CHAPTER

Readers and Contexts of Use

Profiling Your Readers 39 Help: Profiling Readers with Search Engines 45 Profiling Contexts of Use 46 Using Profiles to Your Own Advantage 48 International and Cross-Cultural Communication 53 Chapter Review 58 Exercises and Projects 59 Case Study: Installing a Medical Waste Incinerator 61

In this chapter, you will learn:

How to use the computer as a reader analysis tool. How to develop a comprehensive profile of a documents readers. How to sort your readers into primary, secondary, tertiary, or gatekeeper audiences. Techniques for identifying readers needs, values, and attitudes about you and your document. How to analyze the physical, economic, political, and ethical contexts of use that influence how readers will interpret your text. How to anticipate the needs of international and cross-cultural readers.

nowing your readers is essential to effective technical communication. More than ever, readers dont have time to slog through information they dont need. So, you should find out exactly what your readers need to know and how they want that information presented.

Your readers only want the information they need to make a decision or take action. As the writer, you need to find out what they need and how they want the information presented.

Another concern is the ever-increasing importance of international communication through electronic networks. In technical fields, you will find yourself regularly communicating with people who speak other languages, have different customs, and hold different expectations. Computers have broken down many of the geographical barriers that once separated people and cultures. It is now common to communicate with people around the world on a daily basis. In this chapter, you will learn how to develop profiles of your readers, so you can anticipate what they need to know and the contexts in which your documents will be used.

Profiling Your Readers

In technical communication, documents are designed to suit the needs of specific types of readers. For this reason, early in the writing process, you should profile the types of people who might be interested in your document (Figure 3.1).

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Developing a Reader Profile

Who are they? Figure 3.1: To develop a profile of your readers, use the Five-W and How Questions to look at them from a variety of perspectives.

What do they need?

Where will they be reading? Profile of Readers When will they be reading?

Why will they be reading?

How will they be reading?

Reader profiles are sketches of your readers tendencies, abilities, experiences, needs, values, and attitudes. To build a profile, begin asking yourself the Five-W and How Questions about your readers.

Who might read this document? What information do they need? Where will they read the document? When will they read the document? Why will they be reading it? How will they be reading it?
As you answer these questions, keep in mind the following guidelines about your readers and how they prefer to read. Guideline One: Readers are raiders for informationPeople dont read technical documents for pleasure. Instead, most readers are raiding your document for the information they need to make decisions or take action. Guideline Two: Readers are wholly responsible for interpreting your textYou wont be available to explain what your document means, so your readers need to be able to easily figure out what you are telling them.

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For websites that offer other ways to use the Five-W and How Questions, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/johnsonweb3/3.1 What else do readers want? For answers, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/johnsonweb3/3.2

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About Your Readers

Readers are raiders

for information.

Guideline Three: Readers want only need-to-know information Readers want you to give them only the information they need. Any additional material only makes the information they want harder to find. Guideline Four: Readers prefer concise textsThe shorter, the better. Usually, the longer the document is, the less likely that people are going to read it.Your readers prefer documents that get to the point and highlight the important information. Guideline Five: Readers prefer documents with graphics and effective page designWe live in a visual culture. Large blocks of text intimidate most readers. So, include graphics and use page design to make your document more readable. Think about how you are reading this book. More than likely, you are raiding for need-to-know information.You want the book to be concise and visually interesting.Your readers want these things too.

AT A GLANCE

Readers are wholly

responsible for interpreting your text. Readers want only need-to-know information. Readers prefer concise texts. Readers prefer documents with graphics and effective page design.

Identifying Your Readers

You should always begin by identifying the readers of your document. Figure 3.2 shows a Writer-Centered Analysis Chart that will help you locate the various people who might look over your text (Mathes & Stevenson, 1976).You, as the writer, are in the center ring. Each ring in the chart identifies your readers from most important (primary readers) to least important (tertiary readers). To use the Writer-Centered Chart, begin filling in the names and titles of the primary, secondary, tertiary, and gatekeeper readers who will or might look over your work.

Writer-Centered Analysis Chart

Gatekeepers
Figure 3.2: A Writer-Centered Analysis Chart starts with you in the center and identifies the various people who may be interested in your document.

Tertiary

Secondary

Primary

Writer

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For a downloadable version of the Writer-Centered Analysis Chart, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/johnsonweb3/3.3

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PRIMARY READERS (ACTION TAKERS) The primary readers are the people to whom your document is addressed. They are usually action takers because the information you are providing them will allow them to do something or make a decision. Usually your document will have only one or two primary readers or types of primary readers. SECONDARY READERS (ADVISORS) The secondary readers are people who advise the primary readers. Usually, they are experts in the field, or they have special knowledge that the primary readers require to make a decision. They might be engineers, technicians, lawyers, scientists, doctors, accountants, and others to whom the primary readers will turn for advice. TERTIARY READERS (EVALUATORS) The tertiary readers include others who may have an interest in your documents information. They are often evaluators of you, your team, or your company. These readers might be local news reporters, lawyers, auditors, historians, politicians, community activists, environmentalists, or perhaps your companys competitors. Even if you dont expect your document to ever fall into these readers hands, you should keep them in mind to avoid saying anything that could put you or your company at risk. Figure 3.3, for example, shows a Types of Readers memo in which the tertiary readers were not kept in mind. Primary readers: Action takers GATEKEEPERS (SUPERVISORS) The gatekeepers are people who will need Secondary readers: to look over your document before it is sent to the primary readers.Your Advisors most common gatekeeper is your immediate supervisor. In some cases, Tertiary readers: Evaluators though, your companys lawyers, accountants, and others may need to sign Gatekeepers: off on the document before it is sent out. Supervisors

AT A GLANCE

Each of these four types of readers will look for different kinds of information.The primary readers are the most important, so their needs come first. Nevertheless, a well-written document also anticipates the needs of the secondary, tertiary, and gatekeeper readers.

Profiling Your Readers Needs,Values, and Attitudes

Now that you have identified the readers of your document, you should develop profiles that describe their needs, values, and attitudes. Dont assume that your readers have the same needs, values, and attitudes as you do. Readers often have very different characteristics and expectations than the writers of a document. As you begin considering your readers, think about some of the following issues: Readers familiarity with the subject Readers professional experience Readers educational level Readers reading and comprehension level Readers skill level

With these reader characteristics in mind, you can begin viewing your document from their perspective. To help you deepen this perspective, a Reader Analysis Chart, like the one shown in Figure 3.4, can help you identify your readers needs, values, and attitudes toward your text.

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A Memo That Does Not Consider Tertiary Readers

From: [DHS] Broadcast Sent: Tuesday, January 30, 2007 Subject: MESSAGE FROM [DHS] DEPUTY SECRETARY (Michael) JACKSON: DHS FHC SURVEY RESULTS Importance: High January 30, 2007

Primary readers are identified here.

MEMORANDUM FOR ALL DHS EMPLOYEES FROM: SUBJECT: MICHAEL P. JACKSON Federal Human Capital Survey Results

The purpose and main point are stated up front.

The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) surveyed federal employees last summer about various measures of job satisfaction and agency performance, and the results will be released today. Over 10,400 DHS employees responded and, candidly, what you said shows that DHS is not where any of us wants to be. The survey results will be posted on the OPM website (www.opm.gov) and our own DHS intranet, and we encourage you to review them in detail. In brief, of 36 peer federal agencies surveyed, DHS ranks as follows: 36th on the job satisfaction index 35th on the leadership and knowledge management index 36th on the results-oriented performance culture index 33rd on the talent management index These results deliver a clear and jolting message from managers and line employees alike. On whole, it is not significantly changed since OPMs 2004 employee survey. Secretary Chertoff and I discussed these results with concern. Initial details indicate that we get low marks in basic supervision, management and leadership. Some examples are: Promotion and pay increase based on merit Dealing with poor performance Rewarding creativity and innovation Leadership generating high levels of motivation in the workforce Recognition for doing a good job Lack of satisfaction with various component policies and procedures Lack of information about what is going on with the organization I am writing to assure you that, starting at the top, the leadership team across DHS is committed to address the underlying reasons for DHS employee dissatisfaction and suggestions for improvement. Standing up this new and vital Department is clearly not a walk in the park, but our employees bring a passion for this mission, great professionalism and outstanding performance every single day. DHS employees have shouldered the weight of long hours, complex integration assignments, multiple reorganizations, and no small amount of criticism. In some cases youve had to wait too long for tools you need to suceed. These are not excuses to rationalize where we stand, rather an acknowledgement on my part of how much our team is doing. And there are good news items in the survey for DHS. As chief operating officer of DHS, I commit to improve results. We will need your help. Several months ago, the Secretary asked the Homeland Security Advisory Council to study and suggest a strategy for creating a stronger common culture. This month, drawing on the experience of top executives in the private sector, the Council has delivered a set of recommendations for promoting a culture of excellence in DHS.

This list summarizes the current situation.

Figure 3.3: This memo was leaked to the press by someone at the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). In it, the DHS Deputy Director discusses the results of a survey of government employees. The surveys results reveal the incredibly low opinion that DHSs employees have of their department and its management. The author tries to spin the results while conceding the obvious. This memo caused some public embarrassment when it slipped out.

The author looks to the future. The memo returns to its main point.

In the days ahead, our Under Secretary for Management, Paul Schneider, will join the Secretary and me in evaluating carefully the details of the OPM survey and the HSAC report. Our first steps will be to analyze thoroughly the survey data, including specific attention to those government organizations that are recognized for their high performance in these areas, and determine the specific steps to improvement. This process wil include the leadership team in each operating component and every headquarters unit to discuss details of the survey with our workforce. We will do so with a sense of urgency and seriousness. Strengthening core management is one of the Secretarys highest priorities and the key elements are effective communications and proper recognition of our workforce. You deserve nothing less. We will build on some good work that has already been done to chart a path forward on these issues. We will then go where you point us, to improve job satisfaction for the DHS team. Along the way, I will continue to ask for your help and guidance. Thanks in advance for that assistance, and thanks for what you are doing each day for DHS.

Source: Slate Magazine, http://www.slate.com/id2158997.

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Reader Analysis Chart

Readers Needs Values Attitudes
Figure 3.4: To better understand your readers, fill this Reader Analysis Chart with notes about their characteristics.

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

Gatekeepers

To use the Reader Analysis Chart, fill in what you know about your readers needs, values, and attitudes. What information do your primary readers require to make a decision or take action? What do the secondary readers need if they are going to make positive recommendations to the primary readers? What are the tertiary and gatekeeper readers looking for in your document?
NEEDS

Determining How Readers Make Decisions

VALUES

What do your readers value most? Do they value efficiency and consistency? Do they value accuracy? Is profit a key concern? How much do they value environmental or social concerns?

Needsinformation
the readers need to take action or make a decision Valuesissues, goals, or beliefs that the readers feel are important Attitudesthe readers emotional response to you, your project, or your company

ATTITUDES

What are your readers attitudes toward you, your company, and the subject of your document? Will your readers be excited, upset, wary, positive, hopeful, careful, concerned, skeptical, or gladdened by what you are telling them?

AT A GLANCE

As you fill in the Reader Analysis Chart, you will be making strategic guesses about your readers. Put a question mark (?) in spaces where you arent sure about your readers needs, values, or attitudes. These question marks highlight where you need to do more research on your readers. To find out more, you might interview people who are Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) at your company or who hire themselves out as consultants. These experts may be able to give you insights into your readers likely characteristics. Above all, your goal is to view the situation from your readers perspective.Your profile will help you anticipate how your readers act, react, and make decisions.

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For a downloadable version of the Reader Analysis Chart, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/johnsonweb3/3.5 What is the commonsense trap? www.pearsonhighered.com/johnsonweb3/3.6

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Profiling Readers with Search Engines

Search engines on the Internet are great tools for collecting information on just about any topic, including your readers and the contexts in which they will use your document. The most popular search engines are Google, Ask,Yahoo, Lycos, HotBot, Excite, and AllTheWeb. Each of these search engines will allow you to type in keywords, a phrase, or even a whole question (Figure A). The search engine will find any websites with those words in them. You can learn a great amount about your readers by typing in a few keywords. For example, lets say you are writing a proposal to the Salmon Recovery Program in Washington State.You can type in the phrase:
Salmon Recovery Program in Washington

HELP

The search engine will pull up thousands of pages that refer to this subject (Google found over 250,000 pages). The engine will usually rank them for you, trying to present you with the most relevant pages first. Of course, you couldnt read that many pages in your lifetime.You need to narrow your search with some helpful symbols and strategies. For example, perhaps you

Internet Search Engine

Figure A: Type in some keywords, and the search engine will look for information on that subject.

Google.com is one of the more popular search engines.

Keywords are typed here.

The Im Feeling Lucky button takes you immediately to the most relevant website located by the search engine.

Source: Google, http://www.google.com. GOOGLE is a trademark of Google, Inc.

(continued)

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To find websites that help you search for information about people, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/johnsonweb3/3.7

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notice that Alice Guthrie is the director of the Salmon Recovery Program. So, you refine your search with plus and minus signs. The + signPutting a + in front of words tells the search engine to find only pages that have those words in them.
Salmon Recovery Program +Washington +Alice +Guthrie

Link
For more information on using search engines, see Chapter 7, page 149.

Here, the search engine will pull up only pages with Alice and Guthrie in them. The signPutting a in front of words will eliminate pages with information you dont want.
Salmon Recovery Program +Washington +Alice +Guthrie restaurant

With this minus sign, you can eliminate any pages that refer to Arlo Guthries song Alices Restaurant. Quotation marksIf you put a phrase in quotes, the search engine will look for that exact phrase:
Salmon Recovery Program +Washington +Alice +Guthrie restaurant

Wildcard symbolsSome search engines also have symbols for wildcards. These symbols are helpful when you know most of a phrase, but not all of it.
Salmon ? Program +Washington +Alice +Guthrie restaurant

Different search engines use different wildcard symbols. Commonly used symbols include ?,*, and %. It is amazing how much you can learn about your readers (and other topics) with search engines. These helpful tools will allow you to tailor your documents to the specific needs of your readers.

Profiling Contexts of Use

The places where people will read your document can strongly influence how they interpret what you say. So, you should also build a profile of the contexts of use in which they will read or use your document.

Identifying the Context of Use

Perhaps the most obvious concern is the physical context in which the document will be used.Will your readers be in their office or at a meeting? Will they be on the factory floor, trying to repair a robotic arm? Or, are they in the emergency room, trying to save someones life? Each of these physical contexts will alter the way your readers interpret your document. But context of use goes beyond your readers physical context.Your readers may also be influenced by the economic, ethical, and political issues that shape how they see the world. To help you sort out these various contexts, you can use a Context Analysis Chart like the one shown in Figure 3.5.

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Search engines are available at www.pearsonhighered.com/johnsonweb3/3.8 Want more search engine tips? Go to www.pearsonhighered.com/johnsonweb3/3.9

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Context Analysis Chart

Figure 3.5: Each reader is influenced by physical, economic, political, and ethical concerns. A Context Analysis Chart anticipates these concerns for the primary readers, their company, and their industry.

Physical Context

Economic Context

Political Context

Ethical Context

Primary Readers

Readers Company

Readers Industry

Context of Use

Physical contextthe
places where the readers will use your document Economic context the money-related issues that will restrain the kinds of actions possible Political contextthe micropolitical and macropolitical trends that will guide your readers Ethical contextthe personal, social, and environmental issues that shape the readers responses

Here is how to use the Context Analysis Chart: Fill in what you know about the physical, economic, political, and ethical issues that might influence the primary readers, their company, and their industry.
PHYSICAL CONTEXT Where will your readers use your document? How do these various places affect how they will read your document? How should you write and design the document to fit these places? ECONOMIC CONTEXT

AT A GLANCE

What are the economic issues that will influence your readers decisions? What are the costs and benefits of your ideas? How would accepting your ideas change the financial situation of your readers, their company, or their industry?

POLITICAL CONTEXT What are the political forces influencing you and your readers? On a micropolitical level, how will your ideas affect your readers relationships with you, their supervisors, or their colleagues? On a macropolitical level, how will political trends at the local, state, federal, and international levels shape how your readers interpret your ideas?

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For a downloadable version of the Context Analysis Chart, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/johnsonweb3/3.10

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Link
For more help on identifying ethical issues, see Chapter 5, page 92.

ETHICAL CONTEXT

How will your ideas affect the rights, values, and well-being of others? Does your document involve any social or environmental issues that might be of concern to your readers? Will any laws or rules be bent or broken if your readers do what you want? Put a question mark (?) in spaces where you dont have specific information about your readers physical, economic, political, and ethical contexts.You can then turn to the Internet for answers, or you can interview Subject Matter Experts who may have the answers you need.

Using Profiles to Your Own Advantage

You are now ready to use your Reader Analysis and Context Analysis charts to strengthen your writing and make it more informed and persuasive. In your charts, circle or highlight the most important terms, concepts, and phrases. The items you circle are the tensions that you will need to address as you collect information and draft the document. As you draft your document, your analysis of readers and contexts of use will help you make strategic decisions about what information to include in your document. Readers dont need all the information you have available. They need only enough to make a decision or take action. organize your document to highlight the information that is most important to your readers. Information that your readers consider crucial should be moved up front where they can find it. develop a persuasive style that will appeal to your readers.Your notes about their values and attitudes can be used to shape the document to their biases and beliefs. design the document for the places it will be used.Your understanding of the context in which the document will be used will help you create the maximum visual impact. For important documents, this deeper understanding will give your writing extra potency and legitimacy. Readers will appreciate your efforts to see the situation from their point of view. Figures 3.6 and 3.7 show documents from the same website about the same topic, West Nile virus, that are written to two different types of readers. The first document, Figure 3.6, is written to the general public. Notice how it uses content, organization, style, and design to appeal to this audience. The second document, Figure 3.7, is written to medical personnel. Notice how the content is far more complex, and the style is less personal in the document for medical personnel. Effective reader analysis and context analysis allowed the author of these documents (probably the same person) to effectively present the same information to two very different kinds of readers.

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Document Written to the General Public

Figure 3.6: This document on West Nile virus was written to the general public. It is action oriented and not very technical. The images also help reinforce the message, and the layout makes it highly scannable.

Style is action oriented.

Images reinforce written text.

Headings help readers scan document.

Common examples are used to illustrate points.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/ westnile/index.htm.

(continued)

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Figure 3.6: (continued)

Links provide more information.

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Chapter 3 Readers and Contexts of Use

Document Written to Experts

Figure 3.7: This document was written to clinicians and other medical personnel. It is far more technical in style and design than the document written to the general public. Nevertheless, it contains much of the same information.

Language is much more technical (and precise).

Document is more focused on providing information than encouraging action.

Design is not as scannable.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/ dvbid/westnile/index.htm.

(continued)

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Figure 3.7: (continued)

Links provide additional information.

Summaries are used to present important information.

Places where more information can be found are identified.

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Your documents will likely be used by people around the world.

International and Cross-Cultural Communication

Computers have greatly blurred geographical and political boundaries.Whether you are developing software documentation or describing a heart transplant procedure, your documents will be read and used by people from different cultures. The use of computers, especially the Internet, has only heightened the necessity of working and communicating with people from different cultures (Hoft, 1995; Reynolds & Valentine, 2004). Its all very excitingand very challenging. International and cross-cultural issues will affect the content, organization, style, and design of your document.

Differences in Content
Cultures have different expectations about content in technical documentation: In China, the content of your documents and presentations should be fact based, and you should focus on long-term benefits for your readers and you, not shortterm gains. In business, the Chinese tend to trust relationships above all, so they look for facts in documents and they do not like overt attempts to persuade. In Mexico, South America, and many African countries, family and personal backgrounds are of great importance. It is common for family-related issues to be mentioned in public relations, advertising, and documentation. Business relationships and meetings often start with exchanges about families and personal interests. In the Middle East, Arabs often put a premium on negotiation and bargaining, especially when it comes to the price of a service or product. As a result, it is crucial that all the details in documents are spelled out exactly before the two sides try to work out a deal. In most cases, though, the first offer you make will rarely be considered the final offer.

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Link
To learn more about working in high-context cultures, go to Chapter 6, page 134.

In Asian countries, the reputation of the writer or company is essential for establishing the credibility of the information (Haneda & Shima, 1983). Interpersonal relationships and prior experiences can sometimes even trump empirical evidence in Asia. Also in Asia, contextual cues can be more important than content. In other words, how someone says something may be more important than what he or she is saying. For example, when Japanese people speak or write in their own language, they rarely use the word no. Instead, they rely on contextual cues to signal the refusal. As a result, when Japanese is translated into English, these high-contextlinguistic strategies are often misunderstood (Chaney & Martin, 2004). Similarly in Indonesia, the phrase Yes, butactually means nowhen someone is speaking. In India, business is often conducted in English because the nation has over a dozen major languages and hundreds of minor languages. So, dont be surprised when your Indian partners are very fluent in English and expect you to show a high level of fluency, especially if you are a native English speaker. In several African countries like Tunisia and Morocco, business tends to be conducted in French, even though the official language of the country is Arabic.

Differences in Organization
The organization of a document often needs to be altered to suit an international audience. Organizational structures that Americans perceive to be logical or common sense can seem confusing and even rude in some cultures. In Arab cultures, documents and meetings often start out with statements of appreciation and attempts to build common bonds among people. The American tendency to get to the point is often seen as rude. Also in Arabic cultures, documents rely on repetition to make their points. To North Americans, this repetition might seem like the document is moving one step back for every two steps forward. To Arabs, American documents often seem incomplete because they lack this repetition. Asians often prefer to start out with contextual information about nonbusiness issues. For example, it is common for Japanese writers to start out letters by saying something about the weather. To some Asians, American documents seem abrupt, because Americans tend to bluntly highlight goals and objectives up front. In India, the term thank you is considered a form of payment. So, if someone has done you a favor, you should not say thank you in the introduction or conclusion of an e-mail or letter. Saying thank you suggests you are paying that person for the favor.

Differences in Style
Beyond difficulties with translation, style is usually an important difference among cultures: In China, overt attempts at persuasion are often seen as rude and undesirable. Instead, documents and meetings should be used to build relationships and present factual information. Strong relationships lead to good business, not the other way around.

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Computers, especially networked computers, have increased opportunities to work across cultures.

Arabic style may seem overly ornamental to North American tastes, making Arabic documents and presentations seem colorful to non-Arabs. On the other hand, the American reliance on plain language can rub against the sensibilities of Arabs, who prefer a more ornate style in formal documents. In Mexico and much of South America, an informal style often suggests a lack of respect for the project, the product, or the readers. Mexicans especially value formality in business settings, so the use of first names and contractions in business prose can be offensive. In sub-Saharan Africa, readers prefer a documents tone to stress a win-win situation.Your tone, therefore, should imply that both sides will benefit from the arrangement. Some Native Americans prefer the sense that everyone had input on the document. Therefore, a direct writing or presentation style will meet resistance because it will seem to represent the opinion of only one person. In North America, women are more direct than women in other parts of the world, including Europe. This directness often works to their advantage in other countries, because they are viewed as confident and forward thinking. However, as writers and speakers, women should not be too surprised when people of other cultures resist their directness.

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Carol Leininger, Ph.D.

COMMUNICATIONS MANAGER, F. HOFFMAN-LA ROCHE, SWISS HEADQUARTERS

F. Hoffman-La Roche is a pharmaceutical company that works closely with a partner company, Chugai Pharmaceuticals, in Tokyo, Japan.

What are some strategies for communicating with people from another culture?
Physical distance may be the biggest hurdle in global communication. I believe that distance affects how people work together more than does language or culture.When people are working face to face, they tend to figure out issues by interacting with each other, even if they are not fluent in the same languages. There are awkward moments, but thats to be expected. Mostly, solid preparation is the key to working across distances and languages. Communication needs to be structured and simple.Your readers may be reading your text in their second- or third-best language, so make their job easier by writing as simply and clearly as you can. All the rules for good technical communication in the United States apply to international communicationonly more so.What helps second-language or non-U.S. English speakers? State your objectives and purpose clearly. Use language consistently (i.e., the same terms for the same things). Do not attempt humor until a relationship has been established. Rank issues by importance. Handle only one message per e-mail or paragraph. Use headings and subheadings that convey a specific meaning. Minimize use of adjectives and adverbs. Minimize prepositional phrases. Highlight actions, deadlines, and dates. Spell everything correctly (always check the spelling).

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Always be as polite as you can by your own cultural standards (e.g., formal language, politeness markers like please and thank you, use of full names in greeting and salutation). Even if your cultural view of what is polite is different from that of your audience, your intention to be polite will be recognized by international readers as courtesy and civility.

Differences in Design
Even the design of documents is important when you are working with international and cross-cultural readers: Arabic and some Chinese scripts are read from right to left, unlike English, which is read from left to right (Figure 3.8). As a result, Arabic and some Chinese readers tend to scan pages and images differently than do Americans or Europeans.

Chapter 3 Readers and Contexts of Use

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Different Ways of Scanning a Page

Figure 3.8: Readers from other cultures may scan the design differently. The design needs to take their preferences into account.

American or European reader scanning a page

Arabic or Chinese reader scanning a page

Some icons that show hand gestureslike the OK sign, a pointing finger, or a peace sign with the back of the hand facing outwardcan be highly offensive in some cultures. Imagine a document in which a hand with the middle finger extended is used to point at things.You get the picture. In many South American and Asian cultures, the use of the right hand is preferred when handing items (e.g., business cards, documents, products) to people. Therefore, pictures or drawings in documents should show people using their right hands to interact. In some Asian cultures a white flower or white dress can symbolize death. As a result, a photograph of white flowers or white dresses can signal a funeral or mourning. Europeans find that American texts include too many graphics and use too much white space. Americans, meanwhile, often find that the small margins in European texts make the documents look crowded and cramped. Graphs and charts that seem to have obvious meanings to Americans can be baffling and confusing to readers from other cultures. If your international document includes graphs and charts, you should seek out someone from the readers culture to help you determine whether your visuals will be understood. When giving presentations in some Native American cultures, hand gestures should be limited and eye contact should be minimized. Ironically, this advice is exactly the opposite of what most public speaking coaches suggest.

Listen and Learn: The Key to International and Cross-Cultural Communication

With all these differences in content, organization, style, and design, how can you possibly write for international or cross-cultural readers? Here are four helpful strategies:
LISTEN CAREFULLY A good strategy is to listen carefully to your readers expectations. Careful listening is a valued quality in all cultures, and you will learn

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a great amount by simply paying attention to what your readers expect the document to include and how it should look.
BE POLITE

Politeness in one culture tends to translate well into other cultures. For example, words like please and thank you are universally seen as polite. Smiles and a friendly tone are almost always welcome. There are subtle differences in how these words and gestures are used in other cultures, but your readers will understand that you are trying to be polite.

RESEARCH THE TARGET CULTURE

Use the Internet to do some research into your readers cultural expectations for technical documents. On the Internet or at your workplace, you might also find some model texts from the readers culture. Use them to help guide your decisions about content, organization, style, and design. You may also seek out coworkers or colleagues who are from the target culture or who have lived there.You can ask them about conventions that might make your document or presentation more effective. They can also help you avoid doing anything awkward or offensive. Overall, when you are communicating with international readers or people from different cultures, be observant and listen to what they tell you. Do some research into their expectations, and be ready to learn from your mistakes.

TALK TO YOUR COLLEAGUES

You can use your computer as a reader analysis tool to better tailor your documents content, organization, style, and design to the needs of its readers. Early in the writing process, you should begin developing a profile of the types of people who may be interested in your document. Your readers will include primary readers (action takers), secondary readers (advisors), tertiary readers (evaluators), and gatekeepers (supervisors). In your documents and presentations, you should anticipate various readers needs, values, and attitudes. You should anticipate the documents contexts of use, which include the physical, economic, political, and ethical factors that may influence a readers ideas. The emergence of the Internet has heightened the importance of international and cross-cultural communication.You need to adjust the content, organization, style, and design of your text to be sensitive to cross-cultural needs.

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CHAPTER REVIEW

Chapter 3 Readers and Contexts of Use

GO

TO

For more about using graphics in other cultures, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/johnsonweb3/3.15

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Individual or Team Projects

1. Choose two websites that are designed for very different types of readers. Write a memo to your instructor in which you compare and contrast the websites, showing how they approach their readers differently. How do they use content, organization, style, and design to meet the needs, values, and attitudes of their readers? Some pairs of websites you might consider include websites for cars (chevrolet.com versus honda.com), magazines (time.com versus outsidemag.com), or computers (dell.com versus apple.com). Look for websites for products that are similar but pursue different kinds of customers. 2. Consider the advertisement in Figure 3.9 and reverse-engineer its reader analysis. Using a Writer-Centered Analysis Chart and a Reader Analysis Chart, identify the primary, secondary, and tertiary readers of the text. Then, make guesses about the needs, values, and attitudes of these readers. Write a report to your instructor in which you use your charts to discuss the readers of this document. Then, show how the document anticipates these readers needs.

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS

Figure 3.9: Who are the intended readers of this advertisement? What are their needs, values, and attitudes?

GO

TO

To find websites that discuss politeness strategies, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/johnsonweb3/3.16

Exercises and Projects

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3. For a document you are writing, conduct a thorough reader analysis. Start out by identifying the primary, secondary, tertiary, and gatekeeper readers. Then, identify these readers needs, values, and attitudes. And finally, identify the physical, economic, political, and ethical issues that may influence how your readers interpret your document. Give a presentation about your readers to your class. Discuss how various readers in various contexts will require you to adjust the content, organization, style, and design of your document. 4. Choose a country or culture that interests you. Then, find two texts written by people from that country or culture.Write a memo to your instructor in which you discuss any similarities or differences between the texts and your own expectations for texts. Pay close attention to differences in content, organization, style, and design of these texts.

Collaborative Project
With a group of people from your class, create a website that explores the needs, values, and attitudes of people from a different country or culture. The website does not need to be complex. On the Internet, identify various websites that offer information on that country or culture. Then, organize those websites by content and create links to them. Specifically, pay attention to the ways in which this countrys physical, economic, political, and ethical contexts shape the way its people live their lives. When you are finished with the website, give a presentation to your class in which your group discusses how this country or culture differs from your own. Answer the following question: If you were going to offer a product or service to the people of this country or culture, what considerations would you need to keep in mind? If you needed to write a proposal or a set of instructions to people from this country or culture, how might you need to adjust it to fit their unique qualities?

For additional technical writing resources, including interactive sample documents, document design tutorials and guidelines, and more, go to www.mytechcommlab.com.

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Chapter 3 Readers and Contexts of Use

Installing a Medical Waste Incinerator

Duane Jackson knew this decision was going to be difficult. As the assistant city engineer for Dover City, he was frequently asked to study construction proposals sent to the city council. He would then write a report with a recommendation. So, when the proposal for constructing a medical waste incinerator crossed his desk, he knew there was going to be trouble. Overall, the proposal from Valley Medical, Inc., looked solid. The incinerator would be within 3 miles of the two major hospitals and a biotech research facility. And, it would bring about 30 good jobs to the Blue Park neighborhood, an economically depressed part of town. The problem was that people in Blue Park were going to be skeptical. Duane grew up in a neighborhood like Blue Park, primarily AfricanAmerican and lower middle class. He knew that hazardous industries often put their operations in these kinds of neighborhoods because the locals did not have the financial resources or political clout to fight them. In the past, companies had taken advantage of these neighborhoods political weaknesses, leaving the area polluted and unhealthy. Powerful interests were weighing in on this issue. Dover Citys mayor wanted the incinerator badly because she wanted the economic boost the new business would provide. Certainly, the executives at the hospitals and research laboratory were enthusiastic, because a nearby incinerator would help them cut costs.The city councilor who represented Blue Park wanted the jobs, but not at the expense of his constituents health. Environmental groups, health advocates, and neighborhood associations were cautious about the incinerator.

CASE STUDY

Analyzing the Readers

After a few weeks of intense study, Duanes research convinced him that the incinerator was not a health hazard to the people of Blue Park. Similar incinerators built by Valley Medical had spotless records. Emissions would be minimal because advanced scrubbers would remove almost all the particles left over after incineration. The scrubbers were very advanced, almost completely removing only harmful pollutants such as dioxin and mercury. Also, the company had a good plan for ensuring that medical waste would not sit around in trucks or containers, waiting to be burned. The waste would be immediately incinerated on arrival.

(continued)

Case Study

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Duanes Writer-Centered Analysis Chart

Gatekeepers
City Engineer (Duanes boss)
Tertiary
State Board of Health NAACP

Figure 3.10: Duanes WriterCentered Analysis Chart showed how many readers his report would have.

Secondary
Reporters Blue Park Neighborhood Association Mayor Chamber of Commerce Valley Medical Environmental Groups

Health Industry

Primary
City Council City Lawyers

Writer

Hospitals

Duane decided to write a report to the city council that recommended the incinerator be built. That decision was the easy part. Now he needed to write a report that would convince the skeptics. After identifying the subject and purpose of the report, Duane decided to do a thorough analysis of his readers and the reports contexts of use. He began with a WriterCentered Analysis Chart (Figure 3.10). He then used a Reader Analysis Chart to identify the various readers needs, values, and attitudes (Figure 3.11). Finally, Duane filled out a Context Analysis Chart to identify the physical, economic, political, and ethical issues involved (Figure 3.12).

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Chapter 3 Readers and Contexts of Use

Duanes Reader Analysis Chart

Needs Primary
City Council Reliable information Environmental impact data Clear recommendation Impartial commentary

Values
Citizen safety Economic development Fairness

Attitudes
Optimistic Cautious

Secondary
Valley Medical Chamber of Commerce Mayor Neighborhood Association Environmental Groups City Lawyers Hospitals

Impartial commentary Specific facts about emissions Cultural and social considerations Valley Medical wants profits

Maintaining character of Blue Park Economic development Environmental safety Safe disposal of waste

Mayor and hospitals are positive and hopeful Neighborhood association and environmental groups are skeptical, perhaps resistant Valley Medical hopeful

Figure 3.11: Duane filled in a Reader Analysis Chart, noting everything he knew about the various readers of his report. He noticed that most readers wanted impartial and reliable information. Some readers were positive; others were skeptical.

Tertiary
Reporters State Board of Health NAACP Health Industry

Impartial decision Reassurance that race or poverty are not factors Basic facts about incinerator

Fairness and honesty Lack of bias Protection of people with little political power Minimal trouble with mayor and council Low profile; stay out of politics Honesty

Skeptical Open-minded

Gatekeepers
City Engineer

Reliable information Clear decision based on reliable data

Impartial to project Concerned that report may cause tensions

(continued)

GO

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For more information about waste incinerators, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/johnsonweb3/3.17

Case Study

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Duanes Context Analysis Chart

Physical Context Primary Readers
City Council Initially at their office Further in city council meeting

Economic Context
Looking to improve city economics

Political Context
Re-election is always an issue Mayor wants it BP city councilor would like it

Ethical Context
Exploiting poor neighborhood? Racial issues? Environmental issues

Figure 3.12: Duanes Context Analysis Chart revealed some interesting tensions between the economics and politics of the decision on the incinerator.

Readers Company
Dover City

City Hall Engineers office City website

The jobs are a financial plus. Home values in neighborhood decline? Good for hospitals

Voters are wary Neighborhood and environmental groups draw attention Racial politics?

City liable if mistake? Environmental impact Infringement of peoples rights? Legal issues

Readers Industry
City government

Reports on Internet about project

Job creation Economic growth

Pressure on mayor Shows Dover City is positive about this kind of business

Public relations Dont want to seem exploitative

What Should Duane Do Now?

On the facts alone, Duane was convinced that the incinerator would be well placed in the Blue Park neighborhood. But his reader analysis charts showed that facts alone were not going to win over his primary audience, the members of the city council. They would have numerous other economic, political, and ethical issues to consider as well as the facts. In many ways, these factors were more important than the empirical evidence for the incinerator. One important thing Duane noticed was that the city council members, though the action takers, were heavily influenced by the secondary readers. These secondary readers, the advisors, would play a large role in the councils decision. How can Duane adjust the content, organization, style, and design to better write his report? If you were Duanes readers, what kinds of information would you expect in this kind of report?

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Chapter 3 Readers and Contexts of Use