BIOLOGY FINAL REVIEW

Ecology
Interdependence- When different organisms rely on each other for different things Trophic levelso 1st Level- Producer o 2nd Level- Primary Consumer o 3rd Level- Secondary Consumer o 4th Level- Tertiary Consumer o 5th Level- Quaternary Consumer food chains- one way flow of energy through an ecosystem o Example: Pond- algae-> Minnow-> Bass-> Snapping turtle-> Hawk energy flow- goes in one direction (producers then through various consumers o Producers- 10,000 kcal o 1st degree consumer- 1,000 kcal o 2nd degree consumer- 100 kcal o 3rd degree consumer- 10 kcal o 4th degree consumer- 1 kcal Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)- total amount of biomass (organic material) made by producers Net Primary Productivity- GPP minus producers use of organic matter for own energy (respiration, growth, reproduction) Nutrient cycles (biogeochemical cycles)o Water Cycle

o Nitrogen Cycle

o Oxygen Cycle

o Phosphorus Cycle

o Carbon Cycle

Biotic and abiotic factors o Abiotic Factors- ex. Long Island Sound Salinity Temperature Oxygen levels Turbidity o Biotic Factors Parasitism Predation disease o Tolerance curves- shows effect of abiotic on performance Population growth models

Population bottlenecks

Species interactions- symbiosis, density dependence and independence o Types of Symbiotic Relationships Mutualism- different species all benefit from the relationship Commensalism- one species benefits and the other isnt harmed Parasitism- one species benefits, the other is harmed o Density dependence- (Species specific) Change in population due to not enough resources (ie. Birds and nesting) o Density independence- (All organisms in ecosystem) Large catastrophe (ex. Volcano, hurricane, blizzard) that damages many different species Current events-acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion, invasive species o Acid Rain pH of 6 or less CO2+H20 H2CO3 (carbonic acid- very weak acid) o Burning Coal SO2+H20 H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) o Car Emissions Nitric Acid o Ozone Depletion Culprit- chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (are illegal) UV- kills cells O3 is ozone O3 O2 + O (unstable) o Global Warming Greenhouse Effect Causes- CO2 and CH4 (methane) Biological Magnification- increase in concentration of pollutants/toxins up the trophic levels of an ecosystem

Evolution
Charles Darwin- developed the idea of natural selection Natural Selection- The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. Evidence of evolution o Fossil Record- Law of superposition- A general law stating that in any sequence of sediments or rocks that has not been overturned, the youngest sediments or rocks are at the top of the sequence and the oldest are at the bottom. o Radioactive Dating- a technique used to date materials such as rocks, usually based on a comparison between the observed abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope and its decay products, using known decay rates. o Comparative anatomy Homologous Structures- similar origin (genetically) Different functions Ex- forelimbs- vertebrates o Human, bird, porpoise, elephant Ex of divergent evolution and adaptive evolution Analogous Structures- convergent evolution Less common ancestors Structures have different genetic origins but similar functions o Vestigial Structures- once useful- seem have been functional Ex.- appendix and wisdom teeth o Embryology- vertebrates- early embryos very similar in structures o Biological Molecules all living organisms use DNA for heredity and protein synthesis all living organisms use ATP for energy all vertebrates use a protein called cytochrome C in respiration o Biogeography Similar species found thousands of miles apart

Pangaea/ Theory of Continental Drift Some species quite unique due to geographic isolation Speciation- geographic isolation- mechanism for new species Artificial Selection/Genetic Engineering o Gets rid of undesirable traits and adds desirable traits ex. seedless fruits bacteria/ virus deterrents and immunology Present day concerns (bacteria/ viruses) o Bacterial and viral evolution Different strains of bacteria/ virus can evolve to become immune to drugs Ex.- MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) o Bacteria evolved to become immune to Methicillin o Once the genetically modified organisms are out there, they spread rapidly Classification methodologies- binomial nomenclature, ect. o Binomial Nomenclature Genus species Ex- Homo sapiens Hierarchies- domain to species o Species o Genus o Family o Order o Class o Phylum o Kingdom o Domain. Dichotomous keys o Ex:

Classification

Microbiology
Bacteriao identification o structures Coccus (round) Bacillus (rod-shaped) Spirillum (spiral) Viruses- cycles- lytic, lysogenic

Genetic Engineering- DNA is inserted into host cell and is incorporated into host DNA Transduction- DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another by a virus Conjugation- genetic information shared through a pillus Gram Staining- (staining cell wall) o Gram positive (purple)- thick layer of peptidoglycan o Gram Negative (red)- 2 very thin layers of peptidoglycan Respiration o Obligate aerobes-need oxygen o Obligate anaerobes- cannot survive in the presence of oxygen Animal characteristics o Multicellular o Heterotrophs o Mobility o Sexual reproduction o Absence of cell wall o Blastula formation o Symmetry Asymmetry

Introduction to Animals

Radial symmetry Bilateral symmetry o Cephalization o Body Cavity- coelum Embryology and development- protostomes, deuterostomes Germ Layerso Ectoderm Integumentary system o Mesoderm Skeletal and muscular o Endoderm Digestive and circulatory (other inner organs) Body plans o Acoelomate- gut not surrounded by mesoderm o Pseudocoelomate- gut partially surrounded by mesoderm o Coelomate- gut completely surrounded by mesoderm Layers o Epidermis- non vascular, epithelial tissue o Dermis- tough leathery layer composed of fibrous connective tissue (good supply of blood) o Hypodermis Made of adipose and areolar tissue Stores fat, anchors skin, protects against blows Special cells o Keratinocytes- produce protein called keratin o Melanocytes- synthesizes the black pigment in melanin o Langerhans Cells- formed in bone marrow, stops bacteria Functions o Protection o Thermoregulation o Sensory o Vitamin D absorption 3 Pigmentso Melanin o Carotene o Hemoglobin Sweat Glands Sebaceous Glands (oil) Hair o Made from hair follicle o Made of dead keratinized skin cells o Two parts, shaft and root

Integumentary System

Digestive System
Functions of each part of the GI tract o Teeth- increase surface area o Saliva- softens and moistens food.. amylase starts to digest carbs o Hard Palate- helps tongue turn food into bolus o Tongue- forces food into pharynx o Esophagus- peristalsis pushed food down into stomach o Stomach- initial digestions occurs o Small intestine-break down of food occurs and nutrients are absorped into the blood stream o Large Intestine- water absorption occurs o Anus-waste products leave body Supporting organs o Liver-makes bile Mechanically changes fat into smaller droplets (emulsification) Stored in gallbladder o Pancreas- makes most digestive enzymes Amylase- starch to glucose Protease, Trypsin, Chymotrypsin- proteins into peptides Lipase- fats (triglycerides to monoglycerides) Buffers to increase pH of gastric juices Functions o Obtains oxygen need to make ATP for aerobic cellular respiration o Oxygen is picked up by hemoglobin then diffuses into cell o Gets rid of CO2 7%of the CO2 stays in the plasma 23% attaches to hemoglobin 70% converted into bicarbonic ion (HCO3-) H2CO3 HCO3-+H+ When it hits the lungs HCO3-+H+ H2O + CO2 o Then leaved body as water vapor (carbon dioxide and water) Structures o Lungs- lined with alveoli (many capillaries to absorb oxygen into blood stream to be carried throughout the body) Heart- four equal sized chambers

Respiratory System

Circulatory System

o Blood Flow o Pulmonary Circulation Deoxygenated blood to lungs (from right ventricle) Oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium o Systemic Circulation Oxygenated blood to body through arteries and capillaries (blood exits heart through aorta from the left ventricle) Deoxygenated blood from body to right atrium through veins Vessels o Arteries Carries oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery) Thick walls Lots of pressure o Veins Very little pressure Carries deoxygenated blood Thin, collapsible walls Functions o Filters blood o Gets rid of waste (ammonia from liver is converted to urea) o Kidneyureterurinary bladderurethra Structures o Nephron (1 million per kidney) Filtration in Bowmans Capsule Loop of Henle (reabsorption)

Excretory System

Structure of nephron:

Nervous System
Functions o Response to stimuli Structures o Neuron (nerve cell) Dendrites (many short) Input to cell body Axons (very few, long) Output from cell body o White matter Associated with myelin sheath (increase conductance, integrity, and speed) Nerve Impulse o Resting potential Lack of impulse Inside of cell negative

 o Impulse Sodium gated channels open- Na+ rushes into cell across membrane(now inside is positive) Depolarization Caused when action potential is reached o Stimulus threshold o Repolarization No channels close K channels open Cell returns to resting potential (-inside, +outside) o Process Repeats Impulse moves down axon Brain o Parts Cerebrum Mainly the central processor Involves memory, behaviors, how we process our senses, our thinking and intelligence Cerebellum Mainly involved with voluntary muscle coordination Medulla Controls autonomic functions o Breathing o Digestion o Heart and blood vessel function o Swallowing o sneezing Thalamus Combines right and left side of brain Pituitary Glands Secretes a lot of hormones Controlled by hypothalamus