sandstones, shales and siltstones of the Syahdak Series (142, 206). The series is over 5,000 meters thick. It is tentatively dated as Upper JurassicHauterivian, the bulk of the rocks being apparently Jurassic in age. The rocks are unconformably succeeded by a Barremian-Aptian a limestone and conglomerate sequence varying from 100 to 300 meters in thickness. The Upper Jurassic-Hauterivian beds are deformed to linear folds and the Barremian-Aptian to brachyform folds. The folds strike to the north-east. The zone is characterized by a very tight folding. Particularly tight are the high-order folds.

Structures of Orogenic Complex Orogenic deposits are widespread in the Farah Rod Trough. They rest unconformably on all the older formations. The deposits are Eocene-Oligocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene and Quaternary in age. They fill in superimposed basins of different size and shape of Paleogene, Miocene and Pliocene-Quaternary age.

Paleogene Basins The largest and most pronounced basins are Adraskan, Shindand, Tawdanak (Farah Rod), Larband, Taywara, Sangan and others. They were distinguished and described by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414). 374

Adraskan and Shindand Basins Adraskan and Shindand Basins are situated in the north-western part of the Farsi Zone. It is not ruled out that initially there was one basin in the area which was divided into two basins in Neogene-Quaternary time. The Adraskan Basin is a NE-elongated irregular quadrangle 180 kilometres long, the maximum width being 55 kilometres. The Shindand Basin is outlined south-east of the Adraskan Basin and is sub-parallel to the latter. Like the Adraskan Basin, it has a quadrangular shape, being 150 kilometres long and up to 35 kilometres wide. The floors of the basins are composed of redstone-altered acidic to basic volcanics of Eocene-Oligocene age referred to as the Shindand Series, about 2,000 meters thick. They lie strongly unconformably on Cretaceous strata and are overlain disconformably, yet with no angular unconformity by Oligocene red sandstones and siltstones of the Taywara Series. The thickness of the Taywara Series reaches 4,000 meters in some areas. The rocks of the series normally compose the central parts of the basins. A feature worthy of note is a different type of folding in the volcanics and in the terrigenous beds. The volcanics are deformed to gentle broad shallow intermittent folds, and the terrigenous beds to linear and brachyform rather tight folds. Tawdanak (Farah Rod) Basin was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) first as the Farah Rod Basin but since this name is widely used in many senses, a new name is proposed here, Tawdanak, after the Tawdanak Desert extending within the basin. The basin is situated in the western part of the Farah Rod Trough at the junction of the Harut Rod, Anordara and Huspas Rod zones. The basin is isometric in plan, about 30 kilometres in diameter. Like in the two previous basins the floor of this basin is composed of Eocene-Oligocene redstone-altered acidic to basic volcanics (Shindand Series), 800 meters thick. The rocks lie unconformably on the Cretaceous and are succeeded by the Taywara red sandstones and siltstones (500 to 1,000 m) with evidence of erosion, yet with no angular unconformity. Both the volcanics and the terrigenous beds are deformed to gentle broad shallow folds, the folding of the terrigenous beds being more complex than that of the volcanics. Larband, Taywara and Sangan Basins Larband, Taywara and Sangan Basins are situated in the east of the Harut Rod zone, on the extension of the three previous basins. In comparison with the latter, the basins are much smaller but similar in geology. In plan, the Larband Basin is of a lens-like shape. It is oriented to the north-east. The basin, 12 kilometres long and up to 5 kilometres wide, is geomorphologically well-pronounced as it is surrounded by rocky mountains. The sides of the basin are composed of redstone-altered acidic to basic volcanics of EoceneOligocene age (Shindand Series). They are 500 meters thick. The central part of the basin is made up of red sandstones and siltstones of the Taywara Series, 600 meters in thickness. The basin is distinctly synform in structure. The Taywara Basin mapped 65 kilometres north-east of the Larband Basin is similar in outlines but somewhat larger in size than the latter. It is 27 kilometres in length and up to 7 kilometres in width. EoceneOligocene volcanics (700 m) occur in the floor and Oligocene terrigenous beds (1,600 m) in the core of the basin, In the north-eastern part of the basin, Paleogene beds are unconformably overlain by the Neogene. The Sangan Basin situated 20 kilometres east of the Taywara Basin is strongly different from the Larband and Taywara basins by its linearity and nearly east-western trend. The basin is 50 kilometres long and maximum 5 kilometres wide. It is separated by faults from the surrounding structural units. The basin has a form of a graben whose floor is made up of Eocene-Oligocene redstone-altered volcanics and the core, of Oligocene red sandstones, siltstones and conglomerates. Inside, the graben appears as a syncline. Eocene-Oligocene subvolcanic intrusions and Oligocene granitoid massif a were emplaced during the formation of the basins. Their outcrops are known both within the basins and in the rises separating them.

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Miocene Basins Almost all the Miocene basins inherited the structure of the above Paleogene basins with the exception of a few whose origin was independent. The largest of these is the Garmaw Basin. Garmaw Basin Garmaw Basin is situated 30 kilometres north-east of the Taywara Village. It extends to the northeast for 90 kilometres, its maximum width being 15 kilometres. It is bounded by faults in many places. The basin is infilled with Miocene red and variegated sandstones and conglomerates which rest unconformably on Cretaceous strata. The rocks, 100 to 300 meters thick, are crumpled to form gentle intermittent wide folds striking to the north-east. The emplacement of intermediate to basic dykes of the Ghurdanak Complex is supposedly related to the formation of Miocene basins. Pliocene-Quaternary basins occupy extensive areas in the south-western part of the Farah Rod Trough and merge with the Seystan Basin.

Dari Rod Trough This trough was distinguished by Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144). In the Tectonic Map of Afghanistan, scale 1:1,000,000, it is shown in the Region of Early Alpine Folding as the Tarnak Trough (317, 413). As it is outlined here, the trough includes the Chagay Range from the South Afghanistan mountain system and several isolated mountain massifs scattered in drainage areas of the Tarnak, Arghestan, Dari Rod and Lura Rod rivers. In the south-east, it borders on the Katawaz Trough along the Mukur-Chaman Fault, and in the north-west, on the Helmand-Argandab Uplift along the Mukur-Tarnak Fault. Within the Seystan Basin, the boundaries of the trough are obscure. The trough extends to the north-east. It is a wedge narrowing to the north-east and measuring 600 kilometres in length, 90 kilometres in width (along the Dari Rod River) and 30,000 square kilometres in area. The trough is underlain by Cretaceous marine deposits. Thrust sheets and fault wedges of Precambrian metamorphic rocks are traceable along major faults. Intrusive rocks are represented by derivatives of ultrabasic and granitoid formations of supposedly Cretaceous and Paleogene age. Neogene-Quaternary terrestrial deposits are widespread. They cover extensive areas of the trough. Bedrock in- liens are sporadic. As evidenced by these inhere, the structure of the trough in the drainage areas of the Tannak, Anghestan, Dari Rod and Lura Rod rivers is different from that in the Chagay Ridge. The trough was divided, on this basis, into two structural-facies zones, Tarnak and Chagay. Tarnak Zone Tarnak Zone (Fig, 7-42) was outlined by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142). This zone is most prominent part of the Dari Rod trough. It is a wedge pinching out to the north-east and reaching 400 kilometres in length and 90 kilometres in width. The zone is underlain by Middle Proterozoic (?) and Cretaceous formations. The Middle Proterozoic sequence constitutes the Folded Basement outcropping in small thrust sheets and fault blocks traceable along major faults. The rocks are compositionally variable gneisses, crystalline schists, marbles and amphibolites metamorphosed to a greenschist facies and to a low grade of an amphibolite facies. They are about 800 meters in thickness. Cretaceous deposits are much more abundant than Proterozoic ones. They are represented by BarremianAptian volcanogenic-terrigenous-carbonate rocks more than 1,300 meters thick. In the present-day structural pattern, the rocks are faulted against the Proterozoic units, though originally they may have overlapped them transgressively. Intrusive rocks encountered within the zone are Lower Cretaceous ultrabasics (Tarnak Complex) and Oligocene granites (Spin Boldak Complex).

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Most of the folds present in the zone are brachyform features striking to the north-east. The zone is characterized by numerous longitudinal and oblique faults breaking it into a system of narrow blocks, thrust sheets and wedges. A small fault wedge composed of rocks looking as coloured melange has been observed in one locality underlain by Middle Proterozoic metamorphics. Fragments of limestones encountered in this variegated rock mass carry remains of Cretaceous rudistids. The observed relationships indicate that the melange may have been tectonically "intruded" into the monoclinal sequence of metamorphic rocks (Fig. 55). Chagay Zone Chagay Zone (Fig. 7-42a) coincides geographically with the Chagay Ridge. The length of the zone is 200 kilometres and the maximum width (within the limits of Afghanistan) is 55 kilometres. Its relationship to the Tarnak zone remains unknown because an extensive area between the two zones is concealed tinder Neogene-Quaternary deposits. The section of the zone is monofacial. It is composed of acidic to basic volcanics of the Loy for Series. The rocks are Albian in age. Their thickness is about 3,300 meters. The folds are brachyform, oriented nearly north-south. Intrusive rocks are represented by granitoid magma derivatives.

Seystan Basin The Seystan Basin (Fig. 7-50) is considered to be the largest structural unit in the South Afghanistan Median Mass. It was distinguished and named by the geologists of the German Geological Mission (FRG) (116, 438), and was later described by all the investigators. The basin corresponds geographically to the South Afghanistan Plain covered by the Regestan and Seystan deserts. The basin is an irregular quadrangle whose longer side is of nearly east-west trend. It is about 115,000 square kilometres in area. The geological section consists of the Folded Basement and Sedimentary Cover. The Folded Basement of the basin and the surrounding structural units (Helmand-Argandab Uplift, Farah Rod Trough and Dari Rod Trough) is the same. The Sedimentary Cover consists of Neogene-Quaternary variegated and grey terrestrial deposits of various origin. Of the Neogene sequence only Pliocene beds are exposed which consist of fine-terrigenous sandy-clayey deposits and a small amount of conglomerates and gravelstones. As evidenced by geophysical measurements, the beds are 2,000 to 3,000 meters thick. Quaternary deposits lie on the Pliocene beds with evidence of erosion. The deposits are of a sedimentary and volcanogenic facies. The sedimentary beds are continuous consisting of unconsolidated sandy-clayey-pebbly material of fluvial and lacustrine origin. Eolian sands are widespread. Volcanogenic rocks occur sporadically, surrounding volcanic centres. These rocks form stocks, dykes and volcanic cones of Early Quaternary age. The Quaternary sequence varies in thickness from several centimetres to several hundred meters. Volcanic cones reach 700 to 800 meters in height. The Neogene strata are either flat-lying or deformed to gentle discontinuous folds which are incomplete in profile. The Quaternary deposits are unfolded.

Regions of Alpine Folding

Three regions of Alpine folding have been distinguished within Afghanistan. These are Afghanistan-East Iran, Turkmenistan-Horasan, and Suleiman-Kirthar. The first is Early Alpine, and the second and third are Middle Alpine in age. All the three areas are only small portions of vast fold belts extending beyond the limits of Afghanistan (Sketch Map 15).

Afghanistan-East Iran Folded Region This region is most abnormal and sophisticated of the folded areas belonging to the Mediterranean Fold Belt. It extends across all the inner structures of the belt nearly over its entire width. East and west of the region, the belt narrows in some places and exhibits transverse rises and other abnormal discordant structures. 377

However, all these are recent orogenic structures produced by post-folding horizontal movements and compression, whereas the Afghanistan-.East Iran Folded Region was originally a transverse feature. The region was paleotectonically a nearly north-south-trending Late Cretaceous trough which formed on a Triassic-jurassic and Lower Cretaceous basement between the folded structures of the Farah Rod Trough and the but Fault Block (in Iran). Subsidence persisted for a short period but was very intensive. At the beginning, the trough accumulated a thin quasi-cratonic sequence of Lower Campanian limestones and in Late Campanian-.Maestrichtian, a very thick geosynclinal volcanogenic-terrigenous flysch series. The trough underwent inversion and folding between the Cretaceous and Paleogene. This served as the basis for attributing the region to the Early Alpides. Most of the region is situated in Iran and is referred to as the East Iranian Late Cretaceous Trough. The part of the region situated in Afghanistan was studied by V.I. Dronov and other geologists in 1969-1973 (88, 143, 152, 254). The structure of the region is different on its various parts. Taking into account the differences in the stratigraphic section, magmatism and structure, the Kishmaran Uplift and Asparan Trough have been distinguished in the region. The total area of the Afghan part of the region is 10,000 square kilometres. Kishmaran Uplift Kishmaran Uplift (Fig. 7-40) was outlined and described by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414) in the northern part of the West Afghanistan Mountains. In the north, the uplift borders on the structures of Middle Afghanistan along the Qarghanaw Fault, and in the south-east, on the structures of the Farah Rod Trough along the Kishmaran Fault. The uplift has a shape of a right-angled triangle whose long side, adjacent to the right angle and oriented along the latitude, is 125 kilometres and the short one (meridional), 80 kilometres long. The uplift is the most elevated part of the region concerned. The Folded Basement of the uplift is composed of Triassic-Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous rock units. The Triassic sequence consists of dolomites and limestones (1,000 m), the Lower-Middle Jurassic, of acidic volcanic rocks, sandstones, shales and siltstones (3,300 m), and the Middle-Upper Jurassic of limestones and marls (250 m). The relationship between the Triassic and Jurassic units remain uncertain. The Lower Cretaceous sequence, consisting of 1,100 meters of red sandstones and conglomerates at the base and 50 meters of rudistid-orbitolinid limestones at the top, rests unconformably on the Jurassic. Intrusive rocks are represented by the Qale Yarak granitoids of supposedly Early Cretaceous age. The main geosynclinal complex consists of Upper Cretaceous deposits whose section is not complete since the upper beds are eroded. The lower beds (200 m) consist of hippuritic limestones and marls of Early Campanian age. The beds lie strongly unconformably on the Jurassic. The overlying beds, have been established. They are likely to be andesite-basalt volcanics, 500 to 800 m thick, exposed at the western foothills of the Gish Ridge. The rocks are regarded now as Eocene-Oligocene, though actually they may prove to be Maastrichtian. Worthy of mention is a sharp difference between the strike of the structures in the Folded Basement and that in the main geosynclinal complex. The structures of the basement exhibit nearly eastern and north-eastern trends, while the geosynclinal strata strike north-southward. No intrusive rocks are known in the main geosynclinal complex of the Kishmaran Uplift. Small massifs of subvolcanic racks are products of the general Eocene-Oligocene igneous activity. Besides, Early Quaternary volcanics of a dacite-rhyolite formation (Yulkhar Series) occur here. Asparan Trough Asparan Trough (Fig. 7-41) was distinguished by V.I. Dronov et al. (88) in the southern part of the West Afghanistan Mountains. The trough is wedge-like in plan, the edge of the wedge being directed northwards. It is 65 kilometres in length, the maximum width being 30 kilometres. The strike of the trough is nearly north-southern. In the east, the trough borders on the Seystan Basin along the Asparan Fault. The western boundary is beyond the limits of Afghanistan. The Folded Basement is not exposed. The main geosynclinal complex consists of Campanian-Maastrichtian volcanogenic and carbonate-terrigenous rocks totalling over 5,000 meters in thickness. The sequence starts with Lower Campanian hippuritic limestones and marls alternating with intermediate to basic volcanics (Darband and Rustami series). The total thickness of the 378

rocks is 730 meters. They are succeeded disconformably by volcanogenic terrigenous rocks and a small amount of limestones and marls (Pire Sabz, Karro and Shirinak series) totalling 4,350 meters in thickness. The sequence exhibits flysch-like bedding, some of the terrigenous members looking like real wildflysch. The folds observed in the Lower Campanian and Upper Campanian-Maestrichtian intervals are different due to various competence of the rocks. The Lower Campanian carbonate beds are deformed to gentle brachyform folds. All the folds strike to the north diverging to the north-west. Intrusive rocks are rare. One small massif (Naserqu) and several granodiorite and gabbro-diorite dykes are known. Their emplacement is associated with Miocene tectonic and igneous activity which affected the whole country. Middle Quaternary andesite-basalt volcanics (Asparan Series) are widespread.

Suleiman-Kirthar Folded Region This region is part of the southern Alpine orogene of the Mediterranean Fold Belt. The region is divided into the Axial, Inner and Outer systems of zones. The Axial system is underlain by thin quasi-cratonic deposits of Upper Paleozoic-Mesozoic and Paleogene age. The Inner system is built up of thick predominantly terrigenous marine deposits of Paleogene age. They lie on Upper Paleozoic-Mesozoic quasi-cratonic folded beds. The Outer system of zones is composed of thick Paleogene-Neogene carbonate-terrigenous marine deposits. These rest on unfolded Paleozoic-.Mesozoic quasi-cratonic beds. Only the Axial and Inner systems of zones occur within Afghanistan. The former is known as the KhostMatun Uplift and the latter as the Katawaz and Ras Koh-Mirjawan troughs. The Afghan part of the Suleiman-Kirthar Folded Region is believed to include the Spin Ghar Fault Block and the Kabul Stable Mass. These represent marginal masses with respect to the rest of the region. The area of the Afghan part of the Suleiman-Kirthar Folded Region is about 55,000 square kilometres. Spin Ghar Fault Block Spin Ghar Fault Block (Fig. 7-37) was distinguished by Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145, 146), I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (413, 420) within the limits of the Spin Ghar Ridge in the south-eastern part of Afghanistan. In the north, the block borders on the Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region along the Spin Ghar Fault, in the south, on the Suleiman Uplift along the Safed Koh Fault (438), and in the west, on the Katawaz Trough along the Sarobay Fault (Fig. 7- XXVI). The trend of the block is nearly east-western. It extends for 125 kilometres, the maximum width being 15 kilometres. The block is composed of compositionally variable gneisses, schists, quartzites, marbles and amphibolites metamorphosed to an amphibolite facies. The rocks are 4,500 to 8,000 meters in thickness. Intrusive rocks are derivatives of migmatite-granite and gabbro-monzonite-diorite formations. The former are tentatively dated as Proterozoic and the latter as Early Cretaceous. The trend of folding is approximately west-eastern. The major folds are relatively simple, broad, shallow, linear and brachyform. The minor folds are commonly complex, narrow, steep-limbed. In the recent structural pattern the block appears as a horst-type uplift. Kabul Stable Mass Kabul Stable Mass (Fig. 7-38) has been studied for a long time. A particularly great contribution to the knowledge of its origin and structure was made by G. Mennessier (278, 279, 281, 282, 287, 291). G. Andritsky (7), V.I. Slavin (150, 386, 391, 393), N.M.Feruz (112-114), and other investigators. In the recent years abundant evidence on the geology and structure of the mass has been obtained by Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145), Y.I. Shcherbina et al. (381) and V.G. Silkin et al. (384). The mass of a nearly north-south trend is lens-like in plan. It is 200 kilometres in length, up to 60 kilometres in width and 12,000 square kilometres in area. The mass is bounded by faults on all sides. In the west, it borders on the structures of Middle Afghanistan and South Afghanistan Median Mass along the MukurChaman Fault, and in the east, north and south, on the structures of the Katawaz Trough and Nuristan-Pamir Median Mass along the Altimur arcuate fault (Fig. 7-XVI). 379

The Kabul Stable Mass comprises two distinct structural stages. Its Folded Basement is composed of compositionally variable gneisses, schists, quartzites, marbles and amphibolites (Sherdarwaza, Kharog and Welayati formations, 4,800 to 5,500 meters in thickness). The rocks are intruded by small lenticular and stock-like metadiabase and migmatite-granite bodies. The metamorphic rocks are deformed to linear, grading to brachyform and gneissdomal folds. In the center of the mass, most of the folds strike almost to the east, while at the periphery, the minor structures trend in parallel with the boundaries of the mass. This emphasizes its dome-like structure. Of interest is the statement of G. Mennessier (291) who reported the presence of extensive low-angle thrust sheets in the Precambrian basement. G. Mennessier suggested that the thrust sheets moved from the north to the south. The Sedimentary Cover of the Kabul Mass consists of several units and remains undifferentiated at the base. This un-differentiated unit is believed to consist of Vendian-Cambrian predominantly carbonate rocks referred to as the Loy Khwar Series varying within 700 to 2,000 meters in thickness. No Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian beds have been encountered within the mass. The Carboniferous-Lower Permian age has been assigned with uncertainty to volcanogenic~terrigenous formations,5,300 to 5,500 meters thick, which occur in the southern part of the mass. Their relationship with the Loy Khwar Series remains unknown. The Upper Permian-Norian sequence consists predominantly of dolomite, limestone and marl. Quartz sandstones, gravelstones and small-pebble conglomerates occur in many localities at the base of this sequence. The sequence has been known for a long time as the Chingil Series. It varies between 900 and 1,450 meters in thickness. The sequence answers the concept of the sedimentary cover commonly found within stable masses. The primary folds of the sequence are simple, gentle, brachyform. The axes of folds trend in parallel with the boundaries of the mass thus emphasizing its general lens-like shape. In the west and east, the, folds strike to the north, and in the south and north, to the east, gradually diverting to the north. In the recent time the folds were complicated by numerous steeply-dipping normal, upthrow and strike-slip faults and gently dipping faults occasionally manifesting a substantial magnitude of displacement. The upper unit of the Sedimentary Cover referred to as the Kataghay Series is composed of volcanogenicterrigenous rocks, 1,500 to 1,800 meters thick. The rocks have been tentatively dated as Norian-Rhaetian. They lie conformably on the Chingil Series. No overlying rocks have been established. Numerous outcrops of ultrabasic rocks (Bagram and other massifs) associated spatially and probably genetically with the Kataghay volcanics are traceable in the region. The Kataghay Series is folded conformably with the carbonate beds of the Chingil Series, although its folds are much more complex because of a higher plasticity of the rocks. The Alpine geosynclinal complex consists of Paleogene deposits. They are missing from most of the Kabul Stable Mass occurring only in thrust sheets and fault wedges within an imbricate zone of the Altimur Ridge and adjacent areas (Fig. 56). The complex is poorly studied. Its original relationship with the underlying beds remains uncertain. Intrusive rocks are represented by derivatives of meta-gabbro, migmatite-granite, ultrabasic and granitoid formations of Proterozoic, Eocene and Oligocene ages. Most abundant rocks are derivatives of an ultrabasic formation. In Afghanistan, this is the most extensive area exposing ultrabasic massif. The orogenic complex is represented by unfolded variegated to grey fluvial-lacustrine deposits of NeogeneQuaternary age, which fill superimposed basins (Aynak, Charikar and others). The present Kabul Stable Mass is a slowly sinking area surrounded by the growing mountains of the adjacent regions. Khost-Matun Uplift Khost-Matun Uplift (Fig. 7-44) was distinguished by I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (371, 413, 420). The uplift was studied by M. Kaewer (191), 0. Ganas (131-133), J. Bruggay (38) and other geologists. Most of the uplift is situated beyond Afghanistan, where it is known as part of a system of axial zones of the Suleiman-Kirthar Folded Region. Only a small portion of the uplift is traceable within Afghanistan, where the feature pinches out joining the Spin Ghar Fault Block along the Safed Koh Fault (438). It is composed of terrigenouscarbonate rocks totalling 5,000 to 6,000 meters in thickness and of Permian, Triassic, Jurassic and, possibly, Cretaceous ages. Besides, basic volcanics of supposedly Early Carboniferous age are present.

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The intensity and type of deformations vary from area to area. Most strongly tectonized area lies between Bekaray and Chakmani settlements, where a block of Permian and Mesozoic rocks is squeezed between two faults. The block seems to be a monotonous steep monocline at first glance. However, a more detailed examination reveals numerous complications of various scales. Vertical beds are variable in strike diverging by 40 to 60 within distances of several hundred or even dozen meters. This is likely to be accounted for by steep periclinal closing of folds. All the rocks exhibit boudinage with indications of ductile flowage and fracturing. Some localities consist of entirely mylonitized rocks. In spite of numerous minor deformations the general strike of the strata is north-eastern. The structural pattern of the Triassic-Jurassic rock units outcropping in the Khost area is also complex. It is affected by the Kwatta-Khost fault zone. Approaching this zone, one can observe limestone and shale beds deformed to peculiar zigzag disharmonic folds. The folds commonly reach only about 20 or 30 meters in height. The general strike of the beds is untraceable because of their greatly variable orientation. A distinctive feature of this seemingly absolutely irregular structure is the abundance of folds having very steep, often vertical hinge lines. The general structural pattern of the Triassic-Jurassic rock units is much simpler east and south-east of Khost, where the folds flatten out. Thick monoclinal beds dipping at low angles (20 to 40) and very gentle shallow folds of a north-eastern strike are typical there. A particularly simple occurrence mode is characteristic of the Jurassic beds south of Khost. The area is poorly faulted. Faults are commonly short in extension, low in magnitude of displacement, and subparallel with the general trend of folds. A large fault zone is confined to the axial part of the Khost-Matun Uplift. The structural pattern of this zone is determined by numerous longitudinal faults dissecting it into a system of narrow wedge-shaped blocks. The zone is composed of ultrabasics, basic volcanics, cherts, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. Each of these rock types is found in both individual blocks and in the melange mixture. All these rock types are believed to be foreign in the Khost-Matun Uplift. Apparently these blocks were wedged into the carbonateterrigenous strata as a result of tectonic movements. In addition to common rectilinear and vertical faults, overthrust sheets are present within the zone (the Khost area). Katawaz Trough Katawaz Trough (Fig. 7-43). This name was suggested by the geologists of the German Geological Mission to describe the whole Afghan portion of the Suleiman-Kirthar Folded Region including the Kabul Mass and the Khost-Matun Uplift. It was first proposed by I.M. Sborshchikov et al. to describe the Katawaz Trough proper (371, 374, 420). The trough was studied and described by G. Mennessier (280-289), M. Kaewer (188, 190, 193), O. Ganss (131-133), J. Bruggay (38), Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145), Yu.M. Koshelev et al. (222). The Katawaz Trough is included in a system of the Inner zones of the Suleiman-Kirthar Folded Region. It extends to the north diverging to the north-east, being shaped as a wedge narrowing to the north. Within Afghanistan, the trough extends for 650 kilometres (from south to north), its maximum width being 160 kilometres. In the west, it borders on the Dari Rod Trough along the Mukur-Chaman Fault (Fig. 57), in the northwest, on the Kabul Stable Mass along the Altimur Fault (Fig. 56), and in the north-east, on the Spin Ghar Fault Block along the Sarobay Fault. The boundary between the trough and the Khost-Matun Uplift is obscure. It is drawn along the edge line of the Paleogene sequence onlapping the structures of the uplift. In the geological section of the trough one can distinguish the Folded Basement, the main geosynclinal complex, and orogenic complex. The Folded Basement in the north-western and in the north-eastern parts is somewhat different. In the northeast it consists of the same deposits as the basement of the Khost-Matun Uplift, and in the north-west it is similar to the Sedimentary Cover of the Kabul Stable Mass, particularly in the Altimur Ridge. The main geosynclinal complex is composed of thick (4,490 to 7,550 m) flysch-like and irregularly interbedded sandstones, shales and siltstones and a small amount of limestones and conglomerates. In major fault zones basic volcanics seem to outcrop at the base of the sequence. The orogenic complex consists of Neogene-Quaternary variegated to grey terrestrial clastic deposits which fill several superimposed basins. The largest of these is the Ab-i-Estoda Basin. 381

Intrusive rocks are scarce. Only within the Folded Basement there are some massifs of ultrabasic rocks of supposedly Eocene age (Matun Complex). Besides, a group of small subvolcanic bodies of basic rocks is known in the south-western pant of the trough. They are ascribed to Miocene. In the present structural pattern the Katawaz Trough appears as an extensive fold belt representing a near trough of the highly tectonized Suleiman-Kirthar geosyncline area. The Paleogene strata are intensely folded (Fig. 58). The folds generally trend north-eastward. However, northern and even north-western trends have also been observed which are accounted for by gentle arc-shaped bends of some fold groups. In accordance with the general type of folding, central and marginal zones can be distinguished in the cross-section of the trough. The central, most subsided part of the trough is a zone of predominantly gentle folds. The zone extends in a nearly northern direction, being slightly bent as a gentle arc convex to the west. The zone broadens markedly southwards. Extensive brachyform synclines having gently dipping limbs and nearly undeformed beds in the cores are most typical of the zone. One of these folds is known near the settlement of Sultane. The syncline is 10 kilometres in width and 25 kilometres in length. It is composed of Eocene-Oligocene sandstone. The sandstone beds dip at 100 to 250 in the limbs and are virtually horizontal in the core. The gentle, nearly circular centroclinal closing of the fold with the beds predominantly dipping to the north-east at 20~30o is easily recognizable along the Ghazni-Khost motor road. In the north-west and south-east, the syncline adjoins a series of steep and deep symmetrical folds. The dips in the limbs of these folds reach 50-60. The hinge-line of the above mentioned brachysyncline rises along the strike, where minor steep folds appear and the folding of separate beds and groups of beds becomes more complicated. This may be accounted for by the disharmony of folding and by the disagreement in the pattern of deformation in the upper terrigenous beds and deeper horizons. The zone narrows abruptly southwards in an area of the settlement of Gumal expanding again farther to form a fan-like swarm of folds. In this area, the synclines are more elongated, nearly linear in form. Sharp centroclinal closing can be observed in some folds. Beds are flat-lying in and near the cores. Dips increase gradually from 100 m undeformed monoclinal beds to 700 m the limbs of the folds that acquire a box-like form. A series of such box folds are seen east of the settlement of Mashoray. The folds are definitely linear reaching 3 or 4 kilometres in width and 30 to 40 kilometres in length. Thick sandstone beds are very steep, nearly vertical in the limbs of the folds forming steep cliffy ridges. Narrow Quaternary basins occur between the ridges and occupy the gentle floors of the synclines. A box-like form of the folds is emphasized by conspicuous blunt outlines of centroclinal closings. The general pattern of folding in the central zone is determined by the association of gentle and box-shaped synclines with a certain type of anticlines. The anticlines are narrow tight ridge-like structures with nearly vertical limbs. The axial parts are complicated by minor folds and shear zones. In plan, the folds exhibit a rather peculiar configuration throughout the zone, particularly in its southern part. Sharply bent axes can be observed not only within groups of folds but even within individual folds. In such cases adjacent folds divided by faults join each other en-echelon rather than in parallel. Some faults evidently displace parts of the folds, locally forming overthrust sheets. So, in spite of a relatively simple general pattern of folding and predominance of large relatively gentle forms, the evidence presented indicates that the central zone was subjected to violent tectonic movements. Marginal zones of plication occur on both sides of the central zone. A distinctive feature of the zones is the intense folding of all the beds and the presence of tight folds which locally are practically isoclinal. All the folds, are distinctly linear with a parallel arrangement of the axes. Most of the folds, encountered in the north-western zone strike to the north-east, while these in the south-eastern zone change their strike from north-easterly to south-easterly, the axes of the folds forming a gentle arc. Although the folds are generally uniformly oriented, they cannot be classified as persistent in strike. Most of the folds are crest- like or carinate in shape. Open symmetrical or slightly overturned folds with the limbs dipping at 50 to 70 are common.. Most widespread are canoe-shaped folds with sharp prominent. closings. Folding is most intense in thick siltstone and shale strata. In the south of the north-western zone the folding becomes somewhat simpler. The folds there arc gentle, open, frequently arranged in chess-board order, i.e. the sinking of the hinges of adjacent anticlines corresponds to rising of the hinge of a syncline. Near the Mukur-Chaman Fault there are thick and steep monoclinal beds which are cross-out by the fault. Most of the numerous faults encountered in the Katawaz Trough extend in parallel with the general strike of the folds. Faulting was likely to be associated with folding. Worthy of consideration are marginal upthrusts 382

traceable in the eastern part of the trough, at its boundary with the axial part of the Suleiman Uplift. For example, a thick limestone sequence of a marginal facies of a Paleogene trough is upthrust eastwards in an area north of the village of Shkin. It overlaps a Trias-Jurassic carbonate terrigenous sequence (Fig. 59). The principal structural pattern of the Katawaz Trough is determined by the presence of longitudinal zones of various folding. Yet, transverse structures can be distinguished against this general background. For example, a large transverse high has been established in the center of the trough. The high is recognized by the notable rise of the most extensive folds in the area of the Gumal village. The central zone of gentle folds becomes markedly narrower there. The airborne magnetic data reveal the presence of a large transverse uplift in this area. The feature is oriented in the north-west direction as evidenced by the pattern of the contour lines of the magnetic basement, whose depth is 5 or 4 kilometres within the elevated block and over 6 kilometres northeast and south-west of it. It is remarkable that a series of transverse volcano-tectonic structures (Dashte Nawer, Panjao and Sarlog) are situated at the north-western extension of this block. Similar structures occur in the marginal part of the Katawaz Trough. A less extensive transverse structure is found in the middle course of the Lora Rod River. It is traceable owing to a presence of closely-spaced subvolcanic bodies. Although some of the bodies are aligned with the north-western faults, the general trend of the massifs is nearly east-western. The above mentioned uplifts are doubtlessly young structures produced by the recent tectonic and igneous activity. Ras Koh-MirjawanTrough Ras Koh-MirjawanTrough (Fig. 7-41a) is outlined for the first time. Only its extreme north-western end is situated within Afghanistan, in the Rabat-i-Jali area. The feature joins the Katawaz Trough at an almost right angle, the boundary between them running along the Mukur-Chaman Fault. The data on the structure of the Ras Koh-Mirjawan Trough are insufficient. The southern boundary of the trough is known to run along outcrops of Cretaceous volcanics of the Chagay Ridge. The trough is infilled in the main with Paleogene nummulitic limestones and volcanogenic-terrigenous rocks. Cretaceous volcanics of the Chagay Ridge may compose the basement of the trough. The orogenic complex comprises basic volcanics of Quaternary age.

Turkmenistan-Horasan Region The part of this region situated in Iran includes the Turkmenistan-Horasan Mountains adjacent to Afghanistan. It is hard to say how far the structures of the region extend into North Iran. In the USSR, their extension are the structures of the North Caucasus and South-West Turkmenia. Near the frontier of Afghanistan the region narrows rapidly and its structures merge with the structures of the northern side of the Hari Rod Valley. At the present time these structures appear as remnants of the structural units formed in the place of a superimposed Paleogene trough which extended along the southern peri-cratonic termination of the North Afghanistan Platform. These remnants terminate in Afghanistan the northern branch of the Alpine structures of the Mediterranean Fold Belt. The present size of the remnants is the result of the recent movements and repeated contraction of the initially extensive fold belt. The Herat, Chaghoharan and Tanurtag troughs are the most extensive structural units among those preserved. Another large structure is the Manare-Jam Graben. Taken together, the above structures are referred to as the Hari Rod Trough (96, 147, 201, 413, 420), which is about 10,000 square kilometres in area. Herat Trough Herat Trough (Fig. 7-39a) was distinguished by I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (413, 420). Geographically, the trough embraces the drainage area of all the right-hand tributaries of the Hari Rod River west of the village of Ab-i and the area of the left-hand tributaries of the river west of the village of Ghuryan. In plan, the trough has pronounced wedge-shaped outlines with a narrowing eastern end. It extends for 230 kilometres, its maximum width along the Afghan-Iranian border reaching 120 kilometres. The trough is bounded by faults on all sides. In the north, it borders on the western part of the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block along the Syah Bubak Fault, and in the south, on the western part of Middle Afghanistan along the Main Hari Rod Fault. Structurally, the trough is a graben with respect to the adjacent areas. The interior of the trough is 383

a syncline whose core is composed of Cenozoic deposits and the limbs of Precambrian and Carboniferous.Triassic rocks. Neither Jurassic nor Cretaceous beds have been established. The stratigraphic section of the trough comprises beds of the Folded Basement, the main geosynclinal complex and orogenic complex. The Folded Basement is composed of Proterozoic and Carboniferous-Triassic metamorphic and volcanogenic-sedimentary rocks similar in facies to those exposed in the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block. Proterozoic rocks outcrop from beneath a cover of younger sediments along the southern side of the trough, Carboniferous-Triassic strata are exposed in the eastern centroclinal part and along the northern side of the feature. The most significant outcrop is known in the Kohe Dawindar Ridge. The strata are deformed to folds grading from brachyform to symmetrical in form. The strike of the folds is almost west-eastern, intrusive rocks are represented by granitoid magma products of Proterozoic and Late Triassic ages. The main geosynclinal complex is composed of Paleogene rocks. They lie unconformably on the Folded Basement and are represented by variegated flysch-like interbedded conglomerates, sandstones and argillites enclosing interbeds and lenses of acid-to-basic volcanics. The strata exceed 1,000 meters in thickness. They are deformed to brachyform folds which are strongly complicated in the vicinity of faults. No intrusive rocks of Paleogene age have been found within the Herat Trough. The orogenic complex lies unconformably on older formations and consists of red and grey unconsolidated deposits of Neogene-Quaternary age reaching 3,000 to 4,000 meters in thickness. The Neogene strata are deformed to brachyform intermittent folds. The Quaternary beds are unfolded. No igneous rocks have been found in the orogenic complex. Faults are abundant only at the periphery of the Herat Trough where they form a system of strike-and dip-slip faults trending approximately to the north and east and characterized by variable separations. The faults striking to the east, in parallel with the strike of folds are more extensive. All the faults join in a zone east of the centroclinal end of the Herat Trough where it grades into the Manare-Jam Graben. The faults are ascribed to Late Neogene because they cut all the strata including Upper Neogene. Chaghcharan Trough Chaghcharan Trough (Fig. 7-39b) is distinguished for the first time from the evidence provided by V.I. Dronov, S.M. Kalimulin and I.M. Sborshchikov (96, 147, 201, 423, 420). The trough occupies the deltaic parts of the right-hand tributaries of the Hari Rod River and partially its left-hand bank in the Chaghcharan area, between the villages of Manare-Jam and Madraza. The size, boundaries and outlines of the trough are not paleogeographical. The initial size and outlines were changed as the result of the recent tectonic movements. In the south, the trough borders on the Manare-Jam Graben, along the Manare-Jam Fault, and in the north, on the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block along a system of unnamed faults. The southern boundary is a welldefined, straight line, while the northern one is obscure, of semi-circular form, convex northwards. The trough is 120 kilometres in length and up to 1-5 kilometres in width. The trough originated within the Precambrian Qala-i-Naw Fault Block which was overlain by CretaceousPaleocene cratonic deposits. Both the Precambrian metamorphic rocks and Cretaceous-Paleocene sedimentary formations constitute the Folded Basement of the Chaghcharan Trough. The main geosynclinal complex of Eocene age consists of irregularly and rhythmically interbedded variegated and dark-coloured sandstones, shales and siltstones bearing nummulites and enclosing interbeds and lenses of acid-to-basic volcanics, conglomerates and gravelstones. In some places the rocks look like a wild flysch. The sequence is 3,500 to 5,000 meters thick. It is crumpled to form folds intermediate between brachyform and holomorphic. Isoclinal folds are locally observed. The folds strike approximately to the east. Intrusive rocks forming small subvolcanic massifs are products of diorite magma (Chaghcharan Complex). The trough may have been subject to inversion in Oligocene time to become a zone with no marine sedimentation. The orogenic complex has a reduced thickness since the Neogene beds are missing. The Quaternary sequence consists of grey unconsolidated deposits whose thickness varies rapidly from zero to several tens or hundred meters. The deposits are unfolded. Numerous faults are common in the southern and northern parts of the trough adjacent to the Manare-Jam Fault and Share Naw Zone, These are normally linear steep faults of the eastern and north-eastern strike which break these parts of the trough into a system of lens-like and wedge-shaped thrust sheets. 384

Most of the faults are ascribed to Neogene because they cut all the deposits of the trough including the Paleogene. Tanurtag Trough Tanurtag Trough (Fig. 7-39) has been recognized for the first time on the basis of the evidence provided by V.I. Dronov, S.M. Kalimulin, I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (147). Geographically, it includes the deltaic parts of the right- and left-hand tributaries of the Hari Rod River's upper reaches, east of the village of Madraza. The trough, 120 kilometres in length and up to 10 kilometres in width, trends approximately from east to west, In plan, it has the shape of a lens whose southern edge is straight, while the northern edge is convex northwards. In the south, the trough borders on the Manare-Jam Graben along the Manare-Jam Fault, and in the north, on the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block along a system of en-echelon faults. The trough originated cm the Folded Basement and some lower horizons of the Sedimentary Cover, at the south-eastern periphery of the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block. However, a specific character of this part of North Afghanistan is recognizable beginning with the Lower Cretaceous which is represented there by thick (1,600 m) marine carbonate-terrigenous rocks untypical of the surrounding territories and bearing rudistids and orbitolinids. In Late Cretaceous-Paleocene pence the trough was temporarily a stable area and accumulated a sequence of carbonate deposits comparable the with the sequence of North Afghanistan Platform. In Eocene, the trough underwent intensive downwarping and accumulated an enormously thick (1,000 to 2,000 m) sequence of volcanogenic-terrigenous rocks of a wild flysch facies. In Late Eocene it was subject to inversion, folding and emplacement of intermediate intrusions. In Neogene time the area was subsided again. The folds encountered within the trough are transitional from brachyform to holomorphic, striking nearly to the east and are very tight in places. The present structural pattern of the trough is determined by a system of contiguous faults breaking the trough into a series of thrust sheet and fault wedges. This system of faults combined with the faults traceable in the south-eastern segment of the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block outline a complex structural wedge squeezed between the Manare-Jam and Yakowlang-Bamyan grabens. The Manere-Jan Graben is described here for the first time from the evidence provided by V.I. Dronov, S.M. Kalimulin, I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (147). This is the fourth major structure of the Turkman-Horasan Folded Region situated within Afghanistan. Geographically, it coincides roughly with the Hari Rod River channel between the Abi and Yakowlang settlements. The graben is 335 kilometres in length and up to 7 kilometres in width. The feature strikes roughly from west to east. Near the Abi settlement, the graben abruptly turns north-westwards (like the Yakowlang-Bamyan Graben). The Manare-Jam Graben is bounded by the ManareJam Fault in the north and by the Main Hari Rod Fault in the south. The geological history of the graben suggests that it is a typical superimposed structure formed during an orogenic cycle. The basement of the graben is made up of Proterozoic metamorphics and Carboniferous-Triassic Volcanogenic-sedimentary rocks whose facies are similar to those of the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block. The main, sedimentary complex of the graben consists of poorly folded variegated to grey carbonate-terrigenous rocks of Neogene age and subordinate amount of predominantly acid to basic and, occasionally, alkali volcanics. The rocks vary within 300 and 1,000 meters in thickness. Paleogene rocks similar in facies to those exposed in the Herat, Chaghoharan and Tanurtag troughs crop out in erosion windows from beneath the Neogene beds. The graben is a typical continental rift.

Major Faults
A brief information on the faults traceable in all the regions of Afghanistan was given in the previous sections of this paper. In this section a more detailed description will be given of the major faults which appear to be the youngest and most important structural features serving as boundaries between structural and structural-facies zones, troughs, uplifts, fault blocks, massifs and folded regions of different ages (Annex 3, Fig. 7). All the faults are recent boundary faults, since they separate structures differing both in geological setting and history. The distribution pattern of these faults has resulted from the Late Alpine (NeogeneQuaternary) movements. As for the growth boundary faults, their distribution patterns was somewhat different, and its reconstruction is as yet impossible.

385

Faults Bounding Folded Regions This category of structures includes the Hohan Eshkamysh, Syah Bubak, the Main Hari Rod, Central Badakhshan, Qarghanaw, Panjsher, Bagharak, Konar, Spin Ghar, Sarobay, Mukur-Chaman, Asparan, and Kashmiran faults. Among the faults encountered in Afghanistan, all the above-mentioned faults appear to be the major features, most of them being wrench-type faults. Hohan-Eshkamysh Fault Hohan-Eshkamysh Fault (Fig. 7-11) separates the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region from the North Afghanistan Platform. The Eshkamysh section of the fault is described by V.I. Bratash et al. (161), and the Hohan section is characterized by A.Kh. Kafaraky et al. (153). In the USSR, a direct extension of the structure is the North Pamir Fault (13, 272). The most convenient common name for the Afghan and Soviet sections of the structure would be the Afghan-North Pamir Fault whose total length exceeds 600 km., the Hohan-Eshkamysh part measuring 275 km. The Hohan-Eshkamysh Fault begins south of Pule Khumri and runs along the border of the high and low foothills of the Khwaja Mohammad and Safedhirs ranges. The fault trends north-east, and over its entire extent is characterized by a steep, almost vertical dip of the fault plane which locally is slightly overturned east-south-eastwards. The structures of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region appear to be upthrown in these places onto those of the North Afghanistan Platform. The Hohan-Eshkamysh Fault represents a left-lateral feature along which the structures of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region and those of the North Afghanistan Platform were displaced north-north-eastward and southsouth-westward, respectively. The magnitude of the displacement cannot be estimated as yet, but it seems to be considerable. The Eshkamysh part of the above fault, 100 km. long, appears to be the most pronounced. It coincides over its entire length between Pule Khurmi and Keshm with a rectilinear system of valleys along which the butts of the structures of the North Afghanistan Platform and the Afghanistan-North-Pamir Folded Region are brought into contact and the fault itself is accompanied by a crushing and gypsification zone. A segment of the North Afghanistan Platform adjacent to this section is referred to as the Eshkamysh faultline zone (161). Syah-Bubak Fault Syah-Bubak Fault (Fig. 7-XXV) is a marginal fault separating the Afghan part of the Turkmenistan-Horasan Folded Region and the North Afghanistan Platform. The western and eastern sections of the fault have been distinguished. The western section or the Syah Bubak Fault proper, of north-westerly strike, runs along the south-western high foothills of the Syah Bubak, Kohe Bande-Baba and Kohe Badkhyzat ranges. The eastern section, or the Manare Jam Fault, is traceable along the southern foothills of the Firozkhoh Range and even can be followed locally on the left-hand bank of the Hari Rod River. The western section of the fault was outlined in the report by E.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (347), and the eastern section was described by V.I. Dronov et al. (143, 147). Over most of its extent the fault is well observed either as a distinct single line or a series of closely-spaced faults elongated in parallel to the major fault line. In its north-western extremity the fault is concealed under young sediments and is difficult to trace. This part of the fault is plotted on the map arbitrarily based on the structural pattern of the area. The Kopet Dag Fault on the USSR territory may prove to be a continuation of the Syah Bubak Fault (272). The total extent of the fault under discussion exceeds 1,500 km., about 500 km. being in Afghanistan. This right-lateral fault displaced the Qala-i-Naw Fault Block of the North Afghanistan Platform east-southeastward with the relative west-north-westerly shift of the structures of the Turkmenistan-Horasan Folded Region. The displacement magnitude is unknown, but judging from the sharp cross-cutting contacts of the adjoining structures it amounts to at least several tens of kilometres. The fault plane is almost vertical, locally slightly tilted north-north-eastwards, where the Qala-i-Maw Fault Block appears to be upthrown onto the structures of the Turkmenistan-Horasan Folded Region.

386

The Main Hari Rod and Central Badakhshan faults The Main Hari Rod and Central Badakhshan faults (Fig. 7- VIII, IX) separate the Middle Cimmerian structures of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region from those of the Turkmenistan-Horosan Folded Region, North Afghanistan Platform and the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region located northwards and north-westwards and being of different age. The two faults represent actually a single fault which in different parts of Afghanistan is known under different names. Its section of a roughly east-westerly trend traceable west of Chaharikar is referred to as the Main Hari Rod Fault, while the eastern section of a generally north-easterly strike is known as the Central Badakhshan Fault. The main Hari Rod Fault running along the east-west- trending stretch of the Hari Rod Valley was first referred to as the major structure in the paper by E. Trinkler (428). Later it was described in the works by specialists of the German Geological Mission (116, 438), and S.S. Karapetov et al. (142). In the outlines shown in Fig. 7 (Annex No. 3) the structure was described by V.I. Dronov et al. (98, 99, 100, 143, 147, 152) as the Main Hari Rod Fault. The Central Badakhshan Fault was distinguished in the works by V.M. Moraliov et al. (351), G.G. Semionov et al. (141), Yu.S. Perfiliev et al. (162), V.I. Slavin (393), and others. In the USSR, the direct extension of the fault under discussion is the Central Pamir Fault (13, 272). Thus the most suitable common name for parts of the structure in the Afghan and Soviet territories would be the AfghanCentral Pamir Fault. The length of this fault exceeds 1,600 km. with about 1,200 km. in Afghanistan. The fault under consideration is the most extensive fracture of all the major faults traceable in Afghanistan. It runs from west to east throughout the whole country. The fact that along this fault the structures have been brought into an oblique contact suggests their appreciable horizontal displacements. The structural pattern testifies to the fact that this feature is a left-lateral fault which resulted in the north-easterly displacement of the structures from the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region and in the west-south-westerly shift of the structures of the Turkmenistan-Horasan Region, the North Afghanistan Platform, and the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region located north of the fault line. The strike separation of the fault probably amounts to several kilometres judging by the fact that along its line there pinch out not only individual structural-facies zones, but, locally, the entire Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region. The transverse wrench faults of Pliocene-Quaternary age cut this major fault into a number of component faults of which the most extensive, from west to east, are the following: Ghuryan, Kaftarkhan, Naspanj, Chaghcharan, Gorband, and Central Badakhshan. Qarghanaw Fault Qarghanaw Fault (Fig. 7-X) separates the Middle Afghanistan part of the Middle Cimmerian structures of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region from the Late Cimmerian structures of South Afghanistan. In the outlines shown in Fig. 3 (Annex 7), the fault was distinguished and named by V.I. Dronov (143, 147, 152, 99, 100). Individual parts of the fault have been described in the reports of the German Geological Mission (25, 116, 438), and 2.5. Karapetov et al. (142), V.I. Slavin et al. Over its whole extent from the western frontier of Afghanistan up to the Kabul Stable Mass, the Qarghanaw Fault can be followed between the Middle Afghanistan ranges of a roughly east-western trend and the south-west-trending ranges of the Hazarajat mountain system. Geomorphologically, the fault is confined to the nearly east-west-trending sections of rivers, as well as to passes. The fault represents a geologic boundary north of which there crops out a relatively thin sequence of Upper Triassic-Lower Cretaceous continental red-facies deposits of residual basins, while to the south of the fault line there outcrops a uniform marine volcano-terrigenous-carbonate sequence of the Alpine-Urgon facies, several kilometres thick. The oldest and the youngest rocks exposed on both sides of the fault also exhibit essential differences. Tectonically, the fault under consideration is a rightlateral feature along which the Middle Cimmerian structures of Middle Afghanistan are displaced eastward relatively to the structures of South Afghanistan shifted westward. The Panjsher, Zebak-Anjuman and Koner major faults may equally be considered as an eastern extension of the Qarghanaw Fault. The Panjsher Fault is recognized in the paper as the eastern extension of the Qarghanaw Fault. Panjsher Fault Panjsher Fault (Fig. 7-XXXIV) separates the Mid-Cimmerian structures of the Panjsher Zone from the Lower Proterozoic metamorphics of the Nurestan Fault Block. This structure was recognized to be a major fault by 387

experts of the German Geological Mission (116, 438) who considered it to be the extension of the Main Hari Rod Fault. We consider this feature to be the extension of the Qarghanaw Fault (Fig. 7, Annex 3). The Panjsher Fault intersects all the deltaic portions of the Panjsher River's left-hand tributaries separating the weakly metamorphosed rocks of the Panjsher Zone from the much more strongly metamorphosed rocks of the Nurestan Fault Block. The fault stretches in the north-easterly direction for about 150 kilometres. The fault plane is either vertical or dips steeply east-south-eastwards under the metemorphics of the Nurestan Fault Block. Bagharak Fault Bagharak Fault (Fig. 7-XII) runs between the Mid-Cimmerian structures of the Central Badakhshan and Archean metamorphics of the Southern Badakhshan. The fault line is drawn arbitrarily along the Bagharak Massif of granitoid rocks which have supposedly been intruded along the fault and "welded" it. Konar and Tashkuprok faults Konar and Tashkuprok faults (Fig. 7-XIV, XV) bound the Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region and the Nurestan Pamir Median Mass. The two faults represent apparently a single structure, but due to the fact that it has been mapped within two spatially isolated areas, it bears two different names. The Konar Fault was distinguished by Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (146, 147), I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (413, 420). This fault has also been described in the reports of the German Geological Mission (116, 180) and in the book by V.I. Slavin (393). From the Sarobay settlement the fault runs first along the left-hand bank of the Kabul River and then turns into the Konar River Valley following it over its whole extent. The fault stretches to north-east for 250 km. Along the Konar left-lateral fault the structures of the Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region have been displaced east-north-eastwards, those of the Nurestan Fault Block, west-south-westwards. The Tashkuprok Fault has been recognised by A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (200) within the east most part of the East Hendukush. The fault, 100 km. in length, has a nearly east-western trend. The fault plane dips steeply (almost at 90) southward. The type of the fault is unknown; it may well represent a wrench-type fault. Mukur-Chaman, Sarobay and Spin Ghar faults Mukur-Chaman, Sarobay and Spin Ghar faults (Fig. 7-XIV, XV, XXIV) separate Mid-Alpine structures of the Suleiman-Kirthar Folded Region from those of the South Afghanistan Median Mass, the AfghanistanSouth Pamir Folded Region, the Nurestan Pamir Median Mass, and the Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region which occur west and north of the fault and have different ages. Taken together, these faults form a broken line consisting of three links. The Mukur-Chaman Fault (Fig. 7-XIX) represents the most extensive western link of the fault chain under consideration and stretches continuously from the southern frontier of Afghanistan to the town of Chaharikar. The fault, which is 650 km. long in Afghanistan alone, stretches southward into Baluchistan where its length amounts to several hundred kilometres. The fault strikes roughly north-south and its northern section is deflected eastwards. This fault was distinguished by specialists of the German Geological Mission (116, 438) and later studied by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142), Yu.M. Koshelev et al. (222), I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (371), V.I. Slavin (393), and other investigators. After the Main Hari Rod Fault, the fault under consideration is the second major structure of Afghanistan, more easily distinguishable in the field than the former. Fold structures on both sides of the fault contact one another obliquely and the structural pattern suggests that the feature is a left-lateral fault resulting in the northerly displacement of the structures belonging to the Suleiman-Kirthar Region end in the southward shift of the structures from the South Afghanistan Median Mass. The authors believe that the Kabul Stable Mass, together with the Katawaz Trough, were displaced along this fault northward and covered or split the structures of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region over the entire width of the latter, which, judging from the length of the Paghman Fault Block, amounts there to 85 km. Hence, the strike separation along the Mukur-Chaman Fault measures at least 85 km. Since the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region itself was contracted by several times ns the result of the recent movement, the strike separation should be estimated to amount to at least several hundred kilometres. The Sarobay Fault (Fig. 7-XXVI) represents the second component in the fault chain under discussion. It separates the north-eastern part of the Kabul Stable Mass from the Nurestan Fault Block and from the structures traceable to the south. This fault has been described as an independent structure in the reports of 388

the German Geological Mission (116, 438). The fault was studied later by Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145, 146), I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (413, 420), V.I. Slavin (393), and other investigators. Generally, the fault strikes nearly north-south with its northern section deflecting westwards, and the southern section deflecting eastwards. The fault is about 150 km. long. The fault plane dips steeply, almost at 90. An analysis of the structural pattern suggests that it is a right-lateral fault. All the structures located east of the fault have been displaced southward and south-eastward, while the structures situated west of the fault have been shifted north-north-westward. The Spin Ghar Fault (Fig. 7-XXII) is the third link of the fault chain under consideration. This fault separates the Spin Ghar Fault Block from the structures of the Kunar Zone located to the north. The Spin Ghar Fault has been distinguished by Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145, 146), I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (413, 420). The feature has also been -described in the reports of the German Geological Mission (438) and in the book by V.I. Slavin (393). The fault is traceable over its whole extent at the northern foothills of the Spin Ghar Range. It extends for 125 km. from east to west and appears as a right-lateral fault along which the rock units of the Konar Zone have been displaced eastward relative to the metamorphites of the Spin Ghar Fault Block shifted westward. Most of the fault is concealed under the Pliocene-Quaternary cover, nevertheless it is well apparent in all the available air photographs. Asparan and Kishmaran faults Asparan and Kishmaran faults (Fig. 7-XXIII, XXIV) separate the Early Alpine structures of the AfghanistanEast Iran Folded Region from the Late Cimmerian structures of Southern Afghanistan. These faults were recognized in the outlines shown in Fig. 7 (Annex No. 3) by V.I. Dronov et al. (88, 92, 152, 254). The Asparan Fault (Fig. 7-XXIII) stretches in a north-western direction from the Harut Rod River mouth following a number of rectilinear sections of dry valleys in the Dashte Dambam area. Within the territory of Afghanistan, the fault is 100 km. long. The fault is covered by Quaternary sediments over its entire extent and is traceable only due to a sharp unconformity between the Early Alpine and Late Cimmerian structures. The analysis of the structures suggests that it is a right-lateral fault that displaces the structures of the Farah Rod Trough south-eastward and the structures of the Asparan Trough, north-westward. The Kishmaran Fault (Fig. 7-XXIV) rune between the Kishmaran Uplift and the Farah Rod Trough. Within the territory of Afghanistan, the fault stretches north-eastwards, its length amounting to 125 km. The feature is a right-lateral fault along which the structures of the Kishmaran Uplift are displaced north-eastward and the- structures from the Farah Rod Trough, south-westward. It is assumed that the Asparan and Kishmaran faults join within the territory of Iran.

Faults Bounding Fold Systems In Afghanistan, the structures comparable with fold systems are represented by major troughs (basins) and uplifts characterized by a heterogenous inner structure. These major troughs and uplifts consist (or may consist) of structural and structural-facies zones and fault blocks, as well as of miner troughs and uplifts. These major structures are bounded by the Laron, Shekari, Hazrat Sultan, Alburz Mormul, Zebak-Anjoman, Helmand, Mukur-Tarnak, and Altamur faults which are second-order faults. Many of these features are strike-slip faults. Laron and Shekari Faults Laron and Shekari Faults (Fig. 7-VI, VII) bound on the north-west a system of geoanticline core zones of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region. The two faults have been distinguished and described by A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (153, 198). They may have existed originally as a single structure which in the PlioceneQuaternary time was separated by the Andarab-Mirza Wolang tear-type fault into two independent faults. In the USSR, their extension is the Sauksai Fault (198). The Laron Fault (Fig. 7-VI) separates the Jaway and Faydzabad zones from the north-western portion of the Surkhab Zone. The fault, striking generally north-south with a gentle bend in plan, is 300 km long. It is a 389

left-lateral fault along which the structures of the Jaway and Faydzabad zones have been displaced northnorth-eastward and those of the Surkhab Zone, towards the south-south-west. Most of the fault plane is vertical or steeply inclined east-south-eastwards. The Shekari Fault (Fig. 7-VII) serves as a contact of the West Hendukush Zone and the south-western part of the Surkhab Zone. Along this left-lateral fault of the east-north-eastern strike and 180 km. long the structures of the West Hendukush Zone appear to be shifted east-north-eastward, while those of the Surkhab Zone west-south-westward. Hazrat Sultan Fault Hazrat Sultan Fault (Fig. 7-XXVII) bounds on the west-north-west the Hazrat Sultan Zone which is a direct extension in Afghanistan of the structures belonging to the fold system of the Middle Pamir (198, 272). The fault is distinguished in the outlines shown in Fig. 7. (Annex No.3) for the first time. The fault has the northnorth-eastern trend and is 300 km. long. The direct extension of this fault on the USSR territory is the Chubek Fault (272). In the present-day structural pattern the Hazrat Sultan Fault appears to be a left-lateral fault along which the structures of the Hazrat Sultan Zone have been displaced north-north-eastward and those of the Jaway and Faydzabad zones, to the south-south-west. Alburz-Mormul Fault Alburz-Mormul Fault (Fig. 7-I) separates the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift from the Afghanistan-South Tajikistan Depression. The fault was first recognized by petroleum geologists (161). It is traceable as a series of closely-spaced comparatively short fractures elongated along the axial parts of anticlines pronounced at the near-divide parts of the Kohe Alburz, Kohe Shadion, Kohe Khwajatut ranges. All these minor fractures are believed to merge into a single fault in the Folded Basement of the North Afghanistan Platform. The analysis of the feathering fractures and the drainage pattern suggest that the Alburz-Mormul Fault is a leftlateral feature whose southern wall is displaced eastward and the northern wall westwards. There is another fault separating the fold systems of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region which is represented in the USSR by the Rushan-North Pshart Fault serving as a boundary between the structures of the Central and South-East Pamir. This fracture is not traceable as a single fault within the territory of Afghanistan. The repeated reduction of the initial size of the folded regions, transverse faulting and overthrusting have resulted in its splitting into a number of isolated short fractures which bound the structural-facies zones of the Central Pamir and South-East Pamir types. Reconstruction of the initial position of this fault presents a problem to be solved in the future. Zebak-Anjuman Fault Zebak-Anjuman Fault (Fig. 7-XIII) bounds large blocks of the Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass (the Nurestan and South Badakhshan fault blocks) equalling in rank to fold systems. This fault has been described in the papers by Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (146, 151), I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (413, 420), A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (198), V.I. Slavin (393). Geologists of the German Geological Mission considered this fault to be a continuation of the Panjsher Fault (438). In the USSR, the direct extension of the feature is the South Pamir Fault (13). The most convenient name for the Afghan and Soviet sections of the fault would be the Afghan-South Pamir Fault. The total length of this fault of the east-north-easterly trend is over 225 km., 125 km. being within the Afghanistan territory, It is a left-lateral fracture along which the Nurestan Fault Block has been displaced east-north-eastward, while the South Badakhshan Fault Block, west-south-westwards. Helmand Fault Helmand Fault (Fig. 7-XVIII) separates the Farah Rod Trough and the Helmand-Arghandab Uplift whose geological history and structural patterns are rather different. The fracture was recognized by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206) as the major fault. It has also been described in the works by V.I. Dronov et al. (152), I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (413, 420), V.I. Slavin (393) and others. In the reports of the German Geological Mission this fault is referred to as the Washer Fault (116, 438). The total length of the fracture is 800 km. The well-apparent 500 km. long north-eastern stretch of the fault traceable in the Hazarajat Mountains has been mapped more or less reliably. The south-western section of the feature, 300 km. long in 390

the Seystan Basin, is concealed under the Pliocene-Quaternary sediments and has thus been tentatively established on the basis of the analysis of the drainage pattern, topography and general trends of the structures. Along this left-lateral fault the structures of the Helmand-Arghandab Uplift and those of the Farah Rod Trough have been displaced north-eastward and south-westward, respectively. Mukur-Tarnak Fault Mukur-Tarnak Fault (Fig. 7-IX) separates the Dari Rod Trough and the Helmand-Arghandab Uplift which differ greatly both in their geological history and structural pattern. The fault was first recognized as an independent structure by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142) and V.I. Dronov et al. (152). The feature has also been given a due consideration in the reports of the German Geological Mission (438) and in the book by V.I. Slavin (393). The north-eastern stretch of the fault elongated for 250 km. between the towns of Kandahar and Mukur, coincides with the rectilinear portion of the Tarnak River valley, where the fault can be easily distinguished by the topographical and structural patterns. The south-western section of the fault concealed under the Pliocene-Quaternary deposits of the Seystan Basin is mapped arbitrarily on the basis of the general strike of the South Afghanistan's structures. The fault exhibits the right-lateral separation of the structures traceable in the Helmand-Arghandab Uplift and the Dari Rod Trough. Altamur Fault Altamur Fault (Fig. 7-XVI) bounds the Kabul Stable Mass on the east-south-east. The fault has been described in the works by G. Mennessier (278, 279), Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145), V.I. Slavin (393), in the reports of the German Geological Mission (438), and in other publications. The fault is traceable in the field as a series of closely-spaced discontinuous fractures which form a narrow zone of thrust sheets having the same origin and geology. A specific feature of the fault is that it separates the rigid stable mass from the less rigid structures of the Katawaz Trough. An analysis of the structural patterns on both sides of the fracture suggests that the latter is a right-lateral fault.

Faults Bounding Structural-Formation and Structural-Facies Zones and Fault Blocks This category of structures covers numerous faults which bound relatively small portions of regions classified as structural-formation and structural-facies zones, as well as fault blocks. In Afghanistan, there are several dozens of such faults, but here we shall briefly describe only the most extensive ones which have their own geographical names, i.e., the Pashpul, Khejwand, Andarab-Mirza Wolang, Bande Turkestan, Chowid, Bande Bayan, Wakhan, Rode Tagh, Bande Hoja, Farsi, Khwaja Rauf, Gulestan, Waras, and Bashlang faults. Among the disjunctive structures of Afghanistan these are the third-order faults. Paspul Fault Paspul Fault (Fig. 7-XXXVIII) separating the Jaway and Faydzabad zones is distinguished here for the first time. Stretching north-eastwards for 40 km., it has a vertical fault plane and brings into contact the Lower Carboniferous volcanics exposed in the north-western wall and the Lower Proterozoic metamorphics, in the south-eastern wall. Khejwand Fault Khejwand Fault (Fig. 7-III) is an inter-zonal structure separating the south-eastern 1/3 portion of the Jaway Zone from the rest north-western portion. The fault, 120 km. long, of the north-easterly trend, has been distinguished by A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (153, 198). In the USSR, the direct extension of the fracture is the Wiskharvian Fault. Andarab-Mirza Wolang Fault Andarab-Mirza Wolang Fault (Fig. 7-IV) is actually a combination of two independent fractures stretching in approximately the same direction. The Andarab Fault was identified by A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (153, 198). In the book by V.I. Bratash et al. (161) it is referred to as the Doshi Fault. This fracture of a nearly east-west

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trend, about 200 km. long, runs mostly along the Andarab River valley. The fault plane is almost vertical. An analysis of the structural pattern suggests that the feature is a right-lateral fault of Pliocene-Quaternary age with the strike separation of about 40 km. The Mirza Wolang Fault The Mirza Wolang Fault was distinguished by petroleum geologists (161). To the west of the Andarab Fault, the fault is traceable as a series of closely-spaced discontinuous fractures which merge gradually to form a single fault line running up to the Balkhab River; further westwards, up to the frontier between the USSR and Afghanistan, the fault is assumed to occur under the cover of Quaternary deposits. The fault strikes first to nearly east-west, then east-north-east. The exposed portion of the fault is 100 km. long while that concealed under the Quaternary cover is about 230 km. long. Thus the total length of the fracture is about 330 km. The feature described bounds the Shebergan and Maymana fault blocks. Bande-Turkestan Fault Bande-Turkestan Fault (Fig. 7-V) is the largest fracture traceable within the North Afghanistan Platform, where it separates the Qala-i-Naw and Maymana fault blocks. As an independent major fault this feature has been described in the works by V.I. Dronov et al. (147) and I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (413, 420). It begins at the Yakowlang village and runs north-westwards along the south-western side of the Yakowlang-Bamyan Graben and then in a nearly east-west direction extending up to the frontier of the USSR and Afghanistan. The feature is about 400 km. long. Its plane is nearly vertical. An analysis of the structural patterns on both sides of the feature suggests that it is a right- lateral fault. Chowid Fault Chowid Fault (Fig. 7-Il) separates the Tangshew Fault Block and the Shewa Zone from the Chasnud Fault Block. The fault has been described in the papers by I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (154). This fracture, about 100 km. long, trends nearly north-south with deflection to the east. In the USSR, the direct extension of the feature is the Bartang Fault (13). Bande-Bayan Fault Bande-Bayan Fault (Fig. 7-XXXII) represents the southern boundary of the Bande-Bayan Fault Block composed of Middle Proterozoic metamorphites. This dextral fault trending in a nearly east-western direction for 125 km. was identified by V.I. Dronov et al. (152). Wakhan Fault Wakhan Fault (Fig. 7-XXXIII) bounding the Wakhan Zone and the Nurestan Fault Block has been described in the reports by A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (198, 200). The fault, 75 km. long, is traceable in a nearly east-west direction, approximately in parallel with the Wakhan River valley. This is a right-lateral fault along which the structures of the Wakhan Zone have been displaced eastwards, and the structures of the Nurestan Fault Block, westwards. Rode Tagh Fault Rode Tagh Fault (Fig. 7-XXXV) separating the Pirowuli Subzone of the Zuri Zone from the Farsi Zone has been recognized for the first time as a right-lateral fault. The fracture is traced in the north-easterly direction from the Kalate-Nazarkhan fortress up to the town of Herat. The fracture is 150 km. long. Bande-Hoja Fault Bande-Hoja Fault (Fig. 7-XXVIII) running along the north-western foothills of the Bande-Hoja Range in a north-easterly direction for 60 km. separates the Shaida Subzone of the Zuri Zone from the Farsi Zone. This dextral fault has been recognized here for the first time.

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Farsi Fault Farsi Fault (Fig. 7-XXXVII) bounding the Farsi and Harut Rod zones is recognized for the first time. This sinistral fault stretches north-eastwards for about 300 km. Khwaja-Rauf Fault Khwaja-Rauf Fault (Fig. 7-XXXVI) separates the Huspas Rod Zone from the Anordara, Harut Rod and Syahdeh structural-facies zones located north-west of the fault line. The fracture has been distinguished for the first time. It begins in the Dehkundi area and runs in a south-western direction for over 350 km. within the Qarajangal River basin towards the villages of Khwaja-Rauf and Khurmalaq. The fault is poorly studied and its tentative description, based on structural peculiarities, was necessitated in order to explain sharp differences in the structural patterns of territories on both sides of the feature. Gulestan Fault Gulestan Fault (Fig. 7-XXIX) separates the Huspas Rod Zone from the Khashrod Zone. This feature, being recognized for the first time and starting in the vicinity of the village of Gulestan, extends in the Pushte-Rugh River drainage area north-east for about 300 km. The fault is poorly studied. Waras Fault Waras Fault (Fig. 7-XXX) bounds the Waras Fault Block and the Helmand Zone. The fault, 250 km. long, of east-north-easterly trend, has been described in the papers by S.S. Karapetov et al. (142), V.I. Dronov et al. (152), D.A. Starshinin et al. (155). Bashlang Fault Bashlang Fault (Fig. 7-XXXI) described in the report by V.I. Dronov et al. (152) extends for 60 km. in a north-eastern direction and separates the Bashlang Fault Block from the Helmand Zone.

Tear Faults Fractures of this type are quite numerous in Afghanistan. Unlike the majority of the above-described faults which generally trend subparallel to the fold structures, these intersect the latter either at a right angle or obliquely with the relative displacement of the folds. They are the youngest faults and appear to be most common in the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region. Unai Fault Unai Fault (Fig. 7-XVII) is the most representative of all the tear-type fractures encountered in Afghanistan. It has been described in the reports of the German Geological Mission (438), by V.I. Dronov et al. (152, 414), and by other investigators. This dextral fault of the north-western trend is 175 km. long. The northeastern wall of the fracture is displaced east-south-eastwards while the south-western wall, west-northwestwards.

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Chapter 7 THE MAIN STAGES OF THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE AFGHAN TERRITORY
Generally speaking, the geological history of the Afghan territory is like this: during the Archean and Proterozoic, the territory of the present-day Afghanistan was covered by the so-called pangeosynclinal nonlinear seas which were typical of the initial stages of the Earth's evolution. In Paleozoic, and, probably, Late Proterozoic time, the entire Afghan territory was part of the linear Mediterranean geosynclinal belt or the Tethys Ocean which originated on the disintegrated continental basement of the pre-Paleozoic panplatforms. Some segments of these panplatforms, represented by fault blocks composed of the old metamorphics, occur presently in fold belts of post-Precambrian age. Beginning with the Permian, and mainly with the Late Triassic, the Afghan segment of the Mediterranean Geosynclinal Belt was subjected to orogenic movements. As the geosynclinal cycle was coming to its completion within individual portions of the belt, a wave of orogenic movements which came to Afghanistan from Fore-Caucasus, Turkmenistan and South Tien Shan advanced from north to south forming isolated fold belts. The marine stage of the geosynclinal cycle was completed within the Afghanistan-North Pamir and Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan folded regions (Footnote: The Hinduraj-Hazar Folded Region is omitted here since its geological history and the age of its main orogenic episode are unknown.) at the end of the Late Triassic, in the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region (the Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass) - at the border of Late Jurassic and Cretaceous, within the South Afghanistan Region - at the end of Early Cretaceous - the beginning of Late Cretaceous epoch, in the Afghanistan-East Iran Region - at the end of Late Cretaceous the beginning of Paleogene time, and within the Suleiman-Kirthar and Turkmenistan-Horosan regions - at the end of Paleogene epoch. The orogenic movements were followed by peneplanation of the territories and encroachment of epicontinental seas which gave rise to the platform cover in the north of the country. The middle, southern, western, and south-eastern parts of Afghanistan have not yet reached the cratonic stage of evolution. The more detailed description of the geological history of the recognized regions of Afghanistan (see Appendices Nos. 14-19) is given below. It should be borne in mind that the outlines, parameters and trends of the regions, as well as their relationships both with each other and with the adjacent territories, were predetermined by the recent, essentially horizontal movements. The initial outlines, parameters, trends and relationship of these regions were not the same as the present ones, and their reconstruction presents a very difficult problem. Hence, all the following conclusions pertaining to the above-said characteristics are for the most part approximate and assumptive. The mineral composition of both the sedimentary and intrusive rocks of Afghanistan varies greatly and has been poorly studied so far. Thus the formations presented in Appendices Nos. 14-19 appear to be very much generalized, reflecting only their main structural features. In essence, each of the formations incorporates a group of related formations and sub-formations. All the conclusions drawn further in this work will be based on the close paleogeographical and structural relations of the Afghan territory with the adjacent regions of the USSR, which have been studied in greater detail using the geological data on the Crimea Mountains, Northern Caucasus and the southern regions of Turkmenia, Uzbekistan and Tadjikistan.

Afghanistan-North Pamir Region

This region encompasses the alpine north-eastern areas of Afghanistan and the Northern Pamir territory of the USSR. The region is characterized by the S-like trend which is nearly east-western, convex southward, in the south-west, north-easterly, up to nearly north-southerly, in the middle, and again roughly east-western, convex northward, in the north. The region covers 40,000 sq. km in Afghanistan and 20,000 sq. km. in the USSR. Paleogeographically, the area of the region was much greater. The region is largely overlain by the Sedimentary Cover of the North Afghanistan Platform. In addition, the initial size of the region has been presently reduced due to a relative displacement of its individual structural-facies zones. Some of the initial structural-facies zones must have been completely destroyed in the process of the post-deposition horizontal 394

movements. Two cycles, namely the geosynclinal and epigeosynclinal, have been recognized in the geological history of the region. The first cycle covered the period from the end of the Early Precambrian through Triassic, while the second lasted from the Jurassic till Quaternary.

Geosynclinal Cycle The evolution of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region involved several geosynclinal cycles attributed to Precambrian and Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic times. However, none of them has been completed except the latest one, Late Hercynian, or more exactly, Early Cimmerian cycle, which ended the geosynclinal phase of the region's development with the formation of its folded structure. Early Proterozoic Period The oldest rocks of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region are the Lower Proterozoic gneisses, schists, marbles, and metavolcanics regionally metamorphosed to amphibolite facies. They are characterized by different mineral composition (the Jaway and Faydzabad series in Afghanistan and the Borsheet Series in the USSR). These rocks are 7,400 m. thick at a maximum. The commonest here are para-rocks derived from initially terrigenous and carbonate rocks of marine origin. The metavolcanics are basic in composition. There are subvolcanic facies of these rock types (e.g. the Salang Complex). The rocks under discussion were formed in so-called non-linear pangeosynclinal basins. At the end of Early Proterozoic time, the Early Karelian orogeny deformed these rocks into simple, shallow, dome- shaped folds, metamorphosed and partially remelted them with the formation of granitoid rocks (the Kufab Complex). In the structural pattern observed today the structures discussed represent the oldest Folded Basement of the region which is exposed in the core portions of the mega- and horst-anticlines. Middle Proterozoic Period No Middle Proterozoic rocks have been so far found either in the Afghan or in the Soviet parts of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region. However, the rocks of supposedly Middle Proterozoic age have been recognized in the southern and south-eastern peripheral parts of the North Afghanistan Platform, to where the folded structures of the region appear to be plunging. These rocks are represented by schists, quartzites, marbles and metavolcanics of marine origin, totalling in the thickness 3,000 to 5,000 m. (low grades of amphibolite and greenshist facies) of different mineral composition. Their thickness varies from 3,000 to 5,000 m. In view of this, we may assume that similar rock sequence may have originated in the region under discussion in Middle Proterozoic time and was subsequently eroded or is awaiting its discovery. Late Proterozoic Period This period in the geological history of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region is completely unknown since no outcrops of Upper Proterozoic rocks have been found so far in the region itself or within the adjacent territories. It is possible that during Late Proterozoic time the region was an uplift with limited or no sedimentation whatsoever. Vend-Cambrian Period Like the previous period, this stage of the geological history of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region is also untraceable. So far, no rocks of the reliably established Vend-Cambrian age have been found in the region. Some publications (73, 136, 374) suggest that in the region under discussion the Vend-Cambrian rocks are closely associated with the Ordovician. Such an assumption, however, may be more or less suitable only for the Hazrat Sultan Zone and the Middle Pamir Region (272), where apparently there was a trough in which a sequence of marine shallow-water terrigenous-volcanic rocks, over 1,000 m. thick, was accumulated. In the USSR, this sequence represents the lower part of the Tuzgunyteresk Series (73). The relations of this sequence with the older rocks are unknown. Since this sequence is predominantly composed of basic volcanics, it may be assumed that it was accumulated in an eugeosyncline-type basin.

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Ordovician-Devonian Period During Ordovician-Devonian time a marine sedimentation took place all over the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region. In Ordovician time an essentially monotonous fine-terrigenous sequence was formed with a minor amount of intermediate to basic volcanics. This sequence, 2,000 to 2,500 m. thick, is referred to in Afghanistan as the Syan Darrah Series and is correlatable with the Visknarvian Series and the upper members of the Tuzgynyteresk Series recognized in the USSR (73). The conspicuous scarcity of organic remains in the rocks of the sequence points, apparently, to the fact that it was formed in a relatively deep undifferentiated and stagnant sedimentary basin. During Silur-Devonian time a sequence of carbonate rocks was accumulated in a relatively shallow, slightly differentiated basin. This sequence, 370 to 1,300 m. thick, is correlatable with the Durumbak Series (in Afghanistan) and the Dikzankovsk Series (in the USSR). A sequence of fine-terrigenous rocks with minor amount of limestones and unknown percentage of basic volcanics was formed at the same time in the Hazrat Sultan Zone and within the North Pamir Territory in a relatively deep, slightly differentiated and stagnant sea basin. This sequence is correlatable with the lower 1/4 portion of the Darwaz-Sarykol Series (in the Middle Pamir) whose total thickness amounts to from 6,000 to 10,000 m. There are also basic volcanics, whose amount is unknown. The two sequences exhibit everywhere conformable contacts with the Ordovician formations. The rocks contain extremely scarce crinoid, rarely stromatoporoid and pelecypoda fossils (bank reefs). There are also occasional Tabulata corals. All these facts suggest peculiar formation conditions of the deposits described. Some investigators believe that within most of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region the Ordovician-Devonian stage of the geological evolution was quasi-cratonic (432, 433, 182), but the appearance and composition of the resultant formations, as well as their rare organic remains contradict such a conclusion, since extremely varied organisms are normally abundant in the quasi-cratonic seas. This problem necessitates further investigations. As for the Ordovician-Devonian evolutional stage of the Hazrat Sultan Zone and the Middle Pamir, it was undoubtedly geosynclinal. At the end of Devonian period most of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region was subjected to epeirogenic uplifting which must have postponed accumulation of Upper Devonian units, yet the Hazrat Sultan Zone and the Middle Pamir were not involved into the process and the marine sedimentation continued there into the Carboniferous period. Early Carboniferous Period The Early Carboniferous is considered to be the major geosynclinal cycle of the geological history of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region. By the beginning of this period the marine sedimentary basin had been differentiated into four groups of structures. The first group of structures comprised the Surkhab Zone (in Afghanistan) whose extension in the USSR was the Darwaz-Zaalayan Zonq. Three sequences were accumulated successively within these zones. A sequence of acid to intermediate volcanics, 1,500 m. thick, referred to in Afghanistan as the Tundara Series and known in the USSR as the Fortambek Series (73) was accumulated during the Early Tournaisian, apparently in a relatively uplifted area. No organic remains were encountered in the volcanics whose age is determined from their stratigraphic position. The Late Tournaisian-Visean period resulted in the terrigenous-carbonate formation which originated in a relatively shallow-water, weakly differentiated marine basin under conditions of a temporary stabilization of the tectonic regime. This formation, 250 to 500 m. thick, is characterized by the presence of infrequent, mostly coral fossils. It rests conformably, with a possible gap, on the Lower Tournaisian volcanics; where the volcanics are missing, the formation shows a sharp unconformity with all the older units. Its counterpart in the USSR is the Devlokhan Formation (73). The Namurian time saw a sharp revival of tectonic activity. In a strongly differentiated marine basin with relatively uplifted areas a sequence was accumulated of intermediate to basic volcanics, 2,600 to 5,600 m. thick, while in the relatively subsided areas a sequence of fine-terrigenous rocks, 800 to 1,800 m. thick, was formed. The two units lie conformably on the Tournaisian-Visean beds. In the USSR, the counterpart of the former are the Aspandous, Ushkharv and Jak volcanic formations, and the latter is correlatable with the Obizankin Formation composed of fine-terrigenous rocks (73). The above formations are generally poor in 396

fossil remains. The organic remains are particularly scarce in the volcanics, which is usually typical of geosynclinal formations. The end of Namurian epoch was marked by an orogenic event and an emplacement of intrusions which consist of ultrabasics and gabbro-plagiogranites (the Payandeh and Shengan complexes in Afghanistan, and the Darwaz and Obikhumb complexes, in the USSR). Both the sedimentary and igneous rocks encountered in the zones suggest that in the Early Carboniferous the zones were eugeosynclines. The second group of structures consisted of the West Hendukush, Faydzabad and Jaway zones in Afghanistan, and the Beleulin Zone, in the USSR. Taken together, these zones represented a vast, relatively uplifted geosynclinal submarine stable mass within which a slow sedimentation must have taken place, though not everywhere. At the end of Early Carboniferous time, this uplift was subjected to positive movements responsible for the folding of the sediments accumulated. The uplifting and folding were accompanied by emplacement of intrusions derived from ultrabasic and gabbro-plagio-granite magmas (the Payandeh and Shengan complexes). The third group of structures incorporated the Bamyan Zone in Afghanistan and a number of zones within the Soviet North-Eastern Pamir, namely the Karajilgin, Zulumart, and Akjilgin zones (198, 272). In Early Carboniferous time, a sequence of fine- and coarse-terrigeous rocks with a minor amount of limestones was accumulated within these zones under conditions of a relatively shallow-water unstable and strongly differentiated sea basin. The sequence also contains intermediate-to-basic volcanics whose amount and position in the succession remain uncertain. The formation, 600 to 2,000 m. thick, contains rare fossils. Its relationship with the older and younger units is so far unknown. The fourth group of structures was represented by the Hazrat Sultan Zone in Afghanistan and a series of zones in the Soviet Middle Pamir. In these zones an essentially uniform sequence of fine-terrigenous rocks with a minor amount of limestones (correlatable with the middle part of the Darwaz-Sarykol Series (73) was accumulated in a relatively deep, slightly differentiated and stagnant sea basin. The sequence contains also basic volcanics whose proportion is unknown. The organic remains are extremely rare, being represented chiefly by crinoids and foraminifers. The sequence is believed to rest conformably on the Devonian beds. Middle-Late Carboniferous Period Throughout Middle-Late Carboniferous time the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region still developed under marine conditions which were different in its individual parts but less contrasting than those in the Early Carboniferous. In this, like in the previous period, four groups of structures with their own paleogeographic features can be distinguished. The first group of structures included the Surkhab Zone in Afghanistan and the Darwaz-Zaalayan Zone, in the USSR. After the violent tectonic movements at the end of the Early Carboniferous, these zones were first subjected to uplifting with emplacement of intrusions and subsequent peneplanation, and then covered by sea again. A carbonate sequence with a quartzose sand member at the base was accumulated in a shallow-water, comparatively slightly differentiated sea basin under conditions of a temporal stabilization of the tectonic regime. This sequence, between 800 and 900 m. thick, consisted partially of reef limestones. It is characterized by abundant and various fossils. Such formations are typical of relatively elevated zones which are characterized by a compensated sedimentation. The sequence described rests conformably on all the older units. The second group of structures incorporated the West Hendukush, Faydzabad and Jaway Zones (distinguished in Afghanistan) and the Beleulin Zone recognized in the USSR. Upon completion of the tectonic movements at the end of Early Carboniferous time, these zones, like those of the first group, were subject to uplifting accompanied by emplacement of intrusions and peneplanation. This was followed by their subsidence under the sea level. Under the stable conditions, in relatively shallow-water undifferentiated and stagnant sea basin, an exclusively monotonous carbonate sequence with minor amounts of fineterrigenous rocks was accumulated over vast territories. This sequence, 50 to 400 m. thick, exhibits a sharp unconformity with all the older units. Organic remains encountered in the rocks of this sequence and represented by crinoids are extremely scarce. The dating of the rocks is based on their stratigraphic position. Such formations are regarded as typical of stable masses which occur in relatively deep seas characterized by noncompensated sedimentation. 397

The third group of structures includes the Bamyan Zone, in Afghanistan, and a number of zones in the Soviet North-East Pamir, namely, the Karajilgin, Zulumarat and Akjilgin zones. The Middle-Late Carboniferous period of the geological evolution of this group of structures is known inadequately since no rocks of this age have been so far found in the Afghan part of the region. Within the Soviet portion of the region, supposedly Middle-Upper Carboniferous units were found in the West Karajilgin Formation (73) where the unit contains rare fossils represented mostly by corals and foraminifers. It is assumed that the sequence described was accumulated in a relatively shallow-water, unstable and strongly differentiated basin, probably under conditions of a relative uplifting. The fourth group of structures incorporates the Hazrat Sultan Zone in Afghanistan and a number of zones in the Soviet Middle Pamir. The Middle-Late Carboniferous history of these zones is not clear since no rocks of exact Middle-Late Carboniferous age have been so far mapped either in the Afghan or Soviet parts of the region. Proceeding from the Middle-Late Paleozoic age of the Darwaz-Sarykol Series (73) underlying the report region, it is suggested that the third (from the bottom) 1/4 portion of the unit is Middle-Late Carboniferous in age. Like the whole series, this portion consists of monotonous fine-terrigenous rocks with a minor amount of limestones and, possibly, volcanics. The rocks are practically unfossiliferous but abound in minute pyrite crystals. The composition, absence of fossils and abundant pyrite crystals suggest that the sequence was accumulated under the conditions of a deep-water, undifferentiated and stagnant sea basin. Permian Period In Permian time, the development regime of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region became much more contrasting, but zonation of the territory was the same as that in the previous period. Four groups of structures notable for their own paleotectonic and paleogeographical features remained in the region. The first group of structures consisted of the Surkhab Zone (in Afghanistan) and the Darwaz-Zaalayan Zone (in the USSR). A conspicuously multifacies carbonate-terrigenous sequence with reef limestone members was accumulated in these zones under the conditions of a shallow-water, contrasting sea basin. Some of the reef clusters encountered in the sequence exhibit features of barrier reefs (the Darwaz-Zaalayan Zone) (73). The sequence described rests conformably on the Carboniferous limestones. The Early and Late Permian sub-periods have been recogized. Almost throughout the whole Early Permian time the marine basin was characterized by a normal salinity and the resultant facies were typically marine with various and abundant fauna. At the end of Early Permian time, the basin was supplied with red and variegated coarse- and fine-terrigenous sediments incoming there from the Lower Permian uplifts of the South Tien Shan. The faunal fossils, though still marine, became very rare. They are found in isolated banks in the carbonate rock components of the red-variegated sequence. During the Late Permian, this paleogeographic environment becomes prevalent. After a temporary break in sedimentation resulted from weak pre-Murghabian movements, the sea encroached the region again and the sedimentary basin became shallow and was infilled with thick lagoonal-marine, locally saline deposits containing rare, stunt faunal fossils. The terrigenous material was supplied from the local sources and from the South Tien Shan Uplift. The second group of structures was represented by the West Hendukush, Faydzabad and Jaway zones in Afghanistan and the Beleulin Zone in the USSR. Unlike the previous group of structures, these continued their subsidence in the Permian, forming a deep-water, undifferentiated and stagnant basin which gave rise to a sequence of fine-terrigenous rocks with practically no organic remains. This sequence, from 1,000 and 2,200 m. thick, rests conformably on the Middle-Upper Carboniferous limestones. It is believed that this sequence, like the underlying one, was formed within deeply subsided stable masses. The third group of structures included the Bamyan Zone in Afghanistan and the Karajilgin, Zulumart and Akjilgin zones of the Soviet North-East Pamir. These zones are notable for their peculiar development throughout Persian time. After a break in sedimentation in the second half of the Carboniferous, the zones were covered by a relatively shallow-water, contrasting sea in which a multifacies, predominantly carbonate rock sequence with reef limestone and volcanic rock members was formed under conditions of a relative uplifting. This sequence, 1,000 to 1,500 m. thick which is similar to the Akjilgin Zone's sequence, rests everywhere unconformably on 398

older units. Rocks of this sequence contain numerous and rather various fossils. The sequence comprises complete sections of the Permian typically marine facies with the most representative Upper Permian (Murghabian) sections known from the whole Middle Asian part of the Mediterranean Fold Belt. The intrusive rocks encountered in these zones are attributed to the multi-phase Balyandkiik Complex whose components vary in composition from ultrabasics to plagiogranites and form linear massifs of Late Permian age (73). The fourth group of structures included the Hazrat Sultan Zone (in Afghanistan) and a number of zones in the Soviet Middle Pamir. Unlike the previous group of structures, this under discussion represented in the Permian (judging by the USSR territory) a comparatively deep-water, slightly differentiated and stagnant sea basin which gave rise to an extremely monotonous sequence of fine-terrigenous rocks with practically no organic remains. This sequence is correlatable with the upper part of the Darwaz-Sarykol Series of the Middle Pamir. The rocks of this sequence are rich in minute pyrite crystals which, together with other evidence, confirm an assumption that it accumulated under conditions of a stagnant basin. The relationship between the Permian and Carboniferous units seems to be conformable. The assumed conformity existing between the Carboniferous and Devonian, as well as between the Devonian and Silurian beds, indicates that within the entire Afghanistan-North Pamir Region only the territory under consideration was subsiding from Silurian (possibly from the Early Paleozoic) through Permian. During the whole time of its existence, the territory represented a relatively deep-water, slightly differentiated and stagnant sea basin devoid of any evidence of life. Rare, relatively small linear massifs (referred to as the Kafir and Madut complexes), derived from ultrabasic and gabbro-plagiogranite magmas, are considered to be of Permian age. Triassic Period This was the last geosynclinal cycle in the geological history of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region. At the end of the Late Permian or at the outset of the Triassic, almost the entire region was subjected to inversion and was never again a zone of marine sedimentation. The Triassic sea still covered only the Surkhab Zone in Afghanistan and the Darwaz-Zaalyan Zone in the USSR. In the Early Triassic, a sequence of red to variegated fine- to coarse-terrigenous rocks was accumulated in a shallow-water, slightly differentiated sea basin. In Afghanistan, this sequence has been eroded completely. In the USSR, it has survived in the Darwaz-Zaalyan Zone as the Vasmikuh, Alikagar and Yokunzh formations (73) which total in thickness from 1,550 to 1,910 m. This sequence rests on the eroded surface of the Permian beds, though with no traces of an angular unconformity. The rocks of this sequence contain normal marine fossils of ammonoides and pelecypoda groups. In the Middle and Late Triassic, the sea basin became deeper and wider. A normal marine fine-terrigenous sequence (referred to as the Doab Series) was accumulated there, carrying within different localities various amounts of acid to intermediate volcanics. This series, 800 to 1,000 m. thick, is characterized generally by flyschoid composition; some members of the unit resemble a "wild flysch". It displays unconformity with the Paleozoic beds, while its relation with the Lower Triassic units is uncertain. Rather numerous, normalmarine, relatively deep-water fossils found in it are thin-valved pelecypods, ammonoidea, brachiopods, crinoidea, etc. Most of the fossils are typical of the Tethys formations. In the latest Triassic, at the border between the Norian and Rhaetian, or in Rhaetian time, the marine geosynclinal basins disappeared from the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region to give way to a general inversion of the tectonic regime resulting in the folding and igneous activity which gave rise to the Murkh, Bamyan and West Hendukush granitoid rock complexes in Afghanistan and the Karakul Complex in the USSR (73). All these events were stimulated by the Early Cimmerian orogeny which is believed to be the main constructive tectonic event in the geological history of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region. The assignment of the region to the Hercynides is a tribute to a conventional tradition. It will be more correct to consider it as the Early Cimmerian fold belt and to refer its four groups of structures to fold systems similar in rank to stable masses. The most convenient names for these fold systems, located in Afghanistan and in the USSR, would be the following: the first - the Darwaz-Zaalayan Fold System; the second - the JawayBeleulin Stable Mass; the third - the Bamyan-Karakul Fold System; and the fourth - the Darwaz-Sarykol 399

Fold System. Each of the structures comprises structural-facies zones which, in turn, incorporate subzones and structural-facies localities. Phases of Folding The Precambrian period of the geological evolution of the region is poorly studied. Hence, individual phases of folding dating back to that time cannot be established or proved. In the region under consideration more or less traceable are the Early Karelian tectonic movements which have formed and separated the Early Proterozoic structures. Late Karelian and Baikalian orogenies cannot be reliably established in the region. The Vend-Cambrian period of the geological evolution is not quite clear either. Knowledge of the subsequent history is more extensive. Most of the region offers no evidence of the Caledonian orogeny. The Taconic orogeny was manifested presumably at the boundary between the Ordovician and Silurian in the Tusguny- tereskian structural-facies zone (the Darwaz-Sarykol Fold System, Middle Pamir, USSR). But this orogeny does not seem to have lasted long and was not intensive and did not result in essential reconstruction of the existing structural pattern. Though the Hercynian movements are easily discernible in the region, individual orogenic events were not ubiquitous there. Evidence of the first Hercynian orogeny (the Bretonian orogeny) is traceable at the boundary between the Devonian and Carboniferous. The orogeny was of the epeirogenetic type resulting only in the break in sedimentation with no structural reconstructions of the territory. The orogeny involved the Jaway-Beleulin Stable Mass, the Darwaz-Zaalayan and Bamyan-Karakul fold systems. No evidence of this orogeny was established in the Darwaz-Sarykul Fold System. Very profound folding occurred at the end of Early-beginning of Middle Carboniferous time (the Sudetic orogeny) involving the Darwaz-Zaalayan Fold System and the Jaway-Beleulin Stable Mass. This orogeny has resulted in essential complication of the existing folds giving also rise to ultrabasic and gabbroplagiogranite intrusions. In the Bamyan-Karakul and Darwaz-Sarykul fold systems there is no evidence of this orogeny. Another unconformity in the succession is confined to the upper part of the Carboniferous. This may be due to the Asturian orogeny which involved the Bamyan-Karakul Fold System. In other localities of the region this unconformity is nowhere to be seen. Indications of the Middle Permian uplifting and erosion of the territory with the resultant pre-Murghabian? unconformity (the Zaalayan orogeny) is traceable in the Darwaz-Zaalayan Fold System. This orogeny was insignificant and of local importance only. No fold structures were formed. Within the rest of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region, the above movements are not traceable. Most of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region was uplifted at the end of Permian time. It is supposed that the uplifting was brought about by the Pfalzian orogeny which did not result in a final closure of geosynclinal structure of the entire Afghanistan-North Pamir Region; the sea covered the Darwaz- Zaalayan Fold System till the end of the Late Triassic. At the end of Late Triassic time, the entire territory of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region completed its development as a zone of marine sedimentation and became a fold belt. This was the result of the Early Cimmerian orogeny which resulted in folding and emplacement of huge massifs of granitoid rocks. The region became rigid and an epigeosynclinal development set in.

Epigeosynclinal Cycle The Afghanistan-North Pamir Region was transformed during the post-Triassic from an epigeosynclinal fold belt into a platform which developed later as an epiplatform orogenic region.

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Jurassic Period After the Early Cimmerian orogeny a slightly differentiated low uplift originated on the territory of the present-day Afghanistan-North Pamir Region. The climate was humid and warm. The uplift was drained by a branched network of rivers. Extensive swamps and forests covered the northern foothills of the uplift. In some areas conditions favourable for coal accumulation were occasionally created. Such conditions existed throughout the Early and Middle Jurassic giving rise to a sequence of fine- to coarse-terrigenous terrestrial coal-bearing rocks, up to 2,000 m. thick, referred to as the Sayghan Series (in Afghanistan) and as the Grind and Deikalich formations in the USSR (73). This sequence lies unconformably on the Triassic and on older formations. During Late Bathonian time, the areas were covered by sea which encroached there from the vast epicontinental Turan Basin located north-north-westward. Throughout the Late Bathonian-Oxfordian, a carbonate rock sequence, between 90 and 232 m. thick in various areas, was accumulated in a shallowwater, slightly differentiated sea basin notable for unusual salinity. These conditions changed in the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian period. As the sea was rapidly infilled with red-coloured and variegated terrigenous sediments, it became shallow and saline and gave rise to a series of small basins and lagoons in which, under hot climatic conditions, evaporites were accumulated. As the result, a sequence of variegated to red terrigenous rocks and evaporites, 60 to 292 m. thick, was accumulated there. Outcrops of the Jurassic rocks can be encountered only within the Darwaz-Zaalayan Fold System (the Surkhab Zone in Afghanistan and the Darwaz-Zaalayan Zone, in the USSR). It is possible that their primary sedimentary basins were located approximately at the sites of these outcrops and the rest of the territory was a source area supplying terrigenous material. Cretaceous Period The Kimmeridgian-Tithonian paleogeographic environment was inherited by the Early Cretaceous landscape. A semi-cover, terrestrial sequence of red-coloured, fine- and coarse-terrigenous rocks, from a few meters to 1,600 m. thick (the thickness in the Hazrat Sultan Zone) was formed within extensive territories, including those of no earlier sedimentation, under conditions of a hot and arid climate. The sequence rests on the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian beds with no apparent angular unconformity; where the KimmeridgianTithonian beds are missing, it lies unconformably on older formation. The terrigenous material has derived from the local highs, and hence is autochtonous. At the end of the Early Cretaceous, some parts of the region (the Kyziljiik area of the Middle Pamir, etc.) were apparently gulf-type sea basins accumulating a thin (100-480 m) carbonate-terrigenous rock sequence, referred to as the Zortash Formation (73). The transgression advanced from the Cretaceous Turan basin which was located north-north-westward. During the Late Cretaceous, the transgression became more extensive and the supply of the terrigenous material decreased. Within vast areas, apparently not everywhere, a carbonate rock sequence was formed. The basal beds of this sequence are composed locally of coarse- and fine-terrigenous rocks. This sequence, varying in thickness between a few dozens of meters to several hundred meters, displays a conformable contact with the Lower Cretaceous units. Where the Lower Cretaceous beds are missing, the sequence rests strongly unconformably on all the older units. Paleogene Period No reliably established Paleogene rocks were mapped within the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region. Northwest of Bamyan, there is an outcrop of Maestrichtian-Paleocene cratonic-type limestones overlain by redstone-altered volcanics of intermediate to basic composition. The stratigraphic position of the rooks suggests their Eocene-Oligocene age. It is assumed that in the west-south-western part of the region adjacent to the North Afghanistan Platform the Paleogene sequence is everywhere similar to the above-described one, viz, the Paleocene beds associated closely with the Maestrichtian layers consist of carbonate facies rocks followed by terrigenous deposits and Ecoene-Oligocene volcanics. The volcanics seem to have a very limited distribution. The rest of the territory which is more extensive must have been an uplift within which the Paleogene red to variegated deposits can be found only in small intermontane basins (73).

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Neogene Period Beginning with the Neogene, the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region evolved as an epiplatform orogenic belt: the territory was subject to a rapid uplifting and erosion resulting in the removal of though not ubiquitous, yet rather widespread sedimentary cover and acquired features of slightly dissected mountain system which became subsequently more contrasting. The eroded material was transported by rivers north-northwestwards to be deposited at the foothills of the Afghanistan- North Pamir Mountains. The predominantly red colour of the deposits testifies to an arid climate, while their great thickness and, particularly, the coarse-terrigenous material suggest that in Neogene time the region was characterized by a highly intricate pattern of impetous rivers. Quaternary Period Throughout the Quaternary, the region continued its rapid uplifting to become still more contrasting mountain system acquiring the present-day topographic forms. Periods of temporal stabilization of the tectonic regime can be traced by river terraces formed at different levels. The climate, apparently very hot and uniform in the Miocene, became cooler and slightly contrasting in the Pliocene and moderately cold, strongly contrasting, typically alpine, in the Quaternary.

Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan Region

The Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan Region's structures represent the extreme south-eastern termination of the Crimea-North Caucasus Fold Belt. In Afghanistan, these structures are overlain entirely by the Sedimentary Cover of the North Afghanistan Platform, being exposed only in deeply incised valleys and in cores of the Firozkoh, Bande-Turkestan, Okhankoshan and other anticlines. The boundary between these structures and the structures of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region (also concealed under the Sedimentary Cover) is obscure. This boundary is drawn very arbitrarily along the Yakowlang-Bamyan Graben and further northwestward as far as the northern foothills of the Western Bande Turkestan. Like the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region, the Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan Region represents an Early Cimmerian Fold Belt whose geological history is somewhat different which is the cause why the region is regarded as an independent territory. Two cycles (geosynclinal and epigeosynclinal) can be recognized in the geological evolution of the region. The geosynclinal cycle lasted from the Early Precambrian through Triassic, while the epigeosynclinal cycle continued from the Jurassic till the Quaternary. Since the second cycle corresponds in essence to the geological evolution of the North Afghanistan Platform, it will be described later, when describing the platform. Here we shall dwell on the geosynclinal cycle only.

Geosynclinal Cycle The Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan Region, like the above-described region, has undergone several geosynclinal cycles during the Precambrian and Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic. But none of the cycles were complete, except the last, Early Cimmerian geosynclinal cycle, which transformed the territory into a fold belt. Middle Proterozoic Period The oldest rocks known from the Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan Region are assumingly Middle Proterozoic schists, quartzites, marbles and metavolcanics, all metamorphosed to a low grade amphibolite and greenschist facies and characterized by different mineral composition. These rocks make up a sequence, 3,000 to 5,000 m. thick, dominated by para-rocks derived from initially marine terrigenous and carbonate deposits. The metavolcanics are of predominantly basic composition. Their subvolcanic varieties (the Espesang Complex) are also found. The sequence under discussion was accumulated in the so-called nonlinear pangeosynclinal basins. At the end of Middle Proterozoic time, the Late Karelian orogeny produced simple and large, shallow, dome-type folds and metamorphosed the sediments. In the present-day structural pattern this sequence represents an old folded basement which is exposed within the most highly elevated parts of the region.

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Late Proterozoic Period The Late Proterozoic stage of the geological evolution of the Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan Region is completely obscure. No Upper Proterozoic rocks were encountered either in the region itself or in the adjacent territories. It is not ruled out that during that time the region was an uplift with limited or no sedimentation. Early-Middle Proterozoic Period This stage of the geological history is uncertain like the previous one. No reliably established Lower-Middle Proterozoic rocks have been found within the region which may have been an uplift and hence with no or very poor sedimentation. Early Tournaisian? Period The geological history of this period is tentative as well as the dating of the widespread acid to intermediate volcanics of the Darrahe Takht Series. These volcanics compose the base of the post-Precambrian section of the Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan Region. It is not excluded, however, that they are of Devonian age, like the volcanics from the North Caucasus. This is confirmed in particular by the available unchecked findings of Devonian rugose corals which seem to have been derived from these volcanics. The volcanics, 2,000 to 2,500 m. thick, were accumulated in a shallow-water sea basin, apparently within its relatively uplifted parts. Neither the underlying rocks, nor reliable fossils have been found. A wide occurrence of the volcanics in the region is indicative of its eugeosynclinal development throughout the period under discussion. Intrusive rocks of this magmatic cycle have not been encountered anywhere in their primary occurrence, yet the basal beds of the overlying sequence, consisting chiefly of volcanics, contain a considerable amount of granodiorites and plagiogranites thus suggesting an Early Tournaisian or Devonian igneous activity manifested within the region in question. This deserves particular attention and calls for further investigations since no intrusive rocks of this age have been so far reliably established either in Afghanistan or in the Pamir. Late Tournaisian-Middle Carboniferous Period This period of the geological history is notable for accumulation of a sequence of marine fine- and coarseterrigenous rocks with a small amount of carbonate and, very rarely, coal-bearing rocks (the Syahsang Series). This sequence was accumulated in a shallow-water, strongly differentiated sea basin whose floor was characterized by relatively uplifted and subsided areas. From time to time some of the uplifts must have risen over the sea level and been the sites of coal accumulation (the Palawan coal deposit). The basal beds of the sequence and those overlying it contain abundant pebbles of granitoid rocks. Many beds of quartzose sandstone occur in the region. The organic remains are abundant and varied. They are represented by algae, foraminifer, corals, brachiopod, gastropod, and crinoid. Coal lenses contain flora remains. The sequence, 1,000 to 4,000 m. thick, rests unconformably on the Lower? Trouranisian? volcanics. Late Moscovian-Permian Period In the middle or at the end of Moscovian time the paleotectonic and paleogeographic environment of the Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan Region rapidly changed. Vast uplifts supplying much of the red fine- and coarseterrigenous material into the Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan sea basin were formed as the result of the final phases of tectogenesis which also produced the structures of the Fore-Caucasus and South Turkmenia. The basin was subject to a rapid downwarping and was rapidly infilled with the supplied material. The beginning of the process is traceable by limestone lenses in the lower beds of the red-coloured sequence (Sangesurkh Series) which contain Late Moscovian (Podolsk and Myachkovsk horizons) marine fauna fossils. Formationally, this sequence, 1,000-3,000 m. thick, can be referred to as a marine molasse. On the Upper Tournaisian-Middle Carboniferous unit this sequence rests without an angular unconformity, but perhaps with a gap in some places. Lithologically, formationally and stratigraphically, it has much in common with the Upper Paleozoic red formations of the North Caucasus, being in essence their direct extension.

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Triassic Period The paleogeographic environment of the Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan Region created in the Late MoscovianPermian period remained practically the same throughout the Early Triassic, too. A sequence of red to variegated, coarse- and fine-terrigenous rocks was accumulated in a shallow-water, slightly differentiated sea basin. It contained an insignificant amount of acid to intermediate volcanics, occurring predominantly at the top. This sequence, between 150 and 2,000 m. thick, rests with a pronounced disconformity, yet with no angular unconformity, on the Upper Moscovian-Permian red formation, the rock composing the sequence being rich in varied, typically marine fossils: ammonoidea, pelecipod, gastropod. In Anisian time, the paleotectonic and paleogeographic environments abruptly changed. As the supply of the detrital material practically ceased, a carbonate sequence with a small amount of terrigenous and volcanic rocks was formed in a shallow and warm, open sea basin. Locally, the carbonate rocks are represented by reef facies. This sequence, 180 to 890 m. thick, lies mostly conformably on the Lower Triassic beds, though in some localities of the Firozkoh Ridge there are traces of erosion and a gap in deposition. The rocks contain abundant and various typically marine fossils of brachiopod, pelecypod, ammonoidea, crinoidea, and algae. Sometime, between the Anisian and Ladinian epochs, the paleotectonic and paleogeographic environments in the Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan basin and in the areas adjacent to it on the north changed again. The tectonic movements reactivated, the sea became deeper to accumulate an ever-increasing amount of fine- and coarseterrigenous material. These conditions persisted throughout the Ladinian, Carnian and Norian ages of the Middle and Late Triassic periods. A typical fine-terrigenous flyschoid rock sequence with a small amount of volcanics and coarse-terrigenous rocks was formed. Some of the members of this sequence resemble a "wild flysh". The sequence totals 2,000 to 4,000 m. in thickness. By its composition and outward appearance it has much in common with the Taurian Series of the Crimea Mountains (USSR). The rocks of this sequence contain abundant and varied Tethys-type fossils represented by ammonoidea, brachiopod, pelecypod, and crinoidea. An Early Cimmerian orogeny, which took place sometime in the Late Norian or Rhaetian, resulted in the final retreat of the sea from the Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan Region. The area was subjected to uplifting and folding accompanied by emplacement of granitoid rocks (the Chashte-Sharif and Madrasa igneous complexes). Phases of Folding The Precambrian period of the geological history of the region is as yet obscure. Hence individual phases of folding dating back to that time cannot be recognized and proved. More or less reliable knowledge at our disposal is that concerning the Late Karelian orogeny which resulted in the Middle Proterozoic structures. The Baikalian and Caledonian orogenies are not distinguishable in the region. The Hercynian-Early Cimmerian history has been studied better, though, there are still some problems which remain uncertain. If the Early Tournaisian age of the Darya-i-Takht volcanics is reliable, a certain late subphase of the Britonian orogeny must have occurred in the region. This was one of the most prominent orogenic events in the whole geological history of the Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan Region. This orogeny has resulted in deformation of the volcanics giving also rise to emplacement of gabbro-plagiogranite intrusions. Its magnitude and importance are comparable with those of the Sudetic orogeny which occurred at the border of Early and Middle Carboniferous times in the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region. The erosion and change of the paleotectonic and paleogeographic environments at the end of Moscovian time can be attributed to the Asturian orogeny which caused no structural reconstructions in the region or emplacement of intrusions; it resulted only in the change of the paleotectonic and paleogeographic environments. Generally speaking, this change can be attributed to the tectonic movements within the adjacent to the north territories of the North Fore-Caucasus and South Turkmenia. The same applies to the Late Triassic erosion and the gap in deposition seemingly caused by the Pfalzian orogeny in the adjacent territories. The significant reconstruction of the entire tectonic life of the region was due to the Early Cimmerian orogenic event which occurred either at the border of the Norian and Rhaetian, or in Rhaetian time. This 404

orogeny completed the protracted and discontinous geosynclinal cycle of the evolution, resulting in the uplifting of the territory. Invaded by numerous massifs of granitoid rocks the territory was transformed later into a rigid fold belt which subsequently evolved as a platform.

North Afghanistan Platform

This is the largest structure of Afghanistan which occupies practically the entire northern part of the country, about 150,000 sq. km in area. The platform represents an extreme south-eastern extension of the Turan Plate which lies largely in the USSR. The North Afghanistan Platform originated on the peneplanated fold structures of the Afghanistan-North Pamir and the Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan regions. The former constitute the central and north-eastern parts of the Folded Basement and the latter represents its south-western part. In Afghanistan, the youngest fold structures of the basement suggest an epi-Early Cimmerian age of the platform. Further northward, in the USSR, as the structures of the Folded Basement become older, the Turan Plate (more strictly its platform cover) becomes first epi-Hercynian (over the Hercynian structures of the Middle and South Tien Shan) and then epi-Caledonian (over the Caledonian structures of the North Tien Shan). The geological history of the North Afghanistan Platform falls into two cycles, platform and epi-platform. The first cycle includes the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene periods, while the second lasted throughout the Late Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary periods.

Platform Cycle During the formation of the Sedimentary Cover of the North Afghanistan Platform two major structures became distinct within its limits: a relative uplift presently known as Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift, situated in the southern and central parts of North Afghanistan, and a relative structural basin named as Murgab-Upper Amu Darya Depression, situated in the northern part of the region. Jurassic Period This is the first period in the geological history of the Sedimentary Cover of the North Afghanistan Platform. Paleotectonic and paleogeographic environments during this period were the same as in the adjacent areas of the presently uplifted and exposed portion of the above-discussed Afghanistan-North Pamir Region. The mountain fold systems of the Afghanistan-North Pamir and Firozkoh-Bande Turkestan regions, formed as the result of the Early Cimmerian orogeny, were first peneplanated and then subsided again. The territory of the present-day Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Depression undergone deeper subsidence compared to that of the Paropamsiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift. Within the territory of the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift, a thin crust of weathering with the Tala Barfak kaolinites was formed in the Early-Middle Jurassic on the Triassic volcanics under conditions of a hot and humid climate. This was followed by the formation of a thick (100 to 1,450 m) sequence of fine- and coarse-terrigenous rocks with coal seams, lenses and benches (the Sayghan Series). Outcrops of this sequence are confined to the axial part of the uplift (the eastern part of the Maymana Fault Block), though initially it must have covered more extensive areas. The rest of the uplift was apparently the area supplying the terrigenous material. What kind of sequences were accumulated in the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Depression during the Early-Middle Jurassic remains unknown. Rocks of this age either form the deeply-subsided horizons or are missing within the relatively uplifted localities. At the end of Bathonian time the paleotectonic and paleogeographic environments of the North Afghanistan Platform changed abruptly. A marine transgression advancing from the north-north-west (or from the Turan sea basin) involved the territory under discussion. It is not ruled out that the sea occupied only the area of the present-day MurghabUpper Amu Darya Depression with most of the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift remaining a dry-land. Over the period of time beginning with Late Bathonian through Oxfordian a uniform carbonate sequence with an insignificant amount of fine-terrigenous material at the base was accumulated in a slightly differentiated shallow-water sea basin of normal salinity. The lower beds of the sequence abound in fossils, while its upper horizons exhibit very scanty organic remains. The sequence described is from 35 to 468 m 405

thick. In the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian, the environments changed: the sea basin became shallower and more saline to accumulate red to variegated terrigenous sediments, with the subsequent formation of a number of small basins and lagoons which accumulated evaporites under conditions of a hot and dry climate. As a result, a sequence of variegated to red terrigenous rocks and evaporites, totalling 548 to 670 m. in thickness, was formed there. Cretaceous Period The Kimmeridgian-Tithonian paleogeographic environment was inherited by the Early Cretaceous landscape. Within vast territories, including those with no earlier sedimentation, a red sequence of fine- and coarseterrigenous semi-continental rocks, several to 1,000 meters thick, was accumulated under conditions of a hot and dry climate. In the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Depression this apparently ubiquitous sequence was composed generally of fine-terrigenous rocks with beds, members and lenses of marine deposits, while within the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift it consists of more coarse-terrigenous rocks of continental origin. At the end of Early Cretaceous time (late Aptian-Albian), the entire territory of North Afghanistan was progressively covered by the Turan sea encroaching from the north-north-west. Not the whole of the North Afghanistan territory was covered by the sea. Extensive areas of the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift remained dry and supplied terrigenous material. A predominantly fine-terrigenous rock sequence, 237 to 431 m. thick, abounding in varied fossils, was accumulated in a shallow-water differentiated sea basin of normal salinity. During the Late Cretaceous, the transgression involved almost the whole territory of the North Afghanistan Platform with a possible exception of some small areas of the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift which rose above the sea level till the Maestrichtian time. During Cenoman-Campanian time a carbonate-terrigenous rock sequence abounding in varied fossils was formed in a slightly differentiated epicontinental sea basin. Maestrichtian and Paleocene Periods The Maestrichtian and Paleocene periods were notable for the maximum marine transgression into the North Afghanistan Platform. Within the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift a thick (up to 777 m) sequence was accumulated of carbonate, essentially reef-type rocks. In the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Depression, this sequence, up to 600 m. thick, contains terrigenous deposits with practically no reef facies. Eocene Period The Eocene was the last period of predominantly marine development of the North Afghanistan Platform. A sequence of fine-terrigenous rocks, up to 850 m. thick, was accumulated in a shallow-water, slightly differentiated sea basin of normal salinity. On the Paleocene limestones this sequence occurs conformably practically everywhere; only in some areas of the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift some evidence of erosion can be observed. The rocks of this sequence abound in varied fossils.

Epiplatform Cycle Beginning with the late Eocene, the North Afghanistan Platform enters the epiplatform orogenic cycle of its development. The sea retreats gradually northward at the end of the Paleogene never to return onto this territory. A continental landscape emerged, first of a slightly dissected, and, subsequently, of an evercontrasting topography. The Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift and the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Depression were characterized in the course of time by the ever-contrasting evolution. Eocene-Oligocene Period This was a transitional period in the geological history of the North Afghanistan Platform. The MurghabUpper Amu Darya Depression in the north of Afghanistan was still occupied by sea, though very shallow and apparently fresh-water. The sediments became more and more variegated due to supply of varied material derived from the arising uplifts. At the same time, the south of the platform, and particularly its southwestern part occupied by the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift, was subject to intensive volcanism resulting in a widespread sequence of terrestrial intermediate to basic porphyry volcanics, 210 to 1,410 m. 406

thick, referred to as the Galachagar Series. This series rests unconformably on the Eocene (Suzak-Alayan and Turkestan?) beds. Neogene Period In Neogene time the orogenic movements within the North Afghanistan Platform became more intensive to predetermine the main trend of its evolution. The Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Depression, rapidly subsiding relative to the rising Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift, was quickly infilled with fine-terrigenous material, which was progressively becoming coarser and coarser due to a rapid erosion of the uplifted areas. Within the uplift itself there were local minor basins which played no substantial role in the geological evolution of the platform. Most strongly subsided areas were portions of the Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Depression adjacent to the folded structures of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region. A sequence of coarse-terrigenous rocks, up to 14,000 m. in thickness, was accumulated in these areas of maximum subsidence. Quaternary Period Throughout Quaternary period the Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift continued to rise rapidly, becoming an ever-contrasting structure. The Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Depression on the contrary, continued its rapid subsidence accumulating all the material derived from the uplift. River terraces were formed at different levels during the periods of a relative stabilization of the tectonic regime. The climate, apparently very hot and uniform in the Miocene, became cooler and slightly contrasting in the Pliocene and moderately cold, strongly contrasting (typically mountain), in the Quaternary.

Afghanistan-South Pamir Region

Since the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region and the Nurestan-Pamir Median Mass are characterized by similar historical, structural and genetic features, the geological history of the above-said median mass will be considered here. The total area of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region exceeds 120,000 sq. km with about 80,000 sq. km in Afghanistan and the rest 40,000 sq. km in the USSR. Initially, the region was considerably more extensive probably several times as large. Subsequently the region became smaller owing to horizontal displacements which brought closer and partly shuffled the coetaneous, yet different in genesis, structural-formation complexes initially formed far from each other. This crowding is particularly apparent in the Afghan part of the region which is locally squeezed completely (at the Chaharikar Uplift of the Kabul Stable Mass). Structures of the Central and South-East Pamir types, located well apart in the USSR, appear to be closely-spaced and shuffled in Afghanistan, where they form imbricated zones and thrust sheets. A formational analysis of the stratified sequences of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region suggests that they were accumulated in more or less tranquil and large sedimentary basins, but the present-day structural pattern of the region as a whole, most complicated in Afghanistan, is undoubtedly the result of recent movements. Two cycles, viz. geosynclinal (culminating at the end of the Early Cretaceous) and epigeosynclinal (lasting from the Early Cretaceous till now) have been recognized in the geological history of the region.

Geosynclinal Cycle The Afghanistan-South Pamir Region has undergone several geosynclinal cycles of its development, but none of them was complete. The geosynclinal development of the region was completed by the Middle Cimmerian orogeny which occurred at the end of Late Jurassic-beginning of Cretaceous. Archean Period The Archean rocks compose the South Badakhshan Fault Block (in Afghanistan) and most of the South-West Pamir Region (located in the USSR). These rocks, the oldest in the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region and, apparently, in the whole Mediterranean Fold Belt, form a large (about 20,000 sq.km) almond-shaped fault block. The rocks are different in the mineral composition: gneisses, quartzites, marbles and calcyphyres metamorphosed to the granulite and high-grade amphibolite facies. This sequence, 6,700 to 9,200 m. thick, is dominated by para-rocks derived from initially terrigenous and carbonate varieties. Basic and ultrabasic 407

volcanics are rare. There are also subvolcanic varieties of the rocks (a nameless complex of ultrabasic rocks in Afghanistan and the Darshai Complex in the USSR (73). It is assumed that these rocks have derived from sediments which were accumulated in non-linear pangeosynclinal sea basins. As the result of the Belomorian orogeny these sediments were brought onto surface, deformed into shallow and large dome-shaped fouls, metamorphosed with a partial lit-par-lit fusion producing acid and ultra-acid granitoids (a nameless complex of acid rocks in Afghanistan and the Zugwand Complex in the USSR) (73). The subsequent movements have complicated the structural pattern of the block, resulting also in the higher grade of metamorphism (particularly that of the contact metamorphism) with n0 radical change of the initial paleosome. Early Proterozoic Period Structural features of the Early Proterozoic age are represented in the modern structural pattern of the region by fault blocks exposed at the present-day surface. Like the coetaneous structural features of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region, these blocks are composed of gneiss, quartz, marble and amphibolite metamorphosed to amphibolite facies differing in their mineral composition. The thickness of the rocks is 8,500-10,500 m. Para-rocks are predominant. Volcanics occupy limited areas and are essentially basic. The striking similarity of rocks in the region, and the fact that they are identical with the Early Proterozoic rocks of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region suggests that they were formed in vast nonlinear marine pangeosynclinal basins. As a result of the Early Karelian orogeny these rocks were removed from the zone of sedimentation and subjected to deformation, metamorphism and partly to remelting which have given rise to migmatites and sill-like massifs of granitoids (the Panjsher and Estalef complexes in Afghanistan, and Romanitsky and Zorburulyuksky complexes in the USSR) (73). Middle Proterozoic Period The structural features of supposedly Middle Proterozoic age are represented by the Bande-Bayan Fault Block in Afghanistan and by a series of exposures on the territory of the South-East Pamir in the USSR. These are composed of schists, quartzites, sandstones, marbles and marmarized limestones metamorphosed to low grades of amphibolite and greenschist facies and characterized by diverse mineral composition. Volcanics are rather common. The total thickness of the sequence is 3,000-5,000 m. Its possible counterpart in the USSR is the North Alichur Series (73). The above rocks were supposedly formed, like older rocks, in the so-called non-linear pangeosynclinal seas. As a result of subsequent Late Karelian phases of orogeny these rocks were removed from the zone of sedimentation and subjected to deformation and metamorphism. Intrusive rocks are represented by subvolcanic bodies of basic composition and by sill-like massifs of granitoids. In Afghanistan, however, the intrusives have not been singled out as independent complexes. Late Proterozoic Period This was the final period in the Precambrian tectonic history of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region. At the beginning of this period, probably in a linear marine basin, fine terrigenous sandy-shaly-siltstone ("black shale") sequence was accumulated containing small amounts of cherts, carbonate rocks, and volcanics. The volcanics are related to subvolcanic rock types. The sequence is 4,000-4,500 meters thick. Its probable counterpart in the USSR is the Sarez Series (73). During a subsequent phase of the Baikalian orogeny the sequence was no longer in the zone of sedimentation, its rocks were deformed into complex linear holomorphic folds and metamorphosed to the phylite and lower grade of greenschist facies. Another sequence of acid-to-intermediate volcanics with small amounts of terrigenous and carbonate rocks totalling in the thickness from 1,400 to 2,400 meters rests on the former with a gap. The volcanics are metamorphosed to a redstone facies and regarded as a porphyry formation of the Baikalian tectonic cycle. The subvolcanic varieties of this sequence are represented by rocks of the Chasnud Complex in the Central Badakhshan. Among all the Precambrian tectonic cycles, the Baikalian cycle is markedly distinguished by its sedimentary, volcanic and intrusive formations, and by a sequence of their origin. In terms of the evidence available the Baikalian cycle is similar to the Paleozoic-Mezo-Cenozoic cycles, rather than to the Archean-Middle Proterozoic ones.

408

?Vendian-Early Cambrian Period The Baikalian movements on the major part of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region have resulted evidently in the formation of a vast indistinct uplift, and in a shallow weakly differentiated, probably abnormally salinized, continental basin to which all terrigenous material from the uplift was transported. Accumulation of the terrigenous sediments gave rise to a red sandy-shaly-siltstone fine-terrigenous sequence containing little dolomite. The thickness of the sequence is 1,000-1,500 m. It lies with a sharp unconformity on the older rock units. Organic remains are practically absent. The bedding surfaces show the traces of dry weathering, imprints of ?salt or ?ice crystals and other indications attesting to the accumulation of the sequence in a shallow basin. A coetaneous counterpart of the sequence in Iran is the Lalun Sandstone Formation (162), in the USSR (Western Pamir) - the ?Djamak Sandstone (73) and the Red Sandstone of the Kalatash area, in Eastern Pamir. Early Middle-Paleozoic Period After a short-time retreat at the end of the previous tectonic phase, the sea acquires its earlier size in the northern part of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region. Beginning with the Middle Cambrian to Devonian inclusively, an essentially carbonate sequence totalling 2,000-4,000 m. in thickness was formed under the conditions of a vast shallow, weakly differentiated epicontinental marine basin. The sequence lies on the eroded surface of the above-mentioned red unit. In the Cambrian and Middle Devonian times under the conditions of hot climate and relatively high salinity of the basin dolomites were formed, whereas in the Late Silurian and Early Devonian reef limestone was accumulated on the relatively uplifted areas (Southern Ranghkul structural-facies zone in the USSR). At the base of the sequence, as well as at the lowermost parts of the Lower and Upper Devonian units, beds of quartz sandstone occur which serve as basal beds and mark gaps in sedimentation. In the Early Silurian a rock sequence was formed in places, corresponding to the notion of carbonate flysch. The sequence contains abundant and various organic remains. Outcrops of the Middle Paleozoic rocks in the recent erosion surface are observed only in the northern areas of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region (Middle Afghanistan, Central Badakhshan and Central Pamir). It is assumed that the marine basin which accumulated these deposits occupied the same areas. Naturally, the initial size of these areas was much greater. The remaining southern part of the region (South-East and South-West Pamir, Nurestan, Wakhan, and South Badakhshan) was an uplift. The comparison of the Lower-Middle Paleozoic sequence of the Afghanistan-North Pamir Region with that of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region reveals that in the latter region the sequence is more carbonaceous and diverse in composition, showing more frequent gaps in sedimentation and being much richer in organic remains. All these facts suggest that in the region under consideration the sequence concerned was formed in relatively shallower and more differentiated marine basin characterized by the normal salinity regime and by a predominance of the zones of relative uplifting over the zones of relative subsidence. Carboniferous-Jurassic Period This period marked a final geosycnline cycle in the geologic history of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region notable for a sharp contrast of the tectonic movements. As a result of these events, the coetaneous deposits from various parts of the region have formed different complexes. Apart from the marine sediments continental deposits were rather common. All these factors created a rather diverse paleolandscape. The most recent movements have markedly reduced the primary territory of the region thus complicating extremely complex, as it was, paleogeographic pattern, particularly that in the Afghan part of the region. During these events, the structure-formation complexes which originated far from each other became contiguous whereas some intermediate complexes were completely destroyed in the process of "bringing closer" and "reshuffling". Naturally, all this hampers reconstruction of the original structural pattern of the AfghanistanSouth Pamir Region. The data available allow us to distinguish within the region groups of zones characterized by a tectonic regime similar to that of the Central and South-Eastern Pamir, and South Badakhshan and Nurestan fault blocks. 409

Based on characteristic features of the Carboniferous-Jurassic sections in various parts of the AfghanistanSouth Pamir Region, the Period described here is divided into the following subperiods: Carboniferous-Early Permian, Late Permian-Carnian, Norian-Middle Jurassic, and Bathonian-Late Jurassic. Carboniferous-Early Permian Subperiod Within the group of zones of the Central Pamir type (Haftkala, Shewa, Warv, etc.) a thin carbonate sequence was formed under the conditions of a shallow, weakly differentiated marine basin at Carboniferous-Early Permian time. Its Lower Carboniferous part, from 55 to 350 m. thick, closely related to the Upper Devonian beds was undoubtedly formed in paleogeographic environment similar to that existing in Late Devonian time. During Visean or Namurian time the sedimentation was interrupted. This is manifested by an eroded surface and by quartz sands encountered in the Haftkala Zone. The Middle-Upper Carboniferous part of the sequence has not yet been studied sufficiently and has not been singled out in the Afghan part of the region. In the USSR, it consists of limestone, 105 meters thick, cropping out in the South Ranghkul and Akbaital imbricate structure zones (73, 205). The contact between the Middle Carboniferous (40 m) and Lower Carboniferous units is considered conformable, whereas that between the Upper Carboniferous (65 m) and Middle Carboniferous units seems to be unconformable (73). Sometime at the Late Carboniferous the territory, which had undergone the evolution similar to that of the Central Pamir, was partly or even completely removed from the zone of marine sedimentation to become a land for some period. Then it was covered with water again and gave rise to a thin (160- 230 m) carbonate sequence containing quartz sands at the base. A similar type of the Lower Permian section and stratigraphic relations are observed in the Haftkala Zone as well as in the Shewa Zone, though in the latter case the lower contact of the sequence is faulted. In the Warv Zone, the Lower Permian sequence is considerably thicker (630 m) and its deposits are more diverse in composition. In the lower part of the sequence there is a unit (332 m) of intermediate to basic volcanics and shales. Here the lower contact of the Permian sequence is also faulted. A distinctly different section of the Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence is observed in a group of zones which had undergone evolution similar to that of the South-East Pamir (Sange-Dushah, Khwaja, Murad, Nalbandan, Qarganaw, Turkman, Wakhan and other zones). The deposits of this age form here a thick (up to 5,000 m) sequence of dark-coloured sandstones, shales and siltstones referred to as the Syah Koh Series in Afghanistan and Bazardarin Series in the USSR (73, 79, 174, 175, 258). It was formed in a vast, relatively deep weakly differentiated marine basin notable for an intensive compensational subsidence. Organic remains are scarce which may be attributed to abnormal salinity of the basin and its stagnant regime. The latter is evidenced also by a black colour of the deposits. The sequence lies with a sharp unconformity directly on the Precambrian metamorphics. Carboniferous-Lower Permian rocks have not been found in the Southern Badakhshan Fault Block. However, the so-called Nematsdarin Formation (73) of black sandy-shaly-siltstone rocks (600 m) metamorphosed to a phyllite facies and occurring on the extension of this block on the USSR territory is assigned to this age. The conditions in which this formation was formed were approximately the same as those of the above described rocks. The primary relations of the Nematsdarin Formation with the Archean metamorphics are not clear. In the modern structural pattern the contacts between these units are either faulted or welded by young intrusions. The Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence in the Nuristan Fault Block consists of dark-coloured sandyshaly-siltstone rocks, 2,000-2,500 m. thick. The sequence resembles the Nematsdarin Formation metamorphosed to a phyllite facies. The contact with the Proterozoic metamorphics is either faulted or welded by young intrusions. No organic remains have been found in it, and therefore its age has been determined tentatively. The conditions under which this sequence was formed were the same as those of the above described Nematsdarin Formation. It is believed that initially the sequence covered an entire area of the Nuristan Fault Block. Presently its remnants occur only in graben-synclines. Late Permian-Carnian Subperiod Late Permian-Carnian period was marked by a ubiquitous relative stabilization of the tectonic regime within the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region which was almost entirely covered by sea. The supply of terrigenous 410

material ceased almost completely. This event gave rise to an association of carbonate-cherty formations, and in some zones, to a volcanic formation of the same age. At the end of Permian, the weathering crusts and bauxite-like rocks were formed in zones of relative uplifting. Though the tectonic regime seems to have been similar, the conditions under which a given formation was originated in individual zones or group of zones were different. The Groups of Zones of the Central Pamir type fall into three categories differing in their tectonic regime. The first category includes the Haftkala and Warv zones. They occurred in a generally shallow marine basin as zones of unstable relative uplifting with a compensational subsidence. During Murgabian and Carnian times reef limestones were formed in these zones, while during Pamirian time, marked by a short uplifting, a weathering crust, bauxite and bauxite-like rocks were formed (Haftkala Zone). The thickness of rocks underlying the Warv Zone is up to 1,400 m. A similar tectonic regime was characteristic of the Southern Ranghkul Zone, in the USSR. The Shewa Zone belongs to the second category of the Zones of the Central Pamir type. Within the limits of a shallow marine basin this zone manifested itself as a stable zone of relative uplifting without compensational subsidence and accumulated a thin condensed rock sequence. This sequence comprises a thin formation of carbonate rocks, a great amount of dolomites and exhibits numerous eroded contact surfaces to which bauxites and Hardground rook types are restricted. The partial thickness of the sequence is 242 m. (together with the Lower Permian beds). The Kalaktash Zone in the USSR has developed under a similar tectonic regime. The third category includes the Nakhchirpar Zone which was a zone of relative subsidence with noncompensational deposition within the shallow marine basin. A uniformly bedded calcareous sequence was formed within the zone containing intercalations, lenses and beds of black carbonaceous slates. The thickness of the unit is 350-400 m. (together with the Lower Permian beds). The Kudara Zone on the USSR territory (drainage basins of the Khat-Fat, Khabarviv-Hats, Havriz-Dara, Yazgulem-Dara, Rakzow and other rivers) was characterized by a similar tectonic regime. The group of zones of the South-East Pamir type within the Afghan territory also fall into three categories, according to the evolution which they have undergone (the South-East Pamir type zones on the USSR territory fall into four categories). The first category includes the Qarganaw and Sange-Dushah zones. Within a shallow marine basin these were zones of relative uplifting in which a carbonate sequence (503-620 m) was accumulated. During Artinskian and Murgabian times reef limestones were accumulated there, while in the Pamirian, when a short-time uplifting took place, there appeared weathering crust, bauxite and Hardgroundtype rocks. The sequence rests conformably on the Carboniferous-Lower Permian Syah Koh Series. The second category comprises the Khwaja Morad zone. In comparison with the two zones described above it occupied in the paleorelief of the sea floor a lower position having accumulated a sequence of normally bedded limestones with little amount of cherts encountered in the Ladinian part of the section. The thickness of the sequence amounts to 703 m. It occurs conformably on the Syah Koh Series of Carboniferous-Lower Permian age. The zone's counterpart in the USSR is the Intermediate Zone of the South-East Pamir (79). The third category comprises the Nalbandan, Turkman, Wakhan and other zones. These occupied the lowermost position in the paleorelief of the sea floor. Under the conditions of non-compensational subsidence these zones accumulated a thin (100-150 m) sequence of essentially siliceous rocks which conformably overly the Syah Koh Series. In the USSR, the counterpart of the above zones is the Marginal Zone of the South-East Pamir (79). Apart from this zone, the South-East Pamir (USSR) comprises the Axial (Central) and Peripheral zones (73, 79). The former is characterized by a wide distribution of reef facies in the Late Permian and Ladinian-Norian parts of the section, while the latter is notable for abundance of volcanic rocks in the Ladinian-Norian part of the section. Though no similar rock types have been found on the territory of Afghanistan, their occurrence is possible, especially in Middle Afghanistan. No rocks of Late Permian-Carnian age have been encountered so far in the South Badakhshan Fault Block. Neither they are observed on its extension in the South-West Pamir. 411

The rocks of this age occur in the Nurestan Fault Block, where they form a terrigenous-carbonate sequence (350-600 m) originated evidently in undifferentiated relatively deep marine basin with non-compensational sedimentation. By appearance, and probably by genesis, this sequence resembles mostly the coetaneous rocks units composing the Nakhchirpar Zone. Norian-Middle Jurassic Subperiod The Norian time saw significant paleotectonic and paleogeographic changes: accumulation of the carbonatecherty rocks ceased and the deposition of thick terrigenous sediments began over most of the region. The environments of sedimentation, however, differed from one group of zone to another. The Zones of the Central Pamir type fall into four categories differing in their tectonic regime. The first category includes the Warv Zone exposing only the Norian-Rhaetian fine-terrigenous dark-coloured rocks formed in a relatively deep marine basin under a seemingly stagnant water regime. Organic remains are almost absent (only one ammonite was found). The sequence, 1,000 m. thick, overlies conformably the Upper Permian-Carnian unit. The Haftkala Zone belongs to the second category and is underlain exclusively by Norian-Rhaetian also fineterrigenous rock sequence which, unlike that described above, is characterized by the variegated and more coarse-grained composition. The sequence, 100 meters thick, was accumulated in shallow-water marine basin in the conditions of a relative uplifing. It lies on the eroded surface of the Upper Permian-Carnian unit with bauxite patches at the base. The organic remains are abundant and different in composition. By the appearance, mineral composition and by organic remains assemblage this sequence is a full counterpart of the Bortepa Formation in the Axial Zone of the South-East Pamir (73). The third category includes the Rode Kafgan and Shewa zones. Within these zones a complete section of the Norian-Middle Jurassic deposits has been recorded. The section consists of two units. The lower unit is represented by a fine-terrigenous (sand-shale-siltstone) dark-coloured sequence, 3,000-4,000 meters thick, notable for the presence of abundant land macroflora and fresh-water pelecypods. The sequence of NorianRhaetian age was formed in a continental basin. Its counterpart in the USSR is the Tuzbel and Dzhankaindin series of the Central Pamir (73). The upper unit of the sequence lies without an apparent unconformity on the lower unit and is represented at the base (150-200 m) by red sandstone and conglomerate, and at the top (200-250 m) by dark-coloured sandstone, siltstone and shale with rare limestone intercalations. The red beds of the section, being probably solely continental, do not contain any organic remains, while the dark-coloured portion of the section contains mixed (continental and marine) organic remains. Hence, the basin was initially continental, freshwater, and later acquired the features of a marine basin with normal salinity. In the USSR, a full counterpart of the above units is the Kokuibel Series (73). The fourth category includes the Nakhchirpar Zone, notable also for a complete section of the Norian-Middle Jurassic sequence which is solely dark-coloured monotonous undifferentiated fine-terrigenous unit containing remains of land flora. The sequence, 4,000-5,000 meters thick, was accumulated in a continental basin. A direct extension of the unit in the USSR is Vamar Series (73). The Norian-Middle Jurassic history of the zones of the South-East Pamir type (Sange-Dushah, Khwaja Morad, Nalbandan, Turkman, Wakhan and others) was essentially different from that of other zones: the Norian-Rhaetian and Early-Middle Jurassic periods of sedimentation with early Cimmerian phase of folding in-between can be recognized in them. During Norian-Rhaetian time a dark-coloured fine-terrigenous sandy-shale-siltstone flyschoid sequence, 3,000 m. thick, conformable with the Upper Permian-Carnian unit, was accumulated in a relatively shallowwater weakly differentiated basin characterized by normal salinity and non-compensational subsidence. Organic remains are extremely rare and occur in the lower beds of the sequence, which is typical of all flyschoid sequences. In relatively uplifted zones (the Axial Zone of the South-East Pamir) the sequence comprises beds and lenses of limestones rich in organic remains of Late Norian-Rhaetian age (73). 412

In late Rhaetian, or in early Liassian time an early Kimmerian phase of folding took place. The entire territory of the South-East Pamir and similar to it (in structural pattern) areas of Afghanistan were removed from the zone of sedimentation, subjected to folding and temporarily converted into a dry land. The dry land thus formed was characterized by neither high nor contrasting relief. It was rapidly peneplanated and submerged under the sea level again. The advancing sea did not cover at once the entire territory. At first water came into the zones of relatively-early downwarpings (Nalbandan, Wakhan and other zones in Afghanistan, and Gurundin Zone in the USSR) (79), then into the zones of relative uplifts (Sange Dushah Zone in Afghanistan, and Istyk Zone, in a general sense, in the USSR) (79). An essentially carbonate sequence was formed in a shallow, but rather contrasting, strongly differentiated marine basin. Within the relatively uplifted areas the sequence is essentially carbonate, containing fragmentary and reef limestone facies, and in the relatively subsided zones it is terrigenous-carbonate with fine-grained deep-water clayey limestones. In all the zones the sequence starts with basal conglomerates whose thickness varies from several tens of centimeters to 100-200 meters. The total thickness of the Lower-Middle Jurassic rooks varies from 350 m. to 1000 m. The rocks contain abundant and various fossils. No Norian-Middle Jurassic rocks have been encountered in the South Badakhshan Block. They were neither found on its extension in the South-West Pamir. Therefore, it is not excluded that the entire territory was land in the Norian-Middle Jurassic time. The Norian-Rhaetian sequence of dark-coloured fine-terrigenous rocks represented by sandstones, shales and siltstones (Alingar Series) has been tentatively recognized in the Nuristan Fault Block. The thickness of the sequence varies from 1,000 to 1,500 m. It rests conformably on the Upper Permian-Carnian rocks and contains no organic remains. The genesis of the sequence is obscure, but it may have originated in continental conditions. This is evidenced by findings of Late Triassic plants in the Namangut-Eshkashim area (73), as well as by outcrops of fine-terrigenous deposits containing remains of Norian-Rhaetian flora in the Anjuman and Zebak zones of imbricate structures (151). Their mineral composition, structural pattern, outward appearance and organic remains are similar, on the one hand, to the rocks composing the Nahchirpar Zone, and, on the other, to the same varieties exposed in the Nuristan Fault Block (Namangut-Eshkashim area). These outcrops are either exotic or represent erosion remnants of a continental sequence once widespread in the Nuristan Fault Block, and, probably, in the South Badakhshan. According to this assumption, the Alingar Series is a variety of the same sequence which survived the erosion in graben-synclines. The Lower-Middle Jurassic rocks in the Nuristan Fault Block have not been singled out as an independent unit. It is not excluded that these rocks, like those in the Nahchirpar Zone, are closely related to the NorianRhaetian beds, and constitute part of a unified series of rocks (?Alingar Series). This problem calls for further studies. Bathonian-Late Jurassic Subperiod Almost the entire Afghanistan-South Pamir Region, except the South Badakhshan and Nurestan fault blocks, must have been submerged under the sea at the end of Middle and throughout the Late Jurassic up to Oxfordian and possibly Kimmeridgian inclusively. A carbonate sequence, from 100 m. to 1,000 m. in thickness, was accumulated in a shallow, but rather differentiated marine basin. Reef limestones were accumulated on the relative uplifts in Callovian and Oxfordian. The sequence lies conformably on the Bajocian deposits. Organic remains are abundant and various. In Kimmeridgian or Tithonian, the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region was subject to a general uplifting due to initial Middle Kimmerian (New Kimmerian) movements. The sea became smaller, shallower and was probably salinized. Early Cretaceous Period The initial Middle Kimmerian (New Kimmerian) positive movements gave rise to a low weakly dissected uplift. The sea persisted in isolated remnant basins only and was gradually salinized and intensely infilled with terrigenous material. Climate was hot and dry, and the terrigenous material supplied from the surrounding uplifts was of a red colour. A red fine-terrigenous marine molasse was formed. Its type locality is in the USSR, in the Yazgulem Range (73), where the molasse varies in thickness from 400 to 1,200 m. In most of the areas it rests conformably on the Bathonian-Upper Jurassic limestone forming with the latter 413

conformable structures. But there are localities where it lies on the eroded surface of the Jurassic sequence (Kakuibel-Kokdjar). This molasse occurs also in Afghanistan (in the Shewa Zone and the Tulak-SharakSarchashma band), but is poorly studied. In the middle or at the end of Early Cretaceous, there took place the second Middle Cimmerian (Austrian) phase of folding that completely ceased sedimentation in the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region having transformed it into a folded region. The groups of zones of the Central and South-East Pamir types constituting the above folded region were also deformed into folded systems. This phase of folding was probably accompanied by emplacement of Early Cretaceous granitoids (Hazar Sang Complex). Phases of Folding The Precambrian period of the geological history of the region is still uncertain and therefore, separate phases of folding of that time cannot be distinguished and proved. When analyzing the change in the intensity of regional metamorphism with due regard to peculiarities of stratified and intrusive formations and types of folding we can more or less reliably trace the effects of the Kenoran, Early and Late Karelian movements which resulted generally in the formation of Archean, Lower and Middle Proterozoic structure-formational complexes. Much more data are available on the Baikalian movements which we may divide reliably into two phases of folding: the intra-Baikalian and Late Baikalian. The first phase completed the formation of the lower part of the Upper Proterozoic and then dislocated it; the second one resulted in the accumulation and deformation of the upper part of the Upper Proterozoic sequence. It is the latter phase of folding of the Baikalian tectonic cycle, which is responsible for the regional unconformity observed at the base of ?Vendian-Lower Cambrian red sequence. No indications of Caledonian phases of folding have been recognized within the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region. Erosion surfaces and breaks in sedimentation mapped at the base of Middle Cambrian, Lower and Upper Devonian are indicative of synsedimentary movements not accompanied by folding. The first, more or less distinct unconformity in a group of the Central Pamir type zones is observed at the base of Permian sequence (Haftkala Zone in Afghanistan, and Kalaktash Zone in the USSR). This unconformity is either the result of synsedimentary movements not accompanied by folding in relatively uplifted zones or the result of the Asturian phase of folding of the Hercynian tectonic cycle. This problem necessitates further investigations. Another unconformity well traceable in zones of relative uplifting of both the Central and South Pamir types is coincident with the contact between Permian and Triassic rock units. No angular unconformities have been established at this level, yet well pronounced in the sequence are stratigraphic gaps accentuated by quartz sand, Hardground type rock, bauxites and other horizons. This break in sedimentation has resulted from the latest movements of the Pfalzian orogeny of the Hercynian tectonic cycle. It was caused, however, by epeirogenic movements rather than by folding. Synsedimentary movements also cannot be excluded. An undisputable unconformity caused by the Early Cimmerian phase of folding is conspicuous in the SouthEast Pamir type zones and at the contact between the Rhaetian and Liassic beds. This folding has deformed all the pre-Liassic sequences and formed unique folded structures. It has not manifested itself in the Central Pamir type zones. The most profound phase of folding in the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region undoubtedly was the Middle Cimmerian phase which consisted of the Late Cimmerian and Austrian sub-phases. These ceased the marine geosynclinal sedimentation in the region and transformed it into a fold belt.

Epigeosynclinal Cycle In post-Early Cretaceous time, the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region was first transformed into a quazicraton and, subsequently, into an orogenic belt characterized by nappe and imbricate structures.

414

Late Cretaceous-Paleocene Period Prior to Late Cretaceous time and after the Austrian phase of folding, the Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region existed as a peneplain. The area was a dry land everywhere. In Late Cretaceous time, against the background of the epeirogenic movements involving the North-Afghanistan Platform and Afghanistan North Pamir Folded Region, the northern part of the region (Central Pamir folded system) underwent a slow subsidence and was covered by water of the epicontinental Turan Basin. Under the conditions of temporary stabilization of the tectonic regime a thin quasicratonic carbonate sequence was formed of rudist limestones and calcareous-quartz sandstones and limestone conglomerates (Djambai Formation in the east of the Central Pamir), the latter interbedding the former along the periphery of the basin. At the end of Maestrichtian time, the period of temporary stabilization came to an end, the tectonic life revived giving rise to a thick volcano-terrigenous sequence which locally exhibits either a stratigraphic or distinct unconformity and rests on the rudist limestones (Bavrona volcanics in the vicinity of Cheshte Sharif and Nahchirpar volcanics in the Central Badakhshan in Afghanistan; Bartang Series in the Western Pamir, Chechektin Series in the Eastern Pamir, USSR). The age of the sequence is uncertain since no organic remains have been found in situ, but judging by the fact that it stratigraphically overlies the Maestrichtian rudist limestones everywhere and is conformably deformed with the latter, it must be either Danian-Paleocene or Late Maestrichtian-Paleocene. The sequence is up to 3000 meters thick. The events described above took place in the northern part of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region. The rest of the territory might have been a dry land. Eocene-Oligocene Period The previous period must have resulted in general uplifting of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region and in its subsequent peneplanation. The Eocene-Oligocene period was noted for a sharp increase in tectono-magmatic activity of the region associated probably with global processes operating in all inner regions of the Mediterranean Fold Belt as a whole. The peneplain was broken into a system of troughs and uplifts separating them. At the beginning of this period, within the limits of the troughs a terrestrial volcanic porphyry ("subsequent" - according to G.A. Shtille) sequence accumulated acid - to intermediate volcanics metamorphosed to the redstone facies (Talaw Series in Afghanistan, and Teshiktash and Djiembaidjilgin Series in the USSR). The thickness of the sequence is 365-1,000 meters. It shows a sharp unconformity with the underlying older rocks. Upward the section, there occurs a red sandy-conglomerate molasse sequence with minor amounts of intermediate - to basic volcanics, lying either on the eroded surface of the underlying rocks (but without angular unconformity) or conformably with the volcanics (Paye-Kotal Series in Afghanistan, and Kyzylrabat Series in the USSR) (73). This unit is up to 1,000 meters thick. The formation of the lower volcanic sequence was accompanied by intrusion of subvolcanic rocks of the same composition. The bulk of the granitoid massifs encountered in the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region were emplaced at the end of the period under discussion. They are usually localized in positive structures and in the zones of the junction of various megastructures. Neogene Period In the Neogene, the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region was subject to uplifting to become a mountain country. Molasse sequences were formed in vast intermontane troughs and in freshwater basins. Alkaline volcanics erupted in the Miocene (South Akbaital Formation in the USSR, 73). A regular change of the colour spectrum of rocks is observed throughout the section. The Miocene rocks are usually dark and carrot-red to crimson, those of Pliocene age are brown, greenish and grey. This reflects, to some extent, climatic conditions: the climate in Miocene time was probably hot and stable, while that of Pliocene was cooler and more contrasting. In the Neogene, the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region was transformed into a territory characterized by nappe-imbricate structures. It was in the Neogene that large-scale horizontal and vertical displacements occurred giving rise to nappes and to zones of imbricate structures. Moreover, all the major faults acquired a present-day outlines. Quaternary Period During this time the region continued to undergo intensive uplifting, becoming more and more contrasting mountain country and acquired the present-day topographic features. River terraces at various levels owe 415

their origin to temporal stabilizations of the tectonic activity. At the beginning and probably in the middle of the period the region was partially subjected to glaciation.

South Afghanistan Region

The region includes the Hazarajat Mountains, Ghazni-Kandahar Uplands, South Afghanistan Plain and South Afghanistan Mountains which bound the region on the south (Chagai Range). This is the largest region lying almost entirely within the limits of Afghanistan. The region occupies about 300,000 sq. km., though initially its size was much greater. Significant parts of the region were cut along its border with the neighbouring regions by the most recent strike-slip faults. These first-order structures can be recognized in the region: Farah Rod and Dari Rod troughs and Helmand-Argandab Uplift. The Seistan Basin was formed there in the recent time. Two cycles can be distinguished in the geological history of the region, the geosynclinal and epigeosynclinal. The first cycle covers the period from the earliest Precambrian through Cretaceous, the second from Paleogene through Quaternary.

Geosynclinal Cycle During its development, the South Afghanistan Region underwent several geosynclinal cycles operating in Precambrian and Paleozoic-Mesozoic times. None of them was completed, except the last, Late Cimmerian cycle, which in the Late Cretaceous ended a geosynclinal stage of the region transforming it into a fold belt. Middle Proterozoic Period The most ancient rocks underlying South Afghanistan are Middle Proterozoic gneisses, schists, quartzites, marbles and metavolcanics metamorphosed to lower grades of amphibolite and greenschist facies and characterized by different mineralogical composition. They outcrop on the Helmand-Argandab Uplift and in Dari Rod Trough. Within the Helmand-Argandab Uplift they compose the Bashlang and Varas fault blocks (Kunak Series, 5,350-7,500 m. thick, and a number of exposures in the Kandahar and Argandab zones (Nowabad Series, 2,000-5,500 m. thick). In the Dari Rod Trough, they constitute two minor imbricate structures traceable in the Tarnak Zone. All the outcrops of the metamorphic sequence show a predominance of pararocks derived from initially terrigenous and carbonate rocks of marine origin. The metavolcanics are of basic composition. Subvolcanic facies of these rocks also occur (Chekanak Complex). They were formed in the so-called nonlinear pangeosynclinal basins. At the end of the Middle Proterozoic, the sequences thus formed were deformed by Late Karelian movements into relatively simple large shallow dome-like folds. They were subsequently metamorphosed and partially remelted giving rise to granitoid rocks (Varas Complex). Late Proterozoic Period This period is most profound in the geological history of the South Afghanistan Region. It consisted of the early and late subperiods. The early subperiod saw the formation of a dark-coloured fine-terrigenous sandy-shalesiltstone sequence containing minor quantities of acid-to-intermediate volcanics, limestones and dolomites. The thickness of the sequence is 5,600-7,000 m. Its present-day exposures are known only from the HelmandArgandab Uplift (Barmanay Series in the Helmand Zone, and Chaman Series in the Argandab Zone). It is assumed that the sequence was accumulated in a weakly differentiated linear, relatively deep marine basin which might be connected with a contemporary basin of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region. This is evidenced in particular by a completely similar composition and outward appearance of the stratified units encountered in these basins. In the middle of Late Proterozoic time these sequences were deformed into linear holomorphic folds, regionally metamorphosed to the phyllite and lower grades of greenschist facies, and intruded by minor massifs of gabbro-plagiogranite rocks (Tamazan Complex). 416

In the late subperiod the territory of the region was first peneplanated and then accumulated a red-green volcano-terrigenous molasse sequence containing small quantities of dolomites (Pushte Sabz Series, 420 m. thick). The sequence was formed in a shallow marine (or continental?) basin characterized by abnormal salinity. The volcanics are of the basaltoid composition. Their share in the sequence is insignificant. At the recent erosion level the sequence is observed only in a single exposure in the Farah Rod Trough (Anordara Zone, Pushte Sabz Range). Initially however, it is believed to have been ubiquitous all over the SouthAfghanistan Region. At the end of Late Proterozoic the sequence was dislocated and intruded by minor subvolcanic graniteporphyry bodies (Kuh-e Kalateh Complex). By its stratigraphic position, composition and appearance, the sequence under review is correlatable with the units of the Central Badakhshan (Afghanistan-South Pamir Region). Vendian-Jurassic Period By the end of the previous period, the entire territory of South Afghanistan must have been a peneplain. Some time before Vendian this peneplain was broken and the territory started to develop in a sharply contrast manner. Three independent structural units, presently named as the Helmand-Argandab Uplift and Farah Rod and Dari Rod troughs, became prominent. Helmand-Argandab Uplift This structural unit is recognized in the central part of the region. From Vendian to Jurassic inclusive several formations of terrigenous and carbonate rocks were accumulated within the territory occupied now by the uplift, under conditions of a shallow, but rather contrasting and differentiated marine basin. The sea however, did not always cover the whole territory of the uplift. In Vendian-Cambrian time the sea gained access to the south-eastern part of the territory (Argandab and, probably, Kandahar zones). Consequently, an essentially carbonate sequence (400-870 m. thick) was formed. In Ordovician, the marine transgression expanded and the sea found its way into the Logar Zone resulting in accumulation of a dark-coloured fineterrigenous sequence, 750-1,470 m. thick. In Silurian, Early and Middle Devonian time, the sea remained evidently within the same limits and gave rise again to an essentially fine-terrigenous sequence comprising small amounts of limestones which were represented in Devonian by reef facies. The thickness of the deposits varies from 1,345 to 1,645 m. in the Argandab Zone and from 1,170 to 2,990 m. in the Logar Zone. Late Devonian time saw another expansion of the marine transgression which reached already the Tirin Zone and gave rise to a sequence of quartz sands with small amounts of limestones and dolomites. The thickness of the sequence in the Argandab Zone totals 100-800 m, in the Logar Zone, 210-530 m, and in the Tirin Zones 150-225 m. The Early Carboniferous is notable for accumulation of essentially carbonate sediments (35 m), while in the Middle and Late Carboniferous only terrigenous sediments with a great quantity of quartz sands were accumulated to form a sequence from 500 to 850 m. thick. A further expansion of the marine transgression took place in the Early Permian involving already the Helmand Zone. The only uplifts which remained at the time were the Bashlang and Waras fault blocks. It is these blocks that served as a source of terrigenous material. In Late Permian, even these small "islands" of land began to submerge, at least partially, under the sea level. During the later period, extending into the Late Jurassic (up to Kimmeridgian?),a carbonate sequence, 1,145 to 3,937 m. thick, was accumulated almost over an entire territory of the Helmand-Argandab Uplift. Twice in the course of the discussed period, at the Middle of Permian and at the end of Jurassic, the conditions in the Argandab Zone were favourable for the formation of weathering crust, bauxites and bauxite-like rocks (Chorqala and Abatu-Shela areas). An essentially carbonate composition of the deposits, abundance of quartz sands in the sequence, numerous local and regional unconformities, as well as the presence of bauxites and bauxite-like rocks favour an assumption that the given territory developed, starting from the Vendian through Jurassic, as a relative uplift or stable massif (152).

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Farah Rod Trough This structural unit occupies the north-western part of South Afghanistan. It developed under the conditions opposite to those of the Helmand-Argandab Uplift. No information is available on the Precarboniferous history. Even if any sediments were accumulated within this trough, they were buried under cover of younger deposits during subsequent periods. In Carboniferous-Early Permian time, a thick (up to 5,000 m) dark-coloured sequence of fine-terrigenous rocks (sandstones, shales and siltstones) was accumulated within this trough under the conditions of a deep weakly differentiated marine basin, probably characterized by a stagnant water regime. The lower contact of the sequence is uncertain. By the general appearance, material composition and the character of the section, the sequence resembles the coeval units from Middle Afghanistan and South-East Pamir (Syah Koh Series in Afghanistan, and Bazardarin Series in the USSR). In Late Permian-Carnian, and probably, in Norian times, a variegated coarse- to fine-terrigenous sequence with great amounts of limestones, including reef limestones, as well as cherts and intermediate - to basic volcanics (Darwaza and Menedum series, up to 2,000-2,500 m. thick) was formed in the Farah Rod Trough, at least along its south-eastern periphery (Huspas Rod Zone). The contact of the sequence with the previous unit is obscure. It was accumulated in a relatively shallow, sharply differentiated and contrasting marine basin. Some of the exposed massifs of ultrabasic rocks assigned tentatively to the Early Cretaceous might have been emplaced during the period under discussion. In Norian-Rhaetian and Liassic times, the sea became deeper and less contrasting. A dark-coloured sequence of sandstones, shales and siltstones was formed (Karajangal Series, 2000 m. thick), whose contact with the previous sequence is obscure. In Middle and Late Jurassic times, under the conditions of temporary stabilization of tectonic life, a thin (150-230 m) carbonate sequence (Shonakay Series) was accumulated in a shallow weakly differentiated marine basin. Its lower contact with the previous sequence is conformable while the upper one is uncertain. An essentially fine-terrigenous composition of these sequences, their great thicknesses, as well as the presence of volcanics and cherts favour an assumption that the territory concerned was developing in the Carboniferous-Jurassic as a relatively subsided area characterized by eugeosynclinal regime. Dari Rod Trough It occupies the south-eastern part of the South-Afghanistan Region. The regime of its development during the Vendian-Jurassic is obscure. No rocks of this age have been so far encountered there. It is not excluded that during the Vendian-Jurassic the territory occupied presently by the trough was a dry land. Tithonian-Hauterivian Period By the end of Kimmeridgian an accumulation of the carbonate deposits within the South Afghanistan Region ceased, and the tectonic life became more active thus giving rise to cracks and zones of high permeability into which the subcrustal material gained access in the form of basic and ultrabasic magmas. The marine basin turned into a strongly differentiated contrasting structure which was being intensely filled with terrigenous material. Against the background of these general processes, each of the three largest structures of the region continued to develop in its own way. Helmand-Argandab Uplift The major part of the uplift existed during the Tithonian-Hauterivian as a stable geoanticlinal structure within which a thin (600 m) red- to variegated fine-terrigenous molasse (Garmaw Series) was formed in a shallow residual marine basin. Provided the age of the volcano-terrigenous Kankala Series (1,000 m. thick) has been accurately determined, it was formed at the same time as the sequence described above. The conditions under which it was formed are obscure. An abundance of black fine-terrigenous shales in the sequence suggests that it was accumulated in a deep-water depression, and the presence of intermediate - to basic volcanics in its section is indicative of a high permeability of this depression for magmatic melts. The depression may have been a rift. The formation of the Kankala Series consisting of sedimentary-volcanic rooks was followed 418

immediately by the emplacement of intrusions of ultrabasic rocks (the Tugay Complex), and later by gabbroplagiogranite intrusions of the Hojan Complex. It remains uncertain whether the depression was unique in its history during the time predating accumulation of the Kankala Series. It is evident, however, that following the accumulation of the series the depression acquired features of an independent structure-formation zone (Kandahar Zone) and began to play an essential role in the development of the region. It is this zone that became later "a seat" for the Major Argandab Batholith. Farah Rod Trough Like in the previous period, this structure in Tithonian- Hauterivian time was intensely subsiding giving rise to the main geosynclinal complex. The complex is not uniform. In the inner zones (Farsi, Harut Rod, Anordara and Syah Deh) it is represented by a fine-terrigenous flyschoid sandy-shale-siltstone sequence containing small amounts of limestones and marls totalling 9,000 meters in thickness. In the marginal zones (Zuri, Khash Rod and Huspas Rod) the Tithonian-Hauterivian sequence consists, apart from fine-terrigenous deposits, of volcanic rocks with associated cherts. In the Zuri Zone the volcanics are acid and intermediate, while those in the Khash Rod and Huspas Rod zones are intermediate and basic. The thickness of the sequence varies from 3,000 to 8,000 m. The volcanics are associated closely with intrusive bodies of subvolcanic rocks (Karabah Complex) and with the derivatives of ultrabasic magma (Mulloyakub Complex). The sequence of the inner zones corresponds to formations of the miogeosynclinal type, and that of the marginal zones to formations of the eugeosynclinal type. Dari Rod Trough Since no Tighonian-Hauterivian deposits have been identified within this structural unit, its geological history remains uncertain. Barremian-Aptian Period By the beginning of this period the tectonic activity in the South Afghanistan Region had become much less intensive, the supply of the terrigenous material decreased, volcanism exhausted. The paleogeographic environment, however, was not generally uniform, and the Helmand-Argandab Uplift, the Farah Rod and Dari Rod troughs continued, as previously, their independent development. Helmand-Argandab Uplift By the end of the previous period the entire territory of the uplift must have become a land, and remained a dry land for a greater period of Barremian-Aptian time. Sedimentation persisted in its south-eastern part exclusively where in a shallow contrasting marine basin a coarse-to fine-terrigenous sequence accumulated, comprising a small volume of carbonate rocks (Gulakhel and Anogay formations). The sequence is 350-800 m. thick. It lies unconformably on all the older rocks. The detrital material is autochthonous derived from local uplifts. Farah Rod Trough Unlike the Helmand-Argandab Uplift, this trough continued to develop in Barremian-Aptian time as a negative structure. An essentially carbonate sequence represented by facies of Urgon limestones was accumulated in a shallow marine basin. The sequence is largely carbonate and partly even reefal in the inner segments of the basin (Anordara Zone), and mixed carbonate-terrigenous in its marginal parts. The thickness varies from 1,000 to 2,000 m. Almost everywhere it lies conformably on the underlying TithonianHauterivian deposits, except the marginal zones where it locally occurs on the older units either disconformably or even unconformably seemingly due to the presence in the sedimentary basin of synsedimentary uplifts. Dari Rod Trough The Pre-Barremian geological history of the trough is uncertain, since no deposits of this age have been found there. Though the Barremian-Aptian sequence has been studied inadequately, we may use the available data on its composition and structure in interpreting the history of the trough starting from the Barremian. The sequence consists of carbonate-terrigenous deposits. These are also acid-to-intermediate 419

volcanics. All the deposits are of the marine origin being accumulated in a shallow sharply contrasting basin with relatively uplifted and subsided areas. Carbonate, volcanic and coarse-terrigenous rocks were accumulated within the uplifted areas while cherts and fine-terrigenous rocks were deposited in the subsided areas. The thickness of the sequence varies from 1,300 to 1,800 m. Late Aptian-Albian Period This was a final period of essentially marine sedimentation in the region. Each of its constituent structures continued to develop individually. Helmand-Argandab Uplift In Late Aptian-Albian time the major portion of the uplift was dry land and only its extreme north-western part (Bashlang and Waras blocks) was submerged. The sea advanced here from the territory of the Farah Rod Trough. In conditions of a shallow littoral zone first terrigenous and later carbonate sequences were formed totalling 900 m. in thickness. They show a sharp unconformity with the underlying Middle Proterozoic metamorphics. Farah Rod Trough At the end of the previous period this trough underwent uplifting probably as a result of epeirogenic movements and became a peneplain and then again, after a short time, was covered by sea. The sea was much like that which existed before: it was shallow, weakly differentiated, but not contrasting. An essentially carbonate sequence (Panj Angusht Series and others) was accumulated in the inner zones again, and a carbonate-terrigenous sequence, 140 to 500 m. thick, (Shahobuddin, Kayan and other series) was formed in the marginal areas. In its lower part red fine-terrigenous deposits are common. They form base of the transgressive series. The red-coloured part of the section includes thin beds of basaltoids in the Anordara Zone and in some areas of the Khash Rod Zone (Pushte Rugh River drainage basin). The sequence lies on the eroded surface of the Barremian-Aptian unit, though without angular unconformities; where the Barremian-Aptian beds are missing, the sequence is strongly unconformable on the older units. Dari Rod Trough Within this area, the Barremian-Aptian period changed, without a break in sedimentation, into the Albian period. A sequence of variegated acid- to intermediate volcanics interbedded with limestones bearing Albian fauna was formed in a shallow marine basin under the conditions of a relative uplifting. The thickness of the sequence varies from 2,830 to 3,330 m. Provided the age of the volcanics has been determined correctly, they are correlatable with the coeval Late Aptian-Albian basaltoids of the Anordara and Pushte-Rugh areas of the Farah Rod Trough. Late Cretaceous Period Some time at the beginning of the Cretaceous, first movements of the Late Cimmerian phase of folding occurred. The entire territory underwent uplifting and dislocation which caused the sea to retreat from most of the region. The basins still preserved were of a small size and isolated from each other showing abnormal salinity. The uplift thus formed was subjected to intensive erosion becoming a source of detrital material for these basins. A red-coloured fine-terrigenous molasse, 700 m. thick, (Pushte Rugh Series) was accumulated. It lies on the eroded surface of the Albian limestones, yet without any angular unconformities. At the middle or end of the Late Cretaceous a major phase of the Late Cimmerian folding took place. Marine sedimentation stopped completely in the region which was converted into a rigid fold belt. This phase of folding must have been associated with emplacement of small massifs of gabbro-monzonite-syenite rocks (Zarkashan and Surhabad complexes). The intrusions occur within the Helmand-Argandab Uplift which appears to be the youngest and most rigid structure of the region. Phases of Folding Since the Middle Proterozoic period of the geological history of the region has been poorly interpreted and studied as yet, individual phases of folding of that time cannot be distinguished and proved. We can be sure 420

of manifestations of Late Karelian movements in general which gave rise to the Middle Proterozoic structures. The knowledge on the Baikalian movements is more abundant suggesting more or less reliably the existence of one intra-Baikalian and one Late Baikalian phases of folding. The first phase saw the end of the formation of the lower part of Upper Proterozoic sequence which was subsequently dislocated; the second stage terminated the accumulation of the upper part of Upper Proterozoic sequence which was later folded. The two phases were accompanied by emplacement of small massifs of intrusive rocks. Caledonian, Hercynian or Early Kimmerian phases of folding have not been manifested within the South Afghanistan Region. Erosion surfaces and gaps in sedimentation traceable in the sequence can be attributed to synsedimentary movements not accompanied by folding. These are commonly associated either with expansion of the transgression, or with differentiation of the basin and growth of relative uplifts. The first distinct unconformity observed in sections of the Helmand-Argandab Uplift is generally coincident with the contact between Hauterivian and Barremian units. These are indications of the Austrian phase of folding, which is responsible both for dislocation of the stratified units and for their removal from the zone of sedimentation. The period was also characterized by emplacement of ultrabasic and gabbro-plagiogranite intrusions. The next phase of folding took place during the Late Aptian, when the entire territory of the HelmandArgandab Uplift was removed from the zone of active sedimentation, while the Farah Rod Trough became a temporary land. But the major phase of folding in the South Afghanistan was certainly the Late Cimmerian which can be subdivided into two subphases, one taking place at the boundary between the Early and Late Cretaceous, and the other in the middle of the Cretaceous. Particularly these movements are responsible for the main structural pattern of the region, and turned it into a rigid fold belt. The completion of the development of the region was marked by emplacement of small massifs of gabbro-monzonite-syenite rocks in the period between the Cretaceous and Paleogene.

Epigeosynclinal Cycle post-Cretaceous history of the region saw its transformation into an epigeosynclinal fold belt. Eocene-Oligocene Period At the very end of the Late Cretaceous and in Paleocene, the South Afghanistan Region must have been a weakly differentiated peneplanated uplift. The Ecoene-Oligocene period was characterized by a marked increase of tectono-magmatic activity in the region which might be associated with global processes operating in all the internal regions of the Mediterranean Fold Belt as a whole. The peneplain was broken into a system of shallow vast depressions and uplifts separating them. At the beginning of this period, a terrestrial-volcanogenic porphyry ("subsequent" - according to G.A. Shtille) sequence of acid- to intermediate volcanics metamorphosed to the redstone facies (Shindand Series in the Farah Rod Trough, and Tangay Series in the Helmand-Argandab Uplift) was formed within the depressions. This sequence, 470 to 1,922 meters thick, rests with a sharp unconformity on all the older units and is overlain disconformably, yet with no angular unconformity, by a sandstone-conglomerate unit that contains insignificant amounts of intermediate-to-basic volcanics and totals 500 to 4,000 m. in thickness (Taywara Series in the Farah Rod Trough, and Rajaw Series in the Helmand-Argandab Uplift). Locally the sandstone-conglomerate unit exhibits a conformable relationship with the underlying sequence. The lower volcanic unit encloses bodies of subvolcanic rocks whose composition is the same as that of the country volcanics (Mir Ali Complex). Most of the granitoid rock bodies encountered in the South Afghanistan Region were emplaced at the end of' the period. The largest intrusive massifs are restricted to positive structures, i.e., to the Helmand-Argandab Uplift, particularly, to its anticlinal features and to exposures of the most ancient stratified rock units.

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Neogene Period In the Neogene, the South Afghanistan Region was subjected to intensive contrasting uplifting. A mountainous country was created with piedmont and intermontane depressions and basins of which the largest in the region is the Seystan Depression. It served as a general base level of erosion for the entire region. The rising mountains were intensely eroded and all the detrital material was transported into the depressions. As a result, a molasse was accumulated which is red and coarse-terrigenous in its lower part and green, fine-to coarse-terrigenous in its lower part. All this was a direct consequence of both the tectonic and climatic factors discussed above. The major horizontal displacements in the region occured in the Neogene and resulted in the present-day structural pattern of the region. Quaternary Period Intensive uplifting of the region continues during Quaternary time turning it into an ever-contrasting mountain system which gradually acquired the present-day topographical features. Several levels of river terraces were formed in the course of temporary stabilization of the tectonic activity. High up in the mountains, the negative annual temperatures led to accumulation of snow patches and glaciers, while down in the plains dry hot climate gave rise to barchan sands.

Afghanistan-East Iran Region

The great part of the region lies in the Iran territory. The Afghan part of the region is occupied by the West Afghanistan Mountains bordering Iran on the east and covering an area of 10,000 sq.km. In geological literature this area is known as the East-Iran Late Cretaceous Depression. This is a typical superimposed structure of a nearly north-southern trend which is sharply discordant relatively to the general WE strike of the Mediterranean Fold Belt. Two cycles can be recognized in the geological history of the region: geosynclinal and epigeosynclinal. The first covers the period from Triassic (no older rocks have been exposed) through Late Cretaceous, the second from Paleogene through Quaternary.

Geosynclinal Cycle For the known period of its history, the Afghanistan-East Iran Region has undergone three geosynclinal cycles: Middle Cimmerian, Late Cimmerian and Early Alpine. The first two have not been complete, and only the third cycle, ascribed to the end of the Cretaceous - beginning of the Paleogene, was notable for the phase of folding that put an end to the geosynclinal evolution of the region. Triassic Period The known part of the section of the region starts with Triassic limestones and dolomites whose total thickness is about 1,000 m. These rocks were accumulated in a shallow weakly differentiated marine basin characterized by a relatively high salinity. The latter assumption is cased upon the predominance of dolomites in the section. Early - Middle Jurassic Period By the beginning of this period the tectonic activity of the region intensified. The marine basin started to subside rapidly being infilled with detrital material. A dark-coloured fine-terrigenous sequence of sandstones, shales and siltstones (Kishmaran Series, 3,000 meters thick) was formed in a relatively deep weakly differentiated basin. Its relations with Triassic beds still remain uncertain. At the end of the period a sequence of acid- to intermediate volcanics, 300 m. thick, was accumulated under the conditions of relative uplifting (Gish Series). The sequence rests on the eroded surface of the previous unit.

422

Late Jurassic Period After the vigorous volcanic activity at the end of the previous period the tectonic life of the region stabilized. A carbonate sequence (Dushah Series), 250 m. thick, was formed in a shallow, weakly differentiated marine basin notable for normal salinity. The sequence is disconformable on the underlying volcanics. At the end of the Late Jurassic-beginning of the Cretaceous there occurred the Middle Cimmerian phase of folding. The region underwent uplifting, folding and probably was intruded by massifs of granitoid rocks (Kal-e-Yarak Complex). Early Cretaceous Period The previous period ended with uplifting and peneplanation of the region's territory. The knowledge of the Early Cretaceous period is not sufficient. This period may have seen a break in sedimentation. The Shahobuddin Series occurring in the area adjacent to the South-Afghanistan Region probably belongs to the marginal facies of the region. It is represented almost entirely (1,100 m) by red (continental?) fine- to coarseterrigenous deposits with small amounts of intermediate-to-basic volcanics. Only the uppermost 50 meters of the section consist of undoubtedly marine terrigenous-carbonate deposits that contain abundant and various marine fauna similar to that encountered in South Afghanistan. As a whole, the series is of a molasse-type appearance. It was formed in a basin to which the sea gained access only in the Late Aptian-Albian. Late Cretaceous Period At the end of the Early, or at the beginning of Late Cretaceous, the Late Cimmerian movements, which intensely manifested themselves in South Afghanistan, caused the uplifting of the regions and regression of the sea. The Afghanistan-East Iran Region merged for some time with South Afghanistan to form a common uplift. A peneplain was formed over extensive areas. This paleogeographic environment persisted into the Santonian. Between the Santonian and Campanian a superimposed trough of the geosynclinal type was initiated between the South-Afghanistan Folded Region on the east and the Lut Fault Block (Iran) on the west. Unlike all the traditionally east-west-trending troughs of the Mediterranean Belt, the above trough was nearly north-south-trending. Its folded basement consisted chiefly of Middle Cimmerian and weakly pronounced Late Cimmerian structures of the previous geosynclinal cycles. In the Early Campanian, under the conditions of a shallow, slowly subsiding, weakly differentiated marine basin, there was formed a thin (157-552 m) carbonate sequence (Nayak and Rustami series) containing small amounts of intermediate and basic volcanics. The sequence includes basal conglomerates. It is strongly uconformable on all the older rock units. The Late Campanian saw a revival of tectonic life. The sea floor began to subside intensely and fine-to coarse-terrigenous material with little carbonate and volcanic rocks accumulated. A group of flyschoid and volcanic units (Piresabz, Karro and Shirinak series) were formed in the environments of shallow, but constantly subsiding and contrasting marine basin. Some parts of their section resemble a "wild flysch". The total thickness of the sequences amounts to 3,020-4,350 meters. They rest disconformably, yet without an angular unconformity on the Lower Campanian limestones. At the end of the Maestrichtian, or in Paleocene, phases of folding of the Early Alpine tectonic cycle took place. The region underwent inversion and was removed from the zone of geosynclinal sedimentation. It was intensely folded to form a fold belt. Phases of Folding The Pre-Triassic geological history of the region is not clear. First apparent erosion surfaces and breaks in sedimentation occur at the upper part of the Middle Jurassic (below and above the Gish Series). These are the result of epeirogenic synsedimentary movements of growing uplifts rather than the consequence of the phases of folding. The first significant unconformity which originated during a phase of folding is traceable in the upper part of the Upper Jurassic or at the contact between the Jurassic and Cretaceous. It must be the earlier phase of the Middle Cimmerian folding which resulted in dislocations of sequences, metamorphism and emplacement of intrusions (Kal-e-Yarak Complex). 423

Another unconformity traceable between the Albian and Campanian beds is believed to be the result of the Late Cimmerian movements in the South-Afghanistan Region. These movements, however, did not play a significant role within the limits of the Afghanistan-East Iran Region. The principal phases of folding occurred in the region at the end of Cretaceous - beginning of the Paleogene. As a result of these Early Alpine movements the geosynclinal development of the Afghanistan-East Iran Region was completed and the territory became a rigid fold belt.

Epigeosynclinal Cycle During the post-Cretaceous period the Afghanistan-East Iran Region was transformed first into a quasicraton and subsequently into an orogene. Paleocene Period No Paleocene rocks are known from the Afghan part of the region, but in the adjacent areas of East Iran these are represented, according to J. Stocklin and others (1973), by a thick sequence of essentially carbonate marine deposits occurring strongly unconformably on the Maestrichtian and older rock units. If this is the case, in Paleocene time the region developed as a quasicraton. The Paleocene was a period of temporary stabilization of the tectonic activity that followed after the Early Alpine orogeny. Eocene-Oligocene Period If the intermediate-to-basic volcanics widespread in the north-eastern part of the region (Kishmaran Uplift) are of Ecoene-Oligocene age, as is shown on the geological map (140), their accumulation should be considered coincident with the beginning of the formation of orogenic sequences. The volcanics, 500 to 800 m. thick, were formed in extensive gentle and shallow volcano-tectonic basins of the continental type. Their relations with older rock units are obscure. They are crumpled conformably with Lower Campanian limestones. The problem demands further studies. Miocene Period The previous period is believed to have resulted in peneplanation of the region. In the Miocene, however, the tectonic life became active again. The territory of the region started its slow, yet persistent uplifting. Against the background of general uplifting some areas of the region behave as zones of relative subsidence where all detrital material was "discharged". This gave rise to a red continental molasse whose thickness varies from 100 to 500 m. It overlies unconformably all the older rocks. This period was also notable for the emplacement of stockworks and dykes of granodiorite-porphyries, diorite and gabbro-diabase porphyries. Pliocene Period A contrast of movements markedly increases in the Pliocene. The relief was acquiring more pronounced features of a mountainous terrain. Ranges and troughs became distinct. The destroyed ranges provided detrital material which was transported to intermontane and piedmont depressions where two sequences were accumulated. The lower one, 300-1,000 m. thick, consists of coarse sandy-conglomerate variegated-to-green varieties containing gypsum, and the upper, 100-300 m. thick, is composed of less coarse sandy-clay green deposits. The latter sequence attests to a certain stabilization of the tectonic regime of the region. Quaternary Period In Quaternary period the region continued its uplifting and transformation into a mountainous country acquiring the present-day topographical features. Several river terraces were formed in the course of temporary stabilization of the tectonic movements. In Middle Quaternary period a group of volcanoes erupted basalt-andesite lavas thus giving rise to the Asparan Series, 20-80 m. thick.

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Suleiman-Kirthar Region
Most of the region is situated beyond Afghanistan. The Afghan part consists of mountain systems of SouthEast Afghanistan, including the Kabulistan, Spin Ghar, and Altimur ranges, and occupies an area of 55,000 sq.km. With its present-day outlines and parameters the region was separated in the Neogene-Quaternary. During Preneogene time, the territory of the region was more extensive and its relations with adjacent areas were different. To recreate reliably these relations is now impossible. The geological history of the region falls into two cycles, geosynclinal and epigeosynclinal. The first cycle covers the period from the earliest Precambrian through Paleogene, the second one from Neogene through Quaternary.

Geosynclinal Cycle The Suleiman-Kirthar Region underwent, in the course of its geological history, several geosynclinal cycles of the Precambrian, Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic ages. None of them was complete except the last one, the Middle Alpine cycle, which at the end of Paleogene completed the geosynclinal stage of the region's development and transformed it into a fold belt. Early Proterozoic Period The oldest rocks in the Afghan part of the Suleiman-Kirthar Region are Lower Proterozoic gneisses, schists, quartzites, marbles, amphibolites and metavolcanics representing a high grade of metamorphic amphibolite facies and exhibiting different mineralogical composition (Kabul and Spin Ghar series). Their thickness varies from 4,600 to 8,000 m. The predominant rock types are pararocks derived from initially terrigenous and carbonate rocks of marine origin. The metavolcanics are of basic composition. There are subvolcanics facies of these rocks in the region (Safed Koh Complex). The rocks were formed in the so-called non-linear pangeosynclinal basins. The Early Karelian orogeny operating at the end of the Early Proterozoic deformed these sequences into simple large shallow dome-like folds, metamorphosed and partly remelted the rocks thus giving rise to granitoid varieties (Spin Ghar Complex). In the present-day structural pattern of the region these Early Proterozoic metamorphics compose the basement of the oldest structures of the region - the Spin Ghar Fault Block and Kabul Stable Mass. Late Proterozoic Period The early periods of the Late Proterozoic on the territory of the region remain to be obscure. No rocks of this age have been identified there. At the end of Late Proterozoic, probably in Vendian, the region was subject to subsiding, and under the conditions of a shallow, weakly differentiated marine basin,a sequence of terrigenous-carbonate rocks (Loy Khwar Series), 737 m. thick, was accumulated. It overlies unconformably the Lower Proterozoic rock units. Organic remains are abundant but poorly preserved, and belong to different periods though most of them are Late Proterozoic. Early-Middle Paleozoic Period No rocks of the Early-Middle Paleozoic age have been found within the Afghan part of the Suleiman-Kirthar Region. Therefore, the history of its development during this time remains obscure. Carboniferous-Triassic Period During this period various territories of the region developed in its own way. Most representative in this respect were two first-order structural units, namely, the Kabul Stable Mass and Katawaz Trough with the Host-Matun Uplift.

Kabul Stable Mass At the beginning of the period, from Carboniferous throughout Permian time, a dark-coloured fineterrigenous sequence with minor amounts of intermediate-to-acid volcanics and carbonate rocks, totalling 5,300-5,500 m. in thickness, (Chinozar Series and other units) was accumulated in the environments of a 425

relatively deep and, probably, rather differentiated marine basin. Its relations with older formations remain uncertain. Organic remains are scant and poorly preserved. Determination of the age of the sequence demands further studies. At the end of Early Permian period the tectonic regime of the mass stabilized. Beginning with the Late Permian up to Norian inclusively, the mass represented a relative uplift and accumulated a carbonate sequence, 900 to 1,450 m. thick, with quartz sand beds at the base (Chingil Series). A revival of the tectonic life of the Kabul Mass is attributed to the Late Norian-Rhaetian. The mass submerged under the water and in the conditions of a sharply differentiated marine basin, notable for a contrasting paleogeographic environment, a thick (2,500-2800 m) terrigenous-volcanic sequence was accumulated during a comparatively short period (Kataghai Series). The terrigenous part of the sequence is composed of dark shales, and the volcanic portion of intermediate-to-basic volcanics. The beds and lenses of carbonate rocks are scarce. The sequence lies conformably on the Chingil Series. Katawaz Trough and Host-Matun Uplift The Carboniferous-Triassic sequence within this territory has been poorly studied. The data available suggest that in the Permian-Triassic a terrigenous-carbonate sequence was formed totalling 4,100-4,600 m. in thickness. All the deposits are of marine origin. The Carboniferous history of these areas is unknown. The assumed Carboniferous age of the basic volcanics occurring in these areas has not been proved, and is highly doubtful. Jurassic-Cretaceous Period Kabul Stable Mass No reliably defined rocks of Jurassic and Cretaceous ages have been mapped on the territory of the Kabul Stable Mass. The data available on the Jurassic and Cretaceous age of the upper parts of the Chingil and Kataghai series (117, 287) is questionable in view of the new evidence. The problem is disputable and necessitates further studies. Katawaz Trough and Host-Matun Uplift The Jurassic history of these areas is known to a certain extent. In a relatively deep, weakly differentiated, probably stagnant, marine basin an essentially terrigenous sequence was accumulated totalling 1,000-1,500 m. in thickness (Tani and Lohazor beds). It rests on the Triassic beds showing in many localities a seemingly conformable contact, elsewhere traces of erosion are observed. The Cretaceous history of the Katawaz Trough and Host-Matun Uplift remains poorly interpreted. With some degree of certainty we may assign the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous age to the Rockiyan and Horram beds totalling 1,500-2,000 m. in thickness and composed of marine carbonate-terrigenous rocks. Rare fossils suggest that these areas were covered by sea throughout the entire Cretaceous period. Moreover, all of these fauna findings were collected in limestone outcrops. We may assume, therefore, that during the entire Cretaceous time the Katawaz Trough and Host-Matun Uplift were covered by sea which accumulated a carbonate sequence whose thickness is unknown since the section has not been studied. The Cretaceous age was also assigned earlier to the basic volcanics exposed in the northern part of the Katawaz Trough and Host-Matun Uplift. At present, however, the volcanics are tentatively considered to be of Carboniferous age (140). The problem awaits further studies. Paleogene Period This is a final and major geosynclinal period in the geological history of the Suleiman-Kirthar Region. In a shallow, yet intensively subsiding marine basin a thick (5,900-8,500 m) sequence was accumulated. It is dark-coloured at the lower part, variegated, essentially fine-terrigenous in the upper part, and flyschoid in some beds. Locally its lower part includes intermediate - to basic volcanics and the middle part reefal limestones. The sequence starts with basal conglomerates and lies unconformably on older rocks. The recent exposures of the sequence are traceable within the Katawaz Trough only. It is not known whether this sequence extended to the territory of the Kabul Stable Mass. Within the Host-Matun Uplift, the initial thickness of this sequence was apparently the same as in the above area.

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The Middle Alpine phases of folding which took place at the end of Paleogene caused uplifting of the territory of the present-day Suleiman-Kirthar Region, deformed and transformed it into a rigid fold belt. The first movements of the Middle Alpine folding may have occurred as far back as in the Eocene. Emplacement of ultrabasic intrusions of the Matun Complex was associated with these movements. Phases of Folding Since the Precambrian period of the geological evolution of the region has been so far poorly interpreted, individual phases of folding assigned to that time cannot be reliably distinguished and proved. We may be more or less sure of the general Early Karelian movements only, which are believed to be responsible for the formation of the Early Proterozoic structures. The Late Karelian and Early Baikalian movements within the region have not been reliably confirmed. Late Baikalian movements responsible for uplifting of the region, its removal from the zone of sedimentation, deformation and metamorphic alteration of the deposits are most distinct. Another unconformity in the section of the region is traceable in the Kabul Stable Mass, at the contact between the Lower and Upper Permian units. It was not, however, caused by the phase of folding, rather is the result of synsedimentary uplifting of the Kabul Stable Mass. An apparent unconformity produced by a phase of folding is attributed to Cretaceous period. This unconformity has resulted from either Late Cimmerian or Early Alpine movements. The major phase of folding however, which terminated a geosynclinal stage of the region's development is attributed to the end of Paleogene. This phase of folding ceased marine sedimentation in the region having transformed it into a rigid fold belt.

Epigeosynclinal Cycle During post-Paleogene time the Suleiman-Kirthar Region continued to develop as an orogenic belt. Neogene Period After the intensive Middle Alpine movements, the Suleiman-Kirthar Region underwent a short-time stabilization resulting in formation of a peneplain. But already at the onset of the Miocene, the Suleiman-Kirthar Region was subject to intensive uplifting (following the general global uplifting of the entire Mediterranean Fold Belt). There appeared individual ranges piedmont and intermontane basins, the latter being the place to where all the detrital material from the eroding ranges was transported and deposited. As a result, there was accumulated a typical fineto coarse-terrigenous molasse, variegated at the lower part and green at the upper part. Its maximum thickness is 200-800 m. The sequence shows a sharply unconformable contact with the underlying older rocks. Some of the basins were of the lake type. These lakes accumulated, at a number of stratigraphic levels, fresh-water limestones and marls which contain numerous, yet uniform continental fauna. At the beginning of the period, probably in the course of the most intensive corrugation of the epi-Paleogene peneplain there occurred emplacement of compositionally variable subvolcanic and dyke bodies of the Lularud and Dobandi complexes. Quaternary Period During Quaternary time the Suleiman-Kirthar Region continued its intensive uplifting progressively becoming a contrasting mountain country. At the beginning of the period in a number of areas adjacent to South Afghanistan there appeared a group of volcanoes erupting acid-to-intermediate magma, which gave rise to the Dashte Nawer Series, 350-750 m. in thickness, resting strongly unconformably on the older rock units. Redeposited volcanics of this series can be found in the younger rock units.

Turkmenistan-Horasan Region
Most of the Turkmenistan-Horasan Region lies in the USSR and Iran. Only its extreme south-eastern segment extends into Afghanistan. The segment pinches out at the upper reaches of the Hari Rod River. The 427

Afghan part of the region covers about 10,000 sq. km. This is only a small relic of a primarily more vast area which has contracted owing to the Neogene-Quaternary horizontal movements. Within Afghanistan, this structural province represents a superimposed feature which arose at the pericratonic termination of the North Afghanistan platform, along the border with the Middle Cimmerian structures of the Afghanistan-South Pamir Region. The initiation of this structural province is attributed to Eocene. Before the period under consideration the territory developed as part of the Firoz Koh-Bande Turkestan Region (up to the Triassic inclusively) and then as part of the North Afghanistan Platform (from Jurassic till Paleocene). Thus only the post-Paleocene period of the geological history of the region will be considered during which it underwent geosynclinal and epigeosynclinal cycles of the evolution.

Geosynclinal Cycle Only one geosynclinal cycle dating back to the Eocene can be recognized in the geological history of the Afghan part of the Turkmenistan-Horasan Region. Though short in duration, the subsidence was extremely intensive. During this short period in a narrow and linear, sharply contrasting marine trough a thick (3,5005,000 m) volcano-terrigenous sequence was accumulated which exhibits features of "wild" flysch. It rests on the Maestrichtian-Paleocene platform limestones with evidence of erosion (yet without angular unconformity) while its relations with older rocks are characterized by angular unconformities. Though it is coetaneous with the Eocene sequence of the North Afghanistan Platform, it differs greatly from the latter in composition, thickness, bedding pattern and in fauna assemblage. The Middle Alpine movements that took place in the Late Eocene ceased the geosynclinal sedimentation in the Afghan part of the Turkmenistan-Horasan Region having transformed it into a fold belt which was intruded by small massifs of subvolcanic diabase and diorite (Chaghcharan Complex).

Epigeosynclinal Cycle In post-Eocene time the region was transformed into an orogenic belt characterized by an extremely complex structure that locally corresponds to the definition of an imbricate structure. Eocene-Oligocene Period The fold belt resulting from the Middle Alpine movements was subsequently peneplanated, and underwent corrugation and tectono-magmatic activation at the end of the Eocene. Under the continental conditions a thick (up to 1,410 m) sequence of acid-to-intermediate volcanics was accumulated which was intruded by small bodies of subvolcanic rocks of the same composition. Neogene Period The Afghan part of the Turkmenistan-Horasan Region underwent in Neogene time contrasting movements due to the general corrugation and uplifting of the entire Mediterranean Belt. The formed mountains were intensely eroded thus supplying the detrital material to depressions which separated them. As a result, there was accumulated a fine and coarse-terrigenous continental molasse contrasting both in colour and in thickness. In its lower part the molasse is red, in the middle variegated and in the upper part green. Its thickness varies from several meters to several kilometres. Its relation with the Eocene-Oligocene volcanics remains obscure; on all the older rocks it lies unconformably. In Neogene time the area of the region was sharply reduced. Both fault and fold structures, as well as zones of imbricate structures took their shape. Quaternary Period In Quaternary time the region acquired the present-day contrasting relief with well-isolated ranges and drainage pattern. During the periods of temporary stabilization of tectonic activity of the region terraces were formed along large river valleys, while in Middle-Late Quaternary period blanket travertines were accumulated. 428

ILLUSTRATIONS

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Figure 1 General Map of Afghanistan.

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Figure 2 Orohydrographical Sketch Map of Afghanistan. Compiled by V.I. Dronov. Watershed crests of ridges: 1-high mountain ridges; 2-middle mountain ridges; 3-low mountain ridge (a-major, b-minor). 430

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Figure 3 Main Topographic Regions of Afghanistan. Compiled by V.I. Dronov. 1- Nurestan-Wakhan mountain region; 2- Badakhshan-West Hendukush mountain region; 3- Middle Afghanistan mountains; 4- Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan mountains; 5- Hazarajat, mountains; 6- South-East Afghanistan mountains; 7- Fore-Badakhshan mountains; 8- Afghanistan-South Tajikistan mountains; 9- Fore-Bande Turkestan mountains; 10- Fore-Paropamiz mountains; 11- South Afghanistan mountains; 12- West Afghanistan mountains; 13- North Afghanistan Plain; 14- South Afghanistan Plain

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Figure 4 Areas Mapped by German Geological mission (FRG). Compiled by V.I. Dronov. 1- Areas mapped at a scale of 1:250,000 - 1:30,000 using the data of field geological observations; 2- Areas mapped at a scale of 1:1,000,000 - 1:500,000 using only the data of aerial photographs interpretation
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Figure 5 Areas Covered by Geological Survey at a scale of 1:200,000 Undertaken by Soviet and Afghan Geologists. Compiled by V.I. Dronov. Areas surveyed by: 1 and 2- K.Ya. Mikhailov et al. (347, 350); 3- V.P. Kolchanov et al. (348); 4- G.G. Semionov et al. (141); 5- Y.M. Moraliov et al. (351); 6- Yu.M. Dovgal et al. (144) 432

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Figure 6 Areas Covered by Geological Survey, Scale 1:500,000, Undertaken by Soviet and Afghan Geologists. Compiled by V.I. Dronov. Areas surveyed by: 1- V.I. Bratash et al. (161); 2-V.P. Azhipa et al. (5); 3- V.I. Dronov et al. (143, 152); S.S. Karapetov et al. (142, 206); 4- V.I. Dronov et al. (88, 147); 5- I.M. Sborshchikov, V.I. Dronov et al. (154); 6- Sh.Sh. Denikayev et al. (145, 146, 151); 7- Yu.M. Koshelev et al. (222); 8- A.Kh. Kafarsky et al. (148, 153, 200); 9- I.M. Sborshchikov et al. (154, 371); 10- I.M. Sborshchikov, V.S. Drannikov et al. (371)

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Figure 7 Sketch Map of Tectonic Zoning of Afghanistan. Compiled by V.I. Dronov. Regions of Hercynian Folding: 1- Afghanistan-North Pamir; 2- Henduraj-Hazar; 3- North Afghanistan Platform; 4- Region of Middle Kimmerian Folding. Median Masses: 5- Nuristan-Pamir; 6- South Afghanistan. Regions of Alpine Folding: 7- Relatively subsided areas; 8- Relatively uplifted areas; 9- Boundaries of the major Neogene-Quaternary basins. Structures outlined within the platform; 10- Negative; 11-Positive; 12- Undisturbed boundaries of the major structural elements; Major Faults: 13- First-and second-order faults (a-certain, b- assumed under Neogene-Quaternary deposits); 14- Third-order faults (a- certain, b- assumed). Arabic numerals on-the map refer to: Regions of Hercynian Folding (13-17; 19-20). Afghanistan-North Pamir Folded Region (13-17). Structural-facies zones: 13- Surkhab, 14- Jaway, 15- Faydzabad, 15a- Hazrat-Sultan, 16-Western Hendukush, 17- Bamyan, 16a- Khawak zone of imbricate structures. Henduraj-Hazar Folded Region (19-20). Structural-facies zones: 19- Tashkuprok, 20- Konar. Epi-Early Kimmerian Platform. North Afghanistan Platform (21-26, 51-63). Paropamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift (21-23, 61, 62). Fault Blocks: 21- Qala-i-Naw; 22- Maymana; 23- Sheberghan. Arches: 61- Sheram, 62- Shadian. Murghab-Upper Amu Darya Basin (24-26, 51,-60, 63). Afghanistan-South Tajikistan Basin (24-26). Megasynclines: 24- Surkhan (Mazare Sharif), 26Kulah (Fore-Badakhshan Trough), 26a- Wakhsh. Meganticlines: 25- Kafirnigan, 26b- Ab-i-harm. Afghanistan-South Turkmenistan Basin (51-60). Troughs: 31- Kalavin, 52-Qala-i-Mor-Kaisar, 53Almor, 54- Ortepin, 55- North Karabil-Dawlatabad, 56- Obruchev; Ramparts: 5-7- Jekdalek, 58-Khwaja Qol, 59- Qara-Qol, 60- Ankhoi, 63- Pericline of South-West Gissar. Region of Middle Kimmerian Folding. Afghanistan-South Pamir Folded Region (26-36). Fault Blocks: 27- Hazar sang, 27a- Kohe Zaw, 27b- Kohe Qaftarkhan, 28- Kohe Baba, 28a- Bande Bayan, Sarjangal, 28b- Kohe Kejak, 34a- Paymuri, 34b- Qalu, 34e- Pagbman, 35c- Tangshew, 36a-Chasnud; Structural-facies zones: 28e- Chorband, 29- Rod-i-Kafgan, 30- Haftkala, 31- Khwaja Morad, 31aSange Doshakh, 32- Nalbandan, 33- Qarganaw, 33a- Abul, 34- Turkman, 35- Shewa, 35a- Warw, 36- Nakhchir Par; Imbricate structure zones: 27b- Rabat-i-Sapcha, 27c- Koh-I-Naspanj, 27k- Koh-iTaraka, 27m- Guryan, 27p- Tagaw-i-Takchah, 28c- Surkhbum, 33b- Hokemullo, 37c-Hajigak, 35bAmurn, 36b- Panjsher. Median masses: Nuristan-Pamir (1-3). Fault blocks: 1- South Badakhshan, 2- Nuristan; Structural-facies zones: 3 Wakhan; Imbricate structure tones: 1a- Zebak, 1b- Anjuman. South Afghanistan Median Mass (4-12, 42, 42a). Helmand-Argandab Uplift (4-8). Fault Blocks: 4Bashlang, 5- Waras; Structural-Facies Zones: 6-Helmand, 7- Tirin, 8- Argandab, 8a- Kandahar, 8bLogar. Farah Rod Trough (9-12). Structural-Facies Zones: 9- Zuri, 10- Harut Rod, 10a- Farsi, 10bSyah Deh, 11- Anardora, 11a- Khuspas Rod, 12- Khash Rod. Dari Rod Trough (42, 42a). Structural-Facies Zones: 42- Tarnak, 42a- Chagay. Regions of Alpine Folding (37-44). Afghanistan East Iran Folded Region (40-41): 40- Kishmaran Uplift, 41- Asparan Trough. Suleiman-Kirthar Folded Region (37, 38, 41a, 43, 44): 37- Spin Ghar Fault Block, 38- Kabul Stable Mass, 41a- Ros Koh-Mirjawan Trough, 43- Katawaz Trough, 44Khost-Matun Uplift. Turkmenistan-Horosan Folded Region (39a, 39b, 39): 39a- Herat Trough, 39bChaghcharan Trough, 39- Tanurtagh Trough. Neogene-Quaternary Basins (45-50): 45-MurghabUpper Amu Darya, 46- Aynak, 47- Jalalabad, 48- Dashte Nawer, 49- Ab-i-Estoda, 50- Seystan. Major Faults (Roman numerals encircled on the map): I-Alburz-Mormul, II-Hohan-Eshkamysh, III-Hejwand, IV-Andarab-Mirza Wolang, V-Bahdi Turkestan, VI-Laron, VII-Shekari, VIII-Central Badakhshan, IX-Main Hari Rod, X-Qarganaw, XI-Chowid, XII-Bagharak, XII-Zebak-Anjoman, XIV-Tashkuprok, XV-Konar, XVI-Altamur, XVII-Unai, XVIII-Helmand, XIX-Mukur-Chaman, XX-Mukum-Tarnak, XXI-Jugani, XXII-Spin Ghar, XXIII-Asparan, XXIV-Kishmaran, XXV-Syah Bubak, XXVI-Sarobay, XXVII-Havrat Sultan, XXVIII-Bandi Hoja, XXIX-Gulestan, XXX-Waras, XXXI-Bashlang, XXXII-Bandi Bayan, XXXIII-Wakhan, XXXIV-Rodi Tagh, XXXV-Panjsher, XXXVI-Khwaja Rauf, XXXVII-Farsi, XXXVIII-Paspul

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v
v

Figure 15 The Share Naw structural pattern (after I.M. Sborshchikov - 147). 1- Quaternary deposits; 2- Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene limestone; 3- Upper Cretaceous red sandstone and conglomerate; 4- Triassic sandstone, siltstone volcanics; 5- Permian red sandstone, siltstone, conglomerate; 6- Sandstone, siltstone interbedded with Lower-Middle Carboniferous limestone; 7- Lower Tournaisian acid-to-intermediate volcanics; 8- Proterozoic gabbro; 9- Gneiss; interbedded with Proterozoic marble; 10- Faults, certain and assumed; 11- Boundaries, between rock units characterized by a transgressive relationship

v
v

v
v

v
v v
v

v
v v

v
v

vv

v
v

v v v v
v

K2-P1

v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v K2 Share v v v v v v Naw v v v

PR

1
v v

2
Q P

3
Q
v v v

4 5

6
C1-2 C1-1

7 8

Q C1-2

9 10 0 3 km 11

440

Fig.16

Kabul

K2

PR

PR K2 1 K2 K2 Q Jare Choqur 4 K2 5 2

5 km

Figure 16 Relationship between Cretaceous and Proterozoic rock units north of Chaghcharan (after I.M. Sborshchikov - 147). 1- Quaternary deposits; 2- Structural lines in Upper Cretaceous limestone; 3- Gneiss, crystalline schist, and marble of Proterozoic age; 4- Faults; 5- Decollement lines traceable between Upper Cretaceous limestone and Proterozoic basement

441

SE

NW
Fig.17 Kabul

Kotlesh N K2-P1

Hari Rod

Figure 17 Upthrusting of Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene limestone onto Neogene rocks in the Kotlesh area, upper reaches of the, Hari Rod River (after I.M Sborshchikov -147). 1- Upper Cretaceous-Paleocenelimestone; 2- Neogene red sandstone and conglomerate; 3- Upthrust line

442

S
Pg2 3000 K1ap K1al K2st-cp

Hari Rod K2m

N
N N K2d-Pg1 N N K2d-Pg1
Fig.18 Kabul

2000 m

6
0 1000 2000 m

Figure 18 Geological section across an imbricate structure zone at the upper reaches of the Hari Rod River, Kotlesh area (after I.M. Sborshchikov -147). 1- Sandstone; 2- Siltstone, argillite, slate; 3- Limestone, marl; 4-Conglomerate; 5- Diorite; 6- Fault

S
Pg2 3000

Hari Rod K1ap? K2st-cp K2m N K2m

Kotawak

N
Fig.19 Kabul

2000 m

K2st-cp 1 2 3 4

K2st-cp 5 6 7

Figure 19 Geological section across, an imbricate structure zone at the upper reaches of the Hari Rod River, Katawak creek area (after I.M. Sborshchikov- 147). Disharmonic folds and southerly turns of structures are well apparent. 1- Diorite; 2- Massive limestone, 3- Clayey limestone; 4- Sandstone, siltstone, argillite, shale; 5- Conglomerate; 6- Coarse-bedded limestone, marl; 7-Fault

443

K2

Fig.20 Kabul

P1kb-P2

C1 1

C2 1

3500 m

1200 m

C3 1

Figure 20 The Bamyan type of Carboniferous-Permian deposits in the southern part of the Balkhob Uplift (Shahdar area) unconformably overlain by Cretaceous-Paleocene Sedimentary Cover deposits (after A.Kh. Kafarsky -148). 1- Phyllite and quartzite; 2- Conglomerate; 3- Sandstone; 4- Limestone; 5- Intermediate-to-basic Volcanics

N
T3r

Fig.21 Kabul

T3r Fault Fault

1m

Balkhob

Figure 21 Unconformable occurrence of Rhaetian volcanics on Ordovician schist in the northern part of the Balkhob uplift (after A.Kh. Kafarsky -148). 1- Phyllite and quartzite; 2- Intermediate-to-basic volcanics

444

Fig.22 Kabul

K2-P1

Duob T2-3

1 km

Figure 22 A character of folding in the Middle-Upper Triassic basement and Sedimentary Cover of Cretaceous-Paleocene age in the Duob-Uluswali area (after I.M. Sborshchikov - 154). 1- Limestone; 2- Sandstone, siltstone, shale
2 2-3

Pg J1-2

Pg3 J1-2

Fig.23

Kabul

Pg1 2-3

Nalbandan
Pg3 Pg3

J1-2 J1-2 P2-T3k

C-P1 T3n P2-T3k

T3n

1000m

1 P2-T3k C-P1 C-P1 2 3 T3n 4

5 6 7 8

9 a b 10 11 12

Figure 23 Geological sketch map of the type (tectonotype) locality of the Nalbandan Zone. Compiled by V.I. Dronov (152) 1- Eocene-Oligocene andesite; 2- Eocene-Oligocene red sandstone and conglomerate; 3- Lower-Middle Jurassic limestone, marl, sandstone, siltstone, shale; 4- Norian-Rhaetian dark sandstone, siltstone and shale; 5- Upper Permian-Carnian limestone, marl, chert; 6-Carboniferous-Lower Permian dark sandstone, siltstone and slate; 7- Diorite porphyry; 8-Diabase and diorite porphyry dikes; 9- Lead-and-zinc ore body of the Nalbandan mineral deposit; 10- Boundaries a. between rock units of different ages; b. between transgressive rock units; 11- Fault lines; 12- Strike and dip of beds 445

Gawmazar

D3-C1

Pg3

N2

Talaw

C-P1

C-P1

T3n P2-T3k

Paye-Kotalo

C-P1 J1-2

Pg3 P2-T3k

1000

2000 m

1 5 9

2 6 10

3 7 11

4 8

J1-2

Qarghanaw

Fig.24

Kabul

Figure 24 Geological sketch map of the eastern part of the Nalbandan Zone, upper reaches of the Gawmazar River. Compiled by V.I. Dronov (152). 1- Pliocene coarse pebble conglomerate; 2- Variegated sandstone, siltstone, conglomerate and gravelstone; 3- Acid-to-intermediate volcanics of Eocene-Oligocene age) 4- Lower-Middle Jurassic limestone, marl, shale; 5- Norian Rhaetian dark sandstone, siltstone, shale; 6- Upper Permian-Carnian limestone, marl, chert; 7- Carboniferous-Lower-Permian dark sandstone, siltstone, slate; 8- Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous limestone; 9- Boundaries: a) between rock units of different ages; b) between transgressive rock units; 10- Fault lines; 11Strike and dip of beds

446

NW

4367 m

SE
O-S1

Fig.25

Kabul

P-T3K

T3n-r 3855 m

D3-C1

Figure 25 Geological sketch section through the Warw Zone and the Amurn Zone of imbricate structures along the watershed of the Darrahe-i-Begaw and Darrahe-i-Ghumay rivers (after I.M. Sborshchikov -154). 1- Limestone and dolomite; 2- Shale and siltstone; 3- Sandstone; 4- Fault lines

Fig.26 Kabul

W 4000 P-T3M Pg3 T3-J2 m 0 2 km m 1 2 3 4

E 4000

3000

3000

2000

2000

Figure 26 Geological profile along the Nakhchir Par River valley (after I.M. Sborshchikov -154). 1tone, siltstone, shale; 2- Limestone; 3- Granite, granodiorite; 4- Fault lines

Sands

447

E
Kabul

Fig.27

Krunj

Panj

- Pg3

T3J2

Figure 27 A character of bedding in the Norian-Middle Jurassic sequence at the watershed between the Krunj and Panj rivers (after Sh.Sh. Denikayev -151). 1-Granite, granodiorite; 2- Sandstone, siltstone, shale; 3- Gneiss; 4- Fault lines

11 5 6 7 2 9 8 10 3

Figure 28 Location diagram of late orogenic and repeated-orogenic superimposed basins:in the western part of Middle Afghanistan (after V.I.Dronov - 152 ). 1- Marginal faults; 2- Wrench-type faults; 3- Interzonal faults; 4- Undisturbed boundaries of the basins; Basins: 1- Doy; 2- Talaw; 3- Kohe Kafaron; 4- Langar 5- Lal; 6- Hukh; 7- Tulak; 8- Sharah; 9- Tarbolaq; 10- Shorkol; 11- Asgarat

448

10 km

Kamenj Daphane Gok Gok

Rukh

IV

II

III V

11

16

20b
Fig.29 Kabul

12

17

21

13

18

22

14

19

23

10

15

20a

449

Figure 29 Geological map of the Middle Afghanistan. type locality (interfluve of the Hari Rod, Rode Tagab Eshlan, Sharak and Tarbolaq rivers) notable for the presence of imbricate structure zones. Compiled by V.I. Dronov and S.M. Kalimulin (152) 1 - Undifferentiated Quaternary sequence; 2 - Neogene system, Pliocene: variegated and grey boulderstones, conglomerates and gravelstones, sand and sandstone, clay, gypsum, salt 3 - Upper Oligocene: variegated sandstone, siltstone, conglomerate, acid-to intermediate volcanics 4 - Eocene-Oligocene andesite, trachyandesite and their tuffs and tuff conglomerate, sandstone and conglomerate 5 - Cretaceous limestone, red sandstone and conglomerate 6 - Middle-Upper Jurassic: limestone, marl, siltstone, sandstone 7- Lower-Middle Jurassic limestone, marl, shale, siltstone, sandstone 8 - Upper Triassic (Norian) sandstone, siltstone, shale 9 - Lower Triassic-Carnian limestone, dolomite, conglomerate, chart, marl 10 - Permian (Artinskian-Pamirian) limestone, dolomite, marl, conglomerate, sandstone, shale, siltstone 11 - Carboniferous-Lower Permian sandstone, slate, siltstone 12 - Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous limestone, marl, sandstone 13 - Lower Devonian limestone, sandstone, dolomite 14 - Cambrian-Ordovician sandstone, limestone, dolomite 15 - Middle Proterozoic quartzo-feldspathic, micaceous, greenstone schists and phyllite, marmorized limestone 16 - Lower Proterozoic crystalline schist, migmatite, marble, amphibolite 17 - Early Cretaceous granitoids 18 - Early Carboniferous ultrabasic rocks 19 - Boundaries between rocks units of different ages: a) between conformable rock units; b) between unconformable rock units 20 - Fault planes: a) steep, b) low angle 21- Strike and dip of beds 22 - Fossil localities 23 - Salt occurrences

450

I
S
C-P1 J2cl1 J2bt J2cl2 Pg2-2 J3cl2

II
N S
J3cl1 J2bt J2cl2 Pg3?

P3?

III
S
J2bt2 J2bj J bt 2 1 N2? Pg2-3 C-P1 J3cl1 J3cl2 D3-C1 Pg3?

E
D3-C1 N2?

IV
D3-C1 N2? N2? D3-C1

V
D3-C1 N2? D3-C1 Pg3?

N
D3-C1

J1-2

J1-2 T3n

N2? Pg3? T3n J1-2 T3n P2-T3k N2? Pg2-3 T3n Pg3? Pg3? Pg3? Pg2-3

T3n

C-P1

12

13

9 Kabul

10

AB E C

11

Figure 30 Principal profiles across the type locality of nappe structures of Middle Afghanistan (after V.I. Dronov -152). The Roman numerals I-VI refer-to nappes I-Dehron Nappe; II-Abraria Nappe; III-Kohe Aska Nappe; IV--Gok Nappe (a profile of nearly E-W orientation in the middle part of the nappe); V-Gok Nappe (a profile of nearly N-S orientation in the eastern part of the nappe). 1- Limestone; 2- Dolomite; 3- Marl; 4- Clayey limestone; 5- Sandstone and siltstone; 6- Sandstone, siltstone, argillite; 7- Shale and siltstone; 8- Conglomerate and gravelstone; 9- Acid-to-intermediate volcanics; 10- Tuff conglomerate; 11- Iron ore lenses; 12- Salt mines; 13- Fault lines 451

3 km

Zindajan

Taraka-iAbdullakhan

1 12

2 13

3 14

4 15

5 16

6 17

7 18

8 19

9 20

10 21

11 22

Fig.31

Kabul

Figure 31 Geological map of the Kohe Taraka and Kohe Qaftarkhan ridges. Compiled by V.I. Dronov and S.M. Kalimulin (152). 1- Undifferentiated Quaternary sequence; 2- Acid tuff of Early Quaternary age; 3- Pliocene conglomerate and sandstone; 4- Eocene-Oligocene intermediate-to-acid volcanics; conglomerate; 5- Middle-Upper Jurassic (Bajocian-Callovian) limestone, marl; 6- Lower-Middle Jurassic shale, sandstone and siltstone with interbedded limestone; 7- Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous limestone, dolomite, marl, sandstone; 8- Tournaisian stage, upper substage (upper part): clayey limestone, marl; 9- Tournaisian stage, upper substage (lower part): limestone, dolomite with chert nodules; 10- Tournaisian stage, lower substage: sandstone, siltstone, carbonaceous shale; 11 -Upper Devonian limestone, sandstone, marl; 12- Lower Devonian dolomite, sandstone, limestone; 13- Upper Cambrian sandstone, siltstone, tuff, tuffstone, tuffconglomerate of intermediate-to-basic composition; 14-Middle-Upper Cambrian (upper part): limestone, dolomite; Middle-Upper Cambrian (lower part): white quartz sandstone, gravelstone and small pebble conglomerate; 15- Lower Cambrian red sandstone, siltstone underlain by limestone and dolomite; 16-Upper Proterozoic (upper part): limestone, dolomite, chert, basic volcanics; 17- Upper Proterozoic (lower part): siltstone, sandstone, chert, basic volcanics; 18- Late Proterozoic intrusions: gabbro, gabbro-diorite, diorite; 19- Boundaries between rock units of different ages; a) between conformable rock units; b) between unconformable rock units; 20- Fault planes: a) steep, b) low angle; 21- Strike and dip of beds; 22- Fossil localities.

452

W
4366 m 3542 m

E
Fig.32 Kabul

Shahrist

Figure 32 A series of narrow compressed folds in Ordovician-Lower Silurian beds in the Shahrist area (after I.M. Sborshchikov -154). 1- Slate, siltstone, sandstone; 2- Limestone, marl

W
Fig.33

Kabul

Figure 33 Disharmonic folding it Lower Silurian sequence at the left-hand bank of the Panj River (after V.M. Moraliov et al. - 351). 1- Limestone; 3- Undifferentiated Quaternary unit

453

SE
Kabul

Fig.34

100

200 m

NW

S1

Figure 34 A portion of disharmonic fold in Lower Silurian limestone at the left-hand bank of the Panj River (after V.M.Moraliov).

C-P1

S
Fig.35 Kabul

1 km

Figure 35 A character of folding in Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence at the upper reaches of the Darya-i-Qara-Jelga River (after A.Kh. Kafarsky -200). 1- Shale and siltstone; 2- Sandstone; 3- Spessartite dike

454

S
C-P1 5335 m

N
Fig.36 Kabul

1 km

Figure 36 A character of folding in Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence at the right-hand slope of the Darya-i-Uchraw River valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 200). 1- Shale and siltstone; 2- Sandstone

5340 m

C-P1
Kabul

Fig.37

1 km

Figure 37 A character of folding in Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence at the upper reaches of the Darya-i-Warm River valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 200). 1- Shale and siltstone; 2- Sandstone; 3- Quaternary deposits

S
Fig.38

Pg3

5368 m T3n-r 5109 m P2-T3k C-P1

Kabul

5 km

Figure 38 A character of folding in Carboniferous-Triassic sequence at the upper reaches of the Darya-i-Bagharak River valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky -200). 1- Shale, sandstone, siltstone; 2- Limestone and chart; 3- Granodiorite 455

S
P2-T3k C-P1 T3n-r

N
Pg3
Kabul

Fig.39

1 km

Figure 39 A character of folding in Carboniferous-Triassic sequence at the right-hand slope of the Darya-i-Sarhad River valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky -200). 1- Limestone and chart; 2- Shale and siltstone; 3- Sandstone; 4-Granodiorite

SW

T3n-r

Pg3

NE
Kabul

Fig.40

1 km

Figure 40 A character of folding in Norian-Rhaetian sequence at the watershed part of the Wakhan Ridge (after A.Kh. Kafarsky -200). 1- Shale, sandstone, siltstone; 2- Granodiorite; 3- Quaternary deposits; 4- Fault

J1-2

C-P1

Pg3
Fig.41 Kabul

J1-2 Pg2-3

C-P1

1 km

Figure 41 Unconformable occurrence of Lower-Middle Jurassic rocks on the Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence at the right-hand slope of the Darya-i-Tegermensu River valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky 200). 1- Limestone; 2- Shale and siltstone; 3- Sandstone; 4- Volcanics; 5- Conglomerate; 6- Granodiorite

456

SW
C-P1 P2-T3k P2-T3k 4552 m T3n-r

NE
Kabul

Fig.42

5316 m J1-2

1 km

Figure 42 Unconformable occurrence of Lower-Middle Jurassic rocks on the Carboniferous-Triassic sequence at the upper reaches of the Darya-i-Andemin River valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky -200). 1- Limestone; 2- Sandstone; 3- Siltstone; 4- Shale; 5- Basal conglomerate and sandstone

S
5385 m P2-3 P2-3 C-P1

N
Fig.43 Kabul

C-P1 P2-3

Pg3

1 km

Figure 43 Unconformable occurrence of Eocene-Oligocene volcanics on Carboniferous-Lower Permian. sequence at the left-hand slope of the Darya-i-Warm River Valley (after A.Kh. Kafarsky - 200). 1- Shale, sandstone, siltstone; 2- Volcanomictic sandstone and siltstone; 3- Acid-to-intermediate volcanics, conglomerate; 4- Granodiorite

457

S
Pg3

Fig.44 Kabul

C-P1

1 km

River

Figure 44 An intrusive contact between Early Cretaceous granodiorite of the Wakhan Complex and Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence in the drainage basin of the Wakhan River (after A.Kh. Kafarsky -200). 1- Shale and siltstone; 2- Sandstone; 3- Granodiorite

NE

SW
Fig.45 Kabul

Pg3

C-P1

1 km

Figure 45 An intrusive contact between Oligocene granite of the Muntagh Complex and Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence in the Akau River's drainage basin (after A. Kh. Kafarsky - 200). 1- Shale, siltstone; 2- Sandstone; 3- Granite

458

Tirin Zone
NW K1 T3 T1-J1 J2-3 T3-J1 J2-3 J2-3 T1-2 T3 T3J1 K1 T1-2 T3 - Pg3

Kandahar Zone

Argendeh River

Argandab Zone
Kabul Fig.46

2000 0m 2000

v-qK1

J3-K1

K1

T1-2

T3

K1

P1-2 J2-3 - Pg3

T1-2

P1-2 T3 - P3

q K 1

PR3

PR3 P1-2

Figure 46 A principal geological cross section through the south-western termination of the Tirin Kandahar and Argandab zones (after Yu.M. Dovgal et al. -144).

Kabul Fig.47

V-

400 m

PR 3

1 5

Figure 47 Unconformable occurrence of Vend-Cambrian sequence (Zargaran Formation) on Upper Proterozoic rock unit (Chaman Series) within the Malakhel Arch (after Yu.M. Dovgal -144). 1- Sandstone, siltstone, schist metamorphosed in phyllite facies of metamorphism; 2- Conglomerate; 3- Sandstone; 4- Shale and siltstone; 5- Limestone and dolomite 459

D3 PR1 3

Kabul Fig.48

100 m

Figure 48 Unconformable occurrence of Upper Devonian rocks (Kundalyan Formation) on Upper Proterozoic sequence (Chaman Series) within the Malestan Arch (after Yu.M. Dovgal - 144) 1- Siltstone and phyllite faces; 2- Quartzite-like sandstone; 3- Conglomerate
NW
Abdana P2
Kabul Fig.49

SE

PR1 3

Figure 49 Unconformable occurence of Upper Permian rocks (Chohan Series) on Upper Proterozoic sequence (Chaman Series) within the Malakhel Arch (after Yu.M. Dovgal -144). 1- Sandstone, siltstone, slate metamorphosed in phyllite facies of metamorphism; 2. Limestone and dolomite.
NW SE
Kabul Fig.50

450 m

Figure 50 Disharmonic folding in Silurian shale within the Choka area (after Yu.M. Dovgal - 144) 1- Shale; 2- Sandstone; 3- Limestone 460

Kabul Fig.51

K1br-ap

J3-K1

150 m

Figure 51 Transgressive occurrence of Barremian-Aptian rocks (Anogay Formation) on Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sequence (Yangala Series) 6 km. south-east of the Anogay Village (after Yu.M. Dovgal - 144). 1- Shale, sandstone, siltstone, chert, intermediate-to basic volcanics; 2- Sandstone; 3- Conglomerate; 4- Limestone

Kabul Fig.52

80 m

P2

C-P1

150 m

Figure 52 Conformable occurrence of Upper Permian rocks (Chohan Series) on Carboniferous-Lower Permian sequence (Sholkalay Series) in the Logar Zone (after Yu.M. Dovgal -144). 1- Quartz-sandstone and gravelstone; 2- Siltstone and slate; 3- Limestone and dolomite

461

Q
Fig.53

Kabul

Q Q 0 2000 m

6a 1 2 3 4 5 6b

Figure 53 Geological sketch map of the Pushte Sabz Ridge in the Anor Daxa Zone (after V.I. Dronov 152). 1- Barremian-Aptian limestone; 2- Valanginian-Hauterivian sandstone and siltstone; 3- Vendian-Cambrian sandstone, siltstone, dolomite, and volcanics (Pushte Sabz Series); 4- Pre-Barremian granite porphyry; 5- Strike and dip of beds; 6- Boundaries between rock units of different ages: a) between conformable rocks units; b) between uncomformable rock units; 7- Faults: a) certain, b) assumed

An or-D a ra

7a 7b

Kabul Fig.54

K1br-ap
2 PR3

K1br-ap

1.5 km 7

6
8

Figure 54 Geological cross section through the Pushte Sabz Ridge in the Anon Dara Zone. A sharp angular unconformity is traceable between Barremian-Aptian and assumingly Vend-Cambrian rock units (after V. I. Dronov -152). 1- Limestone; 2- Dolomite; 3- Conglomerate; 4- Basalt porphyry; 5- Red sandstone and siltstone; 6-Granite porphyry; 7- Fault; 8- Fossil localities

462

S
Kabul Fig.55

150 m

Figure 55 A tectonic slab of Coloured Melange in metamorphites of assumingly Middle Proterozoic age south of Kalat (after I.M. Sborshchikov -371). 1- Amphibolite; 2- Marble; 3- Coloured Melange; 4- Cretaceous Rudista limestone; 5- Rudista fossils locality

NW
3000 m 4000

P-T Altamur P-T P

SE
Kabul Fig.56

3000

P-T

Road level Q

2000 0 1 2 3 4 5 km

Figure 56 A generalized geological section across an imbricate structure zone in the Altamur Ridge and adjacent areas (after I.M. Sborshchikov -371). 1- Schist and siltstone; 2- Limestone and marl; 3- Sandstone; 4- Conglomerate; 5- Gabbroic rocks; 6- Ultrabasic rocks; 7- Spillite

463

NW

SE
Kabul Fig.57

K1 0

Pg 100 m

8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9

Figure 57 Structural pattern of the Mukur-Chaman Fault Zone near the Abdulkadyr Village (after I.M. Sborshchikov -371). 1- Basic volcanics; 2- Brocken down. schist; 3- Areas of altered rocks; 4- Limestone; 5-Conglomerate; 6- Sandstone; 7- Schist and siltstone; 8- Fault lines; 9- Fossil localities

464

A)

NW
Zone of major flat-lying structures m Q P 2-3 Eastern zone of minor complex folding Urghun Q

SE
Khost-Matun Uplift m

2000 1000 0 P

2000 P T-J 1000 0

1-2

1-2

Kabul Fig.58A Fig.58B

B)

NW
Western zone of complex minor folding Mashorel m Q Q Q Zone of major flat-lying structures

SE

2000 1000

P
0

1-2
P2-3

P2-3

10 km

Figure 58 Geological cross sections through the Katawaz Trough: A-Along the Urgun--Shkin line; B Along the Mashorei line. Compiled by I.M. Sborshchikov (371). 1- Sandstone; 2- Shale; 3- Limestone; 4- Conglomerate and gravelstone; 5- Ultrabasic rocks; 6-Fossil localities: a) faunal fossils; b) floral fossils; 7- Fault lines

465

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120. Furon R. Lee reseources minires de lAfghanistan. Rev. Sci, Paris, 1924, 62, p.313. 121. Furon H. Les sismes de la rgion de Kab 1.- C.R. Acad. Sci., Paris, 1925, 181, 21, pp. 799-801. 122. Furon H. Observations gologiques sur la valle du Kabul (Afghanistan).- C.R. Acad. Aci. . Paris, 1925, 181, 25, pp. 1075-1077. 123. Furon R. LHindou-Kouch et le Kaboulistan.- Contribution A ltude gologique et gomorphogenique de lAfghanistan. -Paris, 1927, 169 5. 124. Baron H. Sur lee relations gologiques et gographiquee de lHindou-Kouch et du Pamir.- C.R. Acad. Sci., Paris, 1934, 198, 10, pp. 963-965. 125. Baron H., Rosset L.F. Contribution A ltude du Trias en Afghanistan.- Bull. Mus, natn. Hist. nat., Paris, 1951, (2), 23, 5, pp. 558-565, et Revue Afghanistan, Kabul, 1952, 7, 2, pp. 19-28. 126. Baron H. Sur la dcouverte du jurassique main en Afghanistan.- C.R. Sec. gol. Fr., Paris, 1952, pp. 311-312. 127. Furon H., Rosset L.F. Le Jurassique au Nord du Plateau Iranien.- C.R. Aced. Sci., Paris, 1954, 239, 3, pp. 296-298. 128. Gabert G. Bericht zur bereichtskartierung des Registan E.- und -N Randes, DGMS, Kabul, 1962. 129. Gabert C. Zur Geologie des Gebietes von Karkar (Nord-ost-Afghanistan), Beih. geol, Jb., Hannover, 1964, 70, S.77-98. 130. Ganser A. Geology of the Himalayas. - M., MIR Publishers, 1967, 351 p. 131. Ganss O. Zur geologischen Geschichte der Belutechistan- Indus-Geosynklinale.- Geol. Jb., Hannover, 1964, 82, S.203-241. 132. Ganss O. Geosynklinalbecken, Tektonik, Granite und Junger Vulkanismus in Afghanistan.- Geol. Rdsch., Stuttgart, 1964, 54, 2, S.668-698. 133. Ganss O. Zur Geologie von Sdost-Afghanistan. I. Geologie des Gebietes von Ghazni-Gardez-Urgun; 2. Geologie des Gebietes urn Mukur und Ob-i-Istada.- Bh. geol. Jb., Hannover, 1970, 84., 203 S. 134. Geological Map of Afghanistan. Scale 1: 1,000,000. (Compiled by D.Wi:rtz, R.Mhlfeld, D.Weippert, H.Wittekindt). 1964, 1 sheet. 135. Geological Map of Afghanistan. Scale 1:2,500,000.- Prin. Cartogr. Inst., Kabul, 1969, 1 sheet. 136. Geological Map of Afghanistan. Scale 1:1,000,000. (Compiled by V.I. Drenov, Sh.Sh. Denikaev, A.Kh. Kafarsky, S.S. Karapetov, F.U. Akhmedzyanov, Yu.M, Doval, C.M.Kalimulin, A,Ya. Kotchetkov, Yu.M. Koshelev, K.Ya. Mikhailov, V.M. Moraliov, I.V. Pyzhiyanov, V.I. Savtchenko, I.M. Sborechchikov, G.C. Scmionov, Yu.G. Semionov, I.I. Sonin, K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.P. Feoktistov, A. Adjruddin, T. Aslami, G. Amiri, S.M. Gazanfari, S. Asgar, M. Subbot, M. Gioey, A. Arsalang, Editors-in-Chief: V.M. Chmyriov, S.H. Mirzad.- Prin. Cartogr., Inst., Kabul, 1972, 4 sheets. 137. Geological Map of Central and South-Western Afghanistan. Scale: 1:500,000 (Compiled by: V.I. Dronov, S.S. Karapetov, S.M. Kalimulin, A.Ya. Kotchetkov, I.I. Sonin, K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.P. Swezhentsov, Yu. G. Semionov, Editors-in-Chief: V.L Chmyriov, S.H. Mirzad. Editor V.I. Dronov. Prin. Cartogr. Inst., Kabul, 1972, 3 sheets. 138. Geological Map of Afghanistan (Compiled by V.M. Chmyriov, Sh. Abdullah, V.I. Dronov, A.Kh. Kafarsky, A.S. Salah, K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev).- Abstracts Himalayan Geology Seminar, New Delhi, 1976. 139. Geological Map of Afghanistan. Scale 1: 2,500,000. (Compiled by A.Kh. Kafarsky, V.M. Chmyriov, V.I. Dronov, K.P. Stazhilo-Alekseev, D. Abdullah, V.S. Saikovsky), Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1975.

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140. Geological Map of Afghanistan. Scale 1:500,000 (Compiled by: V.I. Dronov, A.Kh. Kafarsky, K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.M. Chmyriov, Sh. Abdullah, V.B. Averyanov, Sh.Sh. Denikaev, S.S. Karapetov, I.M. Sborsiachikov, V.I. Slavin ). Publ. Leningrad Cartogr., Ministry of Geology, USSR, 1978, 19 sheets. 141. Geology of Central Badakhshan, sheet 117. (Report on geological survey, scale 1:200,000, carried out in 1965-1966). (by G.G. Semionov, S.L. Shwarkov, M,A. Chalian, G.V. Rodin). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1967. 142, Geology and minerals in the eastern part of Afghanistan, (Report of the Helmand Team on the work in 1968-1969). (By: S.S.Karapetov, K.F. Stazhilo-Alekseev, A.Ya.Kotchetkov, Yu.G.Semionov, A.I.Gorelov), Kabul, Rec. Off, DGMS, 1970. 143. Geology and minerals in the western part of the Central Afghanistan (Report of the Herat Team on the work in 1969). (By V.I.Dronov, S.M.Kalimulin, O.N.Kabakov, A.Ya.Kotchetkov E.D.Zelensky, A.N.Chistyakov, V.P. Svezhentsov). Kabul, Rec. Off. DCMS, 1970. 144. Geology and minerals in the south-eastern part of Central Afghanistan (Report on survey, scale 1:200,000, carried out in 1967-1970). (By: Yu.M.Dovgal, M.A.Chalian, V.S.Nagliov, A.N.Diomin, V.A.Vaulin, A.I.Belitch, I.I.Sonin, E.T.Kononykhin. K.C.Zharikhin, N.P.Maksimov, N.S.Skvortsov, A.P.Kharitonov). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1971. 145. Geology and minerals in the south part of Eastern Afghanistan (Report of the Kabul team on the work in 1970). (By Sh.Sh.Denikaev, V.P.Feoktistov, I.V. Pyzhyanov, A.A.Adjuruddin, Sh.N.Narbaev, Yu.M.Konev).Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1971. 146. Geology and minerals in the northern part of Eastern Afghanistan (Report of the Kabul Team on the work in 1971). (By: Sh. Sh.Denikaev, V.P.Feoktistov, L.N.Rossovsky, A.Adjuruddin). Kabul Rec, Off. DGMS, 1972. 147. Geology and Minerals of North Afghanistan (parts of sheets 400-II and 500-I, Kaisor-Hari Rod interfluve) (By V.I.Dronov, S.M.Kalimulin, I.M.Sborshchikov, V.P.Svezhentsov, A.N.Chistyakov, E.D. Zelenskiy, P.C.Cherepov). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1972. 148. Geology and Minerals of the Western Hendukush and the eastern part of the Bande-Turkestan (parts of sheets 500-I, 500-II). (By A.Kh.Kafarskiy, K.F.Stazhilo-Alekseev, I.V.Pyzhyanov, G.Sh.Achilov, A.I.Gorelov, G.M.Bezulov, S.A.Gazanfari). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1972. 149. Geology of the aragonite-onyx deposit in the south of Afghanistan (By V.I.Slavin, O.V.Kononov, V.I.Dyadin, Atikulla Sidiki). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1972. 150. Geology and Minerals of the Kabul Province. (V.I. Slavin, T.O. Fedorov, N.M.Babkov-Esterkin, N.M.Feruz).- Thes. Papers. V knige I nauchno-metodicheskaya konferentsiya KU I KPI. Kabul, 1972. 151. Geology and Minerals of the Southern Badakhshan (Report of the Kabul Team on the work in 1972). (By Sh.Sh.Denikaev, V.P.Feoktistov, Yu.M.Konev, Sh.N.Narbaev). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1973. 152. Geology and Minerals of Central and South-Western Afghanistan, (By V.I.Dronov, K.F.StazhiloAlekseev, A.Ya.Kotchetkov S.M.Kalimulin, I.I.Sonin). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1973. 153. Geology and Minerals of the Western Badakhshan and northern flanks of the Western Hendukush (parts of sheets 200-II, 500-III, IV). (By:A.Kh.Kafarsky, V.B.Averyanov, V.A.Kolesnichenko, M.P.Burel, G.Sh.Achilov). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1973. 154. Geology and Minerals of Northern Afghanistan (parts of sheets 200-II, III, IV; 500-I) (By I.M.Shorshchikov, G.S.Loginov, V.I.Dronov, I.K.Bilan, P.G.Cherepov, O.V.Cherkesov). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1973. 155. Geology and Minerals in the northern part of Central Afghanistan (Report of the Kabul Team on the work in 1973-1974) (By D.A.Starshinin, S.S.Kazmin, P.G.Cherepov, M.P.Burel, G.S.Loginov). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1975. 473

156. Geology and Minerals of the Gorband, Salang, Panjsher River basins (Report of the Helmand Team on the work in 1974). (By A.S.Shadchinev, N.V.Khandozhko, V.S.Drannikov, S.Yakub-Shah, Z.Salikhi, A.K.Hemat). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1975. 157. Geology of South-Western Afghanistan (By V.I.Dronov, S.M.Kalimulin, A.Ya.Kotchetkov, K.F.Stazhilo-Alekseev, S.M.Gazanfari, M.T.Aslami). - Thes. Rep. V knige: IV nauchno-methodicheskaya konferentsiya, KU i KPI. Kabul, 1976, p.78. 15. Geology and Minerals of the Helmand, Gorband, Turkman River basins, parts of sheets 509-A, B, C (Report of the Helimand Team on the work in 1975). (By:A.S.Shadchinev, N.V.Khandozhko, A.Khashmat, S.Rosikh, S.Yakub-Shakh, M.A.Kargar, N.Khusum, M.Anwar). Rec. Off. DGMS, 1976. 159. Geology and Minerals of the Gorband River Basin (By: A. Shadchinev, N.V. Khandozhko, A. Adjruddin, A.M. Diomin, R.Saidullo, S.Yakub-Shah, K.M.Azam, Kh.Nakibullo, M.Anwar).- Thes. Rep. V knige: IV Nauchno-metodicheskaya konferentsiya, KU i KPI. Kabul, 1976, pp. 73-75. 160. Geology and Minerals of Afghanistan (By: V.M.Chmyriov, K.F.Stazhilo-Alekseev, V.I.Dronov, A.Kh.Kafarsky). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1977. 161. Geology and oil potential in the north of Afghanistan (By: V.I.Bratash, S.V.Egupov, V.V.Petchnikov, A.I.Shelomentsev). M., Nedra Publishers, 1970, Tr.VNIGNI, 80, 288 p. 162. Geology and Ore Deposits of the Middle East (Yu.S. Perfiliev, A.V.Bortsova, V.V.Veselov, A.A.Elianov, V.M..Moraliov, E. Ya.Leven, E.S.Levitskiy, E.A.Uspenskaya, N.A.Fokina, M.A.Chalian). M., Nedra Publishers, 1973, 381 p. 163. Geology of Pakistan. (I.A.Voskresenskiy, K.N.Kravtchenko, E.B.Movshovitch, B.A.Sokolov). M., Nedra, Publishers, 1968, 168 p. 164. Griesbach C.L. Reports on the geology of the section between the Bolan Pass in Biluchistan and Girishk in Southern Afghanistan. Mem. geol. Surv. India, Calcutta, 1881, 18, 1, pp.1-60. 165. Griesbach C.L. Afghan-Field notes. Rec. geol. Surv. India, Calcutta, 1885, 18, 1, pp. 57-64. 166. Griesbach C.L. Field notes from Afghanistan (No.4) from Turkistan to India. Rec. geol. Surv. India, Calcutta, 1887, 20, 1, pp. 17-26. 167. Griesbach C.L. Field notes: (No.5) - to accompany a geological sketch map of Afghanistan and NorthEastern Khorassan, Rec. geol. Surv. India, Calcutta, 1887, 20, 2, pp.93-103. 168. Griesbach C.L. The Geology of the Safed Koh. - Rec. geol. Surv. India, Calcutta, 1892, 25, 3, pp.59-109. 169. Gugouev M.A. Report on the results of gold prospecting in the Badakhshan province for 1965-1966. Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1967. 170. Culyam-Ali-Khan. The first summary report on beryl Darai-Sar and Derai-Nur deposits. Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS), 1948. 171. Gulyam-Ali-Khan. Report on the beryl deposit in the vicinity of Darai-Qunar, Rec. Off. DCMS, Kabul, 1949. 172. Gulyam-Ali-Khan. The third report on the beryl Darai a Nur and Chapa-Dara deposits in the Eastern province. Kabul, Rec. Off, DGMS, 1950. 173. Gumerov L.G. Preliminary Report on chrysotile-asbestos prospecting carried out in 1970-1972 and trends of further work. Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, Kabul, 1973. 174. Gushchin B.M. On coal bearing deposits in the south-eastern Pamirs and the age of the Bazardarin Formation. DAN SSSR, 1966, 168, 2, pp.407-408. 175. Gushohin B.M. Carboniferous-Permian deposits of the South-Eastern Pamir.- Izv. AN Tadj. SSR, 1969, Div. phys. mat. geol. Scien. 2, (32), pp. 72-90. 474

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296. Meshkovskiy A.E., Dvornikov G.P., Danilyuk G.N. Report on reconnaissance and prospecting for flux, refractory and moulding raw materials carried out in Afghanistan in 1964, Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1965. 297. Mestcheryakov E.P., Sayapin V.P. Report on the results of prospecting at the Zarkashan lode and placer deposit. Kabul, Rec. Off. DCMS, 1968. 298. Metallogenic provinces of Afghanistan. (By: V.M.Chmyriov, K.F.Stazhilo-Alekseev, N.Azimi, M.Giroval).. Thes. Rep. V knige: IV Nauchno-metodicheskaya konferentsiya, KU i KPI. Kabul, 1976, pp. 57-58. 299. Mineral Resources of Afghanistan (By: V.M.Chinyriov, K.F.Stazhilo-Alekseev, S.H.Mirzad, V.I.Dronov, A.R.Kazikhani, A.S.Salah, G.I.Teleshov.). In: Geology and Mineral Resources of Afghanistan. Print. Kabul Times, Kabul, 1973, Ed. I. 300. Mineral Resources of Afghanistan. (By A.S.Salah, V.M.Chmyriov, Sh.Abdullah, K.F.StazhiloAlekseev, V.I.Dronov, A.Kh.Kafarsky, L.N.Rossovsky, P.J.Gannon, E.P.Malyarov). Prin. Kabul Times, Kabul, 1978. 301. Miroshnitchenko V.E., Ksenofontov I.V. Report on prospecting for and revision of coal deposits carried out by the coal Prospecting Team in 1967. Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1968. 302. Mirzad S.H., Koltchanov V.P., Manutcharyants O.A. Afghanistan. (Brief information on the geology and minerals). Bull. MOIP. Otd. geologii, 1968, 43, 1, pp. 31-50. 303. Moraliov V.M., Perfiliev Yu.S., Elyanov A.A., Bolts of ultramafic rocks in the Middle East and regularities of chromite deposits distribution. M., 1970, Tr.NIL Zarubezh- geol., 21. 304. Muratov V.M., Arkhipov I.V. On tectonic position of the Pamirs within the system of folded mountain constructions in the South-Western and Central Asia. Bull. MOIP. Otd. geologii, 1961, 34, 3, pp. 97-121. 305. Muratov M.V. Tectonic history of the Alpine folded region of the South-Eastern Europe and Minor Asia.- Izv. AN SSSR, Seriya geol. 1962. 2. p. 306. Muratov M.V. Structure of the Folded Basement of the Mediterranean Belt of Europe and Western Asia and the main stages of the development of the belt.- Geotektonika, 1969 2, pp. 3-21. 307. Murina C.A., Khorova B.Ya., Shchiogolev N.D. Formation and activization of the metamorphic series in the South-Western Pamir from the geologo-petrological and radiological data. Izv. AN SSSR. Seriya geol., 1965, 8, pp. 9-17. 308. Mosehovitch E.B., Chistyakov A.A, Au orogenic stage of the Baluchistan Geosyncline evolution. Sovetskaya geologiya 1969, 2, pp. 47-54, 309. Narodniy V.M., Shwarkov S.L. Report on the results of survey and prospecting for beryl carried out in 1963-64 in the eastern part of Afghanistan with the reserves assessment of the Darrahe Pech rare metalbearing pegmatite deposit. Kabul, Rec. Off. DCMS, 1965. 310. Nazarov G.P. Report on the results of prospecting for placer and lode gold, carried out in the Badakhshan and Talikan provinces (North Afghanistan) in 1963-1964. Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1965. 311. Neotoctonics of the northern part of Afghan Badakhshan. (By: V.V.Solokhov, D.B.Dodonov, V.M.Moraliov, V.V.Skotarenko, A.A.Shubnikov), Geomorphologiya, 1975, 3, p. 312. Neovolcanism of Central Afghaniatan. (By: A.N.Diomin, V.I.Slavin, Yu.M.Dovgal, S.S.Karapetov, A.Ya. Kotchetkov, I.I.Sonin, M.A.Chalian). Izv. VUZov, Geologiya i razvodka, 1972, 2, p. 313. New data on intrusive magmatism in the North-Western Hendukush. (By: V.V.Kulakov, K.Ya.Mikhailov, B.R.Pashkov, M.A.Chalian) - V knige: Materialy po regionalnoi geologii Afriki i Zarubezhnoi Azii. Tr.NIL Zarubezhgeol., 1971, 22, pp. 131-135.

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334. Pias J. Sols dAfghanistan. Pedogeneses anciennes et actuelles Afghanistan soils. Ancient et present pedogenesis. Rev. Gogr. phys. Gol. dynam., Paris, 1972, 14, 4, U. 335. Pyzhiyanov I.V. Carboniferous and Pemian corals from Afghanistan and their stratigraphic significance.- V knige: Noviye dannye pc geologii Tadjikistana, 1974, vyp. 3, pp. 53-60. 336. Pyzhiyanov I.V., Sonin I.I. The main stratigraphic features of the Upper Paleozoic and Lower Mesozoic in Afghanistan. Izv. VUZov. Geologiya i razvedka, 1977, No. 12, pp.30-39. 337. Plodowkiy C. Stratigraphie und Spiriferen (Brachiopo da) des Palaozoikums der Dacht-e-Nawar/SW (Afghanistan) Paleontographica, Stuttgart, 1970, Abt. A, 134, Liefg. 1-3, 5. 1-132. 338. Pokidishev V.P., Arvanitaki S.E., Sliozov V.A. Report on the results of prospecting for mercury carried exit by the Pasaband Team in 1971-1973. Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1974. 339. Popol S.A., Tromp S.W. The stratigraphy and main structural features of Afghanistan. Pt.I, II - Proc. Kon. Nederl. Akad.Wet., Amsterdam, 1954, Ser. B, 57, 3, pp.370-394. 340. Popova N.A. Ultrabasic rocks and associated basic intrusions within the southern flank of the Darwaz Ridge (The Northern Pamir). V knige: Materiali po geologii Pamira. Dushanbe, 1963, I, pp. 213-233. 341. Position of Afghanistan within the structures of the Mediterranean Fold Belt. (By: V.I.Dronov, V.M.Chmyriov, A.Kh. Kafarsky, K.F.Stazhilo-Alekseev). Thes. Rep. V knige: IV Nauchno-metodicheskaya konferentsiya, KU i KPI. Kabul, 1976, pp. 58-59. 342,. Prashad B. Some fresh-water and land. fossil Mollusks from near Ghorband, Afghanistan. Rec. geol. Surv. India, Calcutta, 1937, 72, 1 pp. 125-129. 343. Prsence du Permien du Lias et du Jurassique dans la rgion dUrusgan (Afghanistan central). (A.F.Lapparent, J.Blaise, M..Lys, R.Mouterde).- C.R.Acad. Sci., Paris, 1966, 263, 11, pp. 805-807. 344. Rare alkalies in carbonated springs confined to deep-seated faults in Middle Afghanistan. (B.A.Kolotov, V.M.Chmyriov, V.A.Polyakov, H.Alan) . Thes. Rep. V knige: IV Nauchnaya metedicheskaya konferentsiya, KU i KPI, Kabul, 1976, p.128. 345. Report on geological prospecting at the Shabashek coal deposit in 1963-1964. (By: B.N.Azidrosev, N.S.Kudryashev, G.N.Sidalikhodjaev, I.I,Marshansky). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1965. 346. Report on geological prospecting at the Farenjal barite deposit in 1963-1964 and at the Tangi Murch celestino deposit in 1964. CYu.M.Kazak, P.F.Lapki, E.A.Tolstukhin, M.S.Koretsky). Kabul, Roe. Off. DGMS, 1965. 347. Report on geological survey for coal, scale 1:200,00 (Herat province, parts of sheets 1-41-IX, X, XI, XVI). (By: K.Ya.Mikhailov, V.V.Kulakov, V.P.Koltchanov, B.P.Pashkov). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1965. 348. Report on geological survey on a scale of 1:200,000 carried out in the Farkhar River basins Takhar Province (parts of sheets 222-D, F-223-C, B). (By: V.P.Koltchanov, S.K.Abdrakhmanov, P.S.Matveev, V.P.Danilov, K.Ya. Mikhailov), Kabul, Rec. Off. DCMS, 1967. 349. Report on geological prospecting carried out by the Coal Prospecting Team in Afghanistan in 1966. (I.V.Makeev, I.V.Ksenofontov, V.N.Nesterov, A.T.Sanzhanov, E.Ya.Martchenko) Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1967. 350. Report on geological survey (scale 1:200,000) in the coal-bearing regions of North-Eastern Afghanistan. Sheets 222-C 502-F, 503-B; parts of sheets 221-F, 222-D, 222-F, 502-C, 502-F, 503,A, 503-C, 503-D, 503-E, 504-A. (By: K.Ya.Mikhailov, V.P.Koltchanov, V.V.Kulakov, B.R.Pashkov, B.N.Androsov, M.A.Chalian). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1907. 351. Report on geological survey (scale of 1:200,000) on. the left-hand bank of the Panj River and special geomorfologicl survey on the right-hand bank of Panj carried out in 1965-1967. (By: V.M.Moraliov, V.B.Skotarenko, A.A.Elynov et al.) M.Rec. Off. NIL Zarubezhgeologiya, 1967. 483

352. Report on the results of revision and assessment of copper, lead, zinc, gold occurrences carried out in 1965-1966. (By: R.LKhasanov, G.I.Plotnikov, R.A.Bayazitov, G.N.Zamaraev, A.I.Trifonov, V.I.Sayapin). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1967. 353. Report on the results of geological prospecting at the Kundalan mineral deposit and Sela-i-Surkh, Anaga and Gbargay occurrences in 1968. (G.I.Plotnikov, V.A.Miroshnitchenko, A.P.Slozhenikin, F.V.Khadzhibaev, V.N.Chaikin). Kabul, Rec. Off., 1969. 354. Report on the results of prospecting for mercury on a scale of 1:50,000 in 1971. (By: G.A.Orlov, B.T.Kononykhin, A.A.Mamedov, I.I.Sonin) Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1971. 355. Report on the results of prospecting at the Spira mineral occurrence (Sheets 516-F-I, 516-F-III). (O.A.Nikitin, B.T.Kononykhin, A.N.Korol, Fakir). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1973. 356. Report on the results of geological prospecting and survey for copper and base metals carried out by the Andreskan and Dusar teams in Western Afghanistan in 1971-1972. (By: V.I. Tarasenko, A.C.Kovalenko, S.B.Arwanitaki, N.I.Borozenets). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1973. 357. Report by the Jigdalek Team on prospecting for rubies in 1973-1974 (By: G.A.Orlov, G.S.Sloboda, C.K.Eriomenko, A.V.Zhdan, P.S.Matveev, S.Gauwari), Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1974. 358. Report by the Taywara and Kharnak teams on prospecting for mercury in 1973-74. (By: L.E.Kornev, A.V.Zhdan, G.A.Orlov, Y.Yu.Mironov, P.S. Matveev, G.S.Tsobolov, V.A.Sliozov). Kabul Rec.. Off., 1975. 359. Rezvoiy D.P. Structure of the Himalayas. V knige: Skladchatye oblasti Evrazii. M. Nauka Publishers, 1964. 360. Rezvoiy D.P An important geological divide of the Asian continent. V knige: Gimalaiyskiy i Alpiyskiy orogenez. Inter. geol. Congr. XXII ses. Rep. sov. geol. Problem II. M., Nauka Publishers, 1964, pp. 173-186. 361, Rossi Ronchetti C. Fossili cretacei di Pull-i-Khurmi (Afghanistan). Riv. ital. Paleont., Milano, 1961, 67, 4, p. 341-368. 362. Rossi Ronchetti C., Sestini, N.F. La fauna giarassica di Karker (Afghanistan),- Riv. ital. Paleont., Milano, 1961, 67, 2, pp. 103-152. 363. Rossovskiy L.N. Rare metals (lithium, beryllium, tantalum, caesium) in Afghanistan. The reserves and value of various ore grades in local conditions. Kabul, Rec. Off, DGMS, 1974. 364. Rossovskiy L.N., Chmyriov V.M., Salah A.S. On the new fields and belts of rare metal pegmatites in the Hendukush (Eastern Afghanistan) Geologiya rudnykh mestorozhenii, 1975, XVII, 5. 365. Rossovskiy L.N., Chmyriov V.M. Regularities of rare metal pegmatites distribution in. the Hedukush (Afghanistan). Izv. AN SSSR. Seriya geol., 1976, 5. 366. Rossovskiy L.N., Chmyriov V.M. Salah A.S. Aphanite spodumene dykes, their relation to lithiumbearing pegmatites and formation environment. DAN SSSR, 1976, 226, 6, p. 367. Rossovskiy L.N., Chmyriov V.M., Salah A.S, Vertical amplitude and zonation of spodumene-bearing pegmatite deposits in Afghanistan.- DAN SSSR, 1976, 227, 4. 368. Rossovskiy L.N., Chmyriov V.M., Salah A.S. Geology and formation environment of spodumene deposits in the Hendu-kush.- Geologiya rudnykh mestorozhdenii, 1976, 6. 369. Rossovskiy L.N., Konovalenko S.I., Chmyriov V.M. ; Formation depth of granite pegmatites (exemplified by the Hendukush).- Izv. AN SSSR. Seriya geol., 1976, 10. 370. Ruzhentsev S.V. Tectonic history of the Eastern Pamir and a role of horizontal displacements in the formation of its Alpine structure. M., Nauka Publishers, 1968. Tr.GIN AN SSSR, vyp. 192. 371. Sborshchikov I.M., Drannikov V.S., Bilan, I.K. Geology and minerals of Southern and South-Eastern Afghanistan (parts of sheets 500-III, IV; 700-I, 600-II,IV). Kabul, Rec. Off. DGMS, 1974. 484

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