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ANALYSIS
OF

THE LATIN VERB,

ILLUSTRATED BY THE

FOEMS OF THE SANSKRIT.

f^CRAKLES HJ^EKHUEST.

BOSTON:
GINN BROTHERS AND COMPANY.
1874.

Jflntered,

according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by

CHARLES
In the Clerk's

H.

PARKHITRBT,

Office of the District

Court of the District of Massachusetts.

cambkidoe:
fbess of john wilaon and son.

PEEFACE.

The

immediate aim of this treatise is to familiarize the student with the earlier and later forms of the Latin verb, and the method by which the latter have been corrupted from
the former.
It is not in the

power of the Latin, however,

to
it

expound
ficial

itself.

Latin scholarship

may

state the facts,

but

cannot give the philosophy, of Latin formation.

analysis of the verb

The

super-

amo,

for example, iu the first per-

son plural of the present subjunctive active would be,

root,

am

connecting vowel, e

personal ending, mus.

An

ac-

quaintance with Latin, however thorough, will not, without

assistance
tive e
affix

from the cognate languages, discover

i,

in that connec-

a union of a with

the former a corruption of aja, the

of conjugation, and

the

latter, like

the iota

of the

Greek, the modal sign of the optative.

therefore, to

We

have preferred,

explain

the Latin

system of conjugation by
is

reference to the Sanskrit, not at all because the Sanskrit

the progenitor of the Latin, but because

it

most

fully retains

the forms belonging to the parent language of the entire Indo-

European
inal,

family, and as such

offiirs

to us the

proximate orig-

from which the later Latin derivatives are corrupted.

mediate aim of these pages
is

The

to introduce the pupil

to the study of

Comparative Grammar,

science which

is

engaging the energies of the profoundest scholars of Germany,

and one which, though

dencies of the age,
few, with
cient
is

failing to satisfy the utilitarian ten-

yet rich in promise to the less ambitious

their

whom research and discovery are and abundant reward.

own

suffi-

IV

PREFACE.

"We have not assumed on the part of the student any

acquaintance with either the Sanskrit or the Greek.
necessary

As a

consequence, however, of
the

the

sisterly

relation

existing between

Greek and Latin, one

familiar with

both cannot,

we

believe, fail to discover in

our discussion of

many problems in Greek formation. this Manual we have taken as our guide the writings of Professors Bopp and Schleicher. As respects the content of the " Analysis " we lay no claim to
the Latin the solution of

In the preparation of

originality, its

results of
ligible

German
the

primary object being to give the best approved research, in a form convenient and intelEnglish reader.

to

Many

of the conclusions

attained rest rather

evidence.

upon probable than upon demonstrative Care has been taken in each instance to put these

conclusions in no

more

positive

form than that with which

they are enunciated by the authorities

we

follow.

We

are happy to acknowledge our indebtedness to Profes-

sor Greenough, of

Harvard College,

for his examination of

the manuscript, and for valuable suggestions and criticisms.

Conscious of the imperfection of the work both in form and

content,

we submit

it

to the public
its

with the hope that

perusal

it

may
the

not be altogether without

spirit

influence in quickening
its

of linguistic inquiry, and that

may

serve to reproduce in the case of some earnest student, something of the pleasure experienced
of
its

by the author

in the course
^

preparation.

WlLLISTON SeMINAKT,
Feb. 24, 1870.

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

oldest form of a word is called its Root. Roots are of two kinds, Pronominal and Verbal. From pronominal roots are developed pronouns and particles from verbal roots, verbs and nouns (substantive and adjective) 3. Inflection is the union of pronominal with verbal roots. When so combined as to denote relations of gender, number, and case, the process is termed Declension. When so combined as to denote relations of voice, mood, tense, number, and person, the
1.
2.
;

The

process
4.

is

called Conjugation.
is

Etymological analysis
resolving a verb or

the converse of inflection,

into its ultimate verbal

sists in

noun

and conand pro-

nominal elements.

5 The
tion,

analysis of the verb consists in separating

from the root

number,

those pronominal accretions which

mark

distinctions in conjuga-

and serve and person.

to denote relations of voice,

mood,

tense,

The Latin Alphabet.

Note.
will

As

preliminary to the analysis proper, sections

6-49

be devoted to a consideration of some of the more general euphonic and emphatic changes employed in verbal formation.
(a.)
6.

Vowels.
be best determined by
e,

The

relative value of the vowels will

giving to them the sounds with which they are pronounced in the
continental languages of
in thei/,

met ;

i,

as in macliine,

Europe viz., a, as in father, man ; him; o, as in no, not; u, as in

:

as

rule,

fuU.
7.
i,

By

and u

is

comparing these sounds, it will appear that only that of a, simple, i.e., produced by the voc^ organs in a single

10

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

and o
is

fixed position; while that of e

compound,

i.e.,

in their

production the position of the organs is changed. 8. The first element of o is a; the second, u: hence

we

place

a the second, hence we element of e + u = The place a + i^e. An instance wherein e stands in place of an will be found, for example, in the present subjunctive earlier a +

o.

fitrst

is

i,

of conjugation

first

amem

for

an earlier

amaim amemus
;

for

an

earlier
9.

amaimus.
its i

u and

corresponding semi-vowel
its

are readily exchange-

able, as also

and

semi-vowel

jugation second

we

shall find

Thus in the perfect of conmon-(e)-vi becoming mon-ui; and

j.

in the afix of conjugation second, aj

changed successively to ai

and

e.

10.

As

in the Sanskrit,

so also in the Latin,

uv

sometimes

develops itself out of

thus fluo becomes in the perfect fluvsi,

whence Qnsd.
is

The weight of a vowel is the fulness of tone with which it The order of vowels from heaviest to lightest, ranked according to their weight, is as follows a, u, o, e, i. The
11.

enunciated.

Latin everywhere exhibits a tendency to pass- from a heavier to a

lighter.

12.

As regards

the verb, this tendency

is

particularly noticeable

in the formation of i-eduplicated perfects.

fe-felli

Thus

fallo, perfect

for fa-falli;

cano, perfect ce-cini for ca-cani; cado,

perfect ce-cidi for ca-cadi.

Ceciui and cecidi

its

also illustrate

another tendency in the formation of reduplicates, that of attenuating the perfect more in
its

radical than in

reduplicate syllable.
;

Thus
13.

in place

of oa-cani not ce-ceui, but ce-cini

so ce-cidi

instead of ce-cedi, te-tigi for te-tegi.

radical

or o, however, reappears in the perfect, both

syllable. Hence tundo, tu-tudii posoo, po-posci. 14. In like manner verbs in composition often lighten the vowel of the root; e.g., concino for con-cano, assideo for as-sedeo. 15. The tendency of a nasal is to convert the preceding vowel into u; e.g., capiunt for an earher capiant.

in its radical

and reduplicate

16. The influence of r, or of any two consonants, is often to change the preceding i into e; e.g., amaverunt of the perfect
indicative for

amaviruut, acceptum

for

acciptum.

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

H
;

17. A final or t tends to shorten the preceding vowel e.g., Bi-m becomes sim; audia-m, audiam; ama-t, amat; rega-tl

regat.

18. e at the end of a word is usually preferred to i; e.g., in the imperative of conjugation third, lege for the regular legi.
'

(6.)

Consonants.
;

19. The consonants of the Latin are nineteen seventeen simple, and two, X (=os) and z (=ds), compound. Consonants produced with a resonance of the vocal cords are termed sonant; those produced without such resonance, surd. 20. As still fai-ther classified according to the method of their generation, the scheme of the Latin consonants is as follows
:

Palatals.

Labials.
p,
f.

Lihguals.
t, s.

Surds.

c, k, q, h.

( &j-

b, V.

a.
n.
/

Sonants.

<

Nasals, jm,

>

Liquids.

21.

As a

result of infliection, letters sometimes

difficult

become

so

com-

bined as to be

of pronunciation.

The

principles accord-

Euphony.

ing to which such combinations are simplified are called Laws of The more general of these which require to be applied
ai-e

in the analysis of the verb

the following

22. Before the afiix si of the perfect a sonant palatal becomes

surd:

e.g.,

aug (augeo) +si=:auo

+ si;

reg (rego)-f-si
c,

reo -|- si.

23.
c,

or any other surd palatal converted to

to form X, according to

coc -j- si

= cosi

19

veh -j- si

= vec + ^ vexi.
si

e.g.,

auc -|- si

= auxi

combines with a
;

coq + si

24. Exception. Roots ending in a palatal immediately preceded by 1 or r drop the palatal before the affix si: e.g., algeo, alsi; mergo, mersi. 25. Before si the labial sonant b is represented by its cognate (vid. 41, 6) surd p: e.g., nubo, nupsi; sciibo, scripsi.

26. V, through an intermediate conversion to

c,

combines with
si

s to form X, after the analogy of palatals

e.g.,

vivo, viv-|-si
-f-

vio

+ si = vixi
Roots in

fluo, fluv

27.

+ si (vid. 10) = flue

p
or

fluxi.

optionally insert

before the affix si: e.g.,

como, com-p-si or comsi; sumo, sum-p-si

sums!

12

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

the affix

28. Lingual roots in d, t, and r, cannot directly coalesce with Such succession of consonants may be prevented a. the characteristic: e.g., ardsi from ardeo dropping by (a)

becomes arsi; sentsi from sentio, sensi; haersi from hsereo, hcesi; (6) by dropping the s: e.g., prandsi from prando becomes prandi; vertsi from verto, verti; (c) by assimilating (vid. 41, c) the characteristic to the affix: e.g., cedo, cedsi,
cessi;
29. Before the affix

quatio, quatsi, quassi; gero, gersi, gessi. the surd palatals t, the sonant palatal g, and

jungtum, junctum; h, are changed to c: e.g., jungo, ooquo, coqtum, cpctum; veho, vehtum, veotum. 30. Exception. Roots ending in a palatal immediately preceded by 1 or r commonly affix t (frequently converted into a, its asso-

q and

ciate

Ungual surd) with the

gives

elision

(fulcio) becomes in the supine

fultum
is

sartum; mulceo
surd p:
e.g.,

31. Before t the labial

mulsum; sonant b
glubtum,

of the palatal: e.g., fulo sarc (saroio) becomes tergeo, tersum.

;

represented by

its

cognate

glubo,

gluptum;

nubo, nubtum,

the combination vt may be relieved (a) by the conversion of v into u: e.g., oautum for cavtum, from caveo volutum for volvtum, from volvo (6) by the elision of V e.g. motum for movtum, from moveo (f ) by the conversion of V into c (conf. 26) e.g., victum for vivtum, from vivo; fructum for fruvtum, from fruor.
; ; :

nuptum. 32. The harshness of

33.

Koots in
gives

optionally insert

p before

the affix t: e.g., or

demo
34.
either

dem-p-tum

or

demtum: emo, em-p-tum

t convert the affix t into characteristic:
e.g.,
s,

emtum.
Lingual roots in

d and
the

and

arsum for ardsum, from ardeo cessum for cedsnm, from cedo versum for vertsum, from verto messum for metsum, from meto.
drop or assimilate
;

35. Lingual roots in r sometimes receive the affix t without

modification, but
to a

commonly

either (a)

change the characteristic

the characteristic.

affix to s and retain Examples of these three methods of formation are, pario, partum gero, gestum curro, ouraum. 36. Final a preceded by a vowel, and medial s between two vowels, is usually changed to r: e.g., amor from amo+s, present eram for esam regerem for regesem. indicative passive

and

retain the affix, or (6)

change the

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

37.

13

A few verbs
n

strengthen some or
to the characteristic

all
:

of their parts by preju-n-go,

fixing or alfixing

e.g.,

&om

root

jug; fi-n-do, from root fid; ster-n-o from root ster or stra.

38.

A few verbs,

mostly inchoatives, are formed by affixing to

the root, in the present system, the letters sc with a connective.

When

formed from verbs, the connective is the same as the conThose derived from adjectives insert e: e.g., inveter-a-sc-o from iaveterare flor-e-sc-o from florere; ingem-i-sc-o from ingemSre; obdonu-i-sc-o from obdormire; moll-e-sc-o from mollis. 39. In rare instances the use of sc is not limited to the present system, and in a few cases no connective is employed: e.g., po-sc-o, po-po-so-i; di-sc-o. In both of these instances the vowel is radical. Vid. Anomalous Formations." 40. Assimilation. This term, as commonly employed, emjugational affix of the primitive.
; ' '

braces a class of eujihonic changes, differing not at

spirit

all

in their

from another and much larger class, to which no special denomination is applied. We should prefer, therefore, to define assimilation as the accommodation of one letter to the character of a concurrent letter, without at aU limiting it to the case in which
the assimilated letter becomes a simple redupUcate the same influence which converts s into
1
;

for precisely
(for vel-

in

vellem

sem)
(for

is

also operative in the conversion of

into o in

rectum

reg-tum).

41.

As employed
:

in this

broader sense, assimilation admits of

(6) in
(i.e.,
;

three cases
letter,

(o) in which, under the influence of the assimilating

;

a sonant becomes surd, or a surd sonant consonant makes its concurrent letter cognate
labial, lingual,

which one
which the

of the same

class, either palatal,

or nasal)

(c) in

becomes a simple reduplicate. Illustrations of ges-tum for ger-tum, these three cases, are, respectively,
assimilated letter

ru-m-po Note.

Exceptional

for rurii-po, quas-si for quat-sl.

stated, will

verbs, not conformable to the rules above be considered under " Anomalous Formations."

Reduplication.
42. Reduplication consists in prefixing to a root
initial
its

vowel and

consonant (for the attenuation of the vowel, vid. 11 and 12),

and occurs

14

ANALYSIS OP THE VEEB.

:

43. (A.) In the formation of a few perfects e.g., tundo (root, tud) becomes, in the perfect, tu-tudi mordeo becomes momordi; the root man, to think, makes, in the perfect, memiui,
;

to

remember.
44.

Remark

1.

Two

roots,

sta (frQm sto, stare) and spond

two consonants, dropping, howsyllable.

(from spondeo), prefix the

ever, the initial
Bti,

first

from the radical

for
2.

Thus, ste-ti for ste-

spo-pondi

spo-spondL
If the root begins with a vowel, the initial only

45.
is

Remark

reduplicated; e.g., ago, perfect a-agi, which becomes (by 12)

46.

a-igi,

(by 8) egi. The Latin contains a number of concealed reduplicates,

whose later form is the result of syncope and contraction; e.g., capio (root, cap) made its perfect originally ca-capi, which became successively ca-cipi, ca-ipi, cepi. 47. A few cases occur in which perfects originally reduplicated have lost the initial syllable e.g., tiili (from tollo) for the earlier
;

te-tiili, fidi for

the eailier fi-fidi.

is

48. In composition with prepositions, the reduplicate syllable

commonly omitted:

e.g.,

con-tingo, con-tigi; per-curro makes

per-ourri, or per-cu-curri.

are

49. (5.) Rarely in the formation of the present. Examples gi-guo (for gi-geno), root gen si-sto, root sta.
:
;

CONJUGATIONAL AFFIXES.
50.

The

conjugational system of the Latin

is

not the product of

Italian soil, but an inheritance received

from the progenitor of the Indo-European family of languages, and will be best explained by reference to the Sanskrit, the oldest and fairest representative of Indian grammarians classify Sanskrit verbs into ten that family.
conjugations, according to the changes which the roots experience
in inflection.
cal

Of

these, the
it

first,

for example, lengthens

its

radi-

and to the root thus strengthened affixes a, before addmg the personal terminations. Thus, budh, to know, by the insertion of a becomes baudh (by 8) bodh, and, by affixing a, bodha. By uniting with this base the terminawith
a,

vowel by combining

tion

ti,

hati

= Ae

of the third person singular, there appears the form

bodits

knows.

Again, the tenth conjugation lengthens

to
* Pronounced as though spelled aya.

radical vowel,

and

the root thus strengthened affixes aja,*

ANALYSIS OP THE VEKB.

before adding
successively
tlie

15
to love,

personal endings.

Thus, kam,

kam,

katn-aja, kam-aja-ti

becomes

/ic

loves.

This San-

skrit tenth conjugation is the ai-chetype of the Latin first, second,

and
a, e,

fourth,
i,

the affix aja being variously reduced to the forms

the characteristics of these conjugations respectively.

51.
to

Remark.

This aja

is

probably an expansion of the root

literally

i,

go.
love.

Kam-aja-ti may therefore be

rendered

lie

goes

to

Latin as ire

Compare with this the use of such expressions in the ad gaudium, ire ad cogitationeni also, the em;

ployment of this same verb ire in conjunction with the supine, to form the future infinitive passive e.g., amatum iri
;

Conjugation First.
52. In this conjugation, the semi-vowel
j

of

tlie

affix

aja

is

and the two a's combine to form a long. The Latin amo has lost an initial palatal, k, and is radically identical with the Sanskrit kam, mentioned above. To verify our explanation of the a characterizing the first Latin conjugation, we place side by side the inflection of kam and amo, in a part of the pressyncopated
;

ent active indicative forms.

Samskkit.
Latin.

2d Sing. 3d Sing. 1st Plur. 3d Plur.

kam-aja-si

(k)am-a-s(i)
(k)am-a-t(i)

kam-aja-U kam-aja-mas
kcim-aja-nti

(k)am-a-mus
(k)am-a-nt(i)
in which, as respects

The only
conjugational

parts of the verb

aflix,

amo,

the

the actual seems not to be in accord with the

theoretical form, are the first person singular, present indicative

active, which will be explained at 123 and the present subjunctive, which win be explained at 85.
;

Conjugation Second.
53. Li this conjugation, the second a of the
the semi-vowel
j

affix

aja

is
1,

elided,

and the resulting form ai passes into e (by 8). That the e of the second conjugation, like the a of the first, is derived from the old affix aja, appears on comparing the inflection of the Sanskrit man with the Latin verb moneo, of the same root.
its

changed to

corresponding fuU vowel

16

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

Sattskkit.

Latin.

2d Sing, 3d Sing,
1st Plttr.

man-aja-si
man-aja-ti
man-cija-inas

mon-e-3(i) mon-e-t(i)

moa-e-mus
mon-e-nt(i)

3d

Pluk.

man-aja-uti

form of the perfect and supine would be mon-e-vi, For the method by which these have been abbreviated to mon-ui, mon-i-tum, and for the explanation of the
full

The

mon-e-tum.
first

person singular, present indicative active, vid. 125.

Conjugation Fourth.
54. Considering next the fourth conjugation (as
its

afBx

i
,

has

and the e of the second) we find that in this the first a of aja becomes i, the semi- vowel is changed to its corresponding vowel i, and the two i's combine to form i long. The second a is generally dropped the parts of the verb in which it is retained and changed will be considered at 126. That the i of the Latin is sprung from the Sanskrit aja appears, on comparing the inflection of the Sanskrit svap (conjugated as a
the same origin as the a of the
first,
:

causal) with that of the identical Latin root sop.


ANALYSIS OF THE VEKB.
as, in the

17

affixed, or is

forms veh-i-s, veh-i-t, &c. The parts in which a is not changed into another vowel than i, will be considered
relation of the Sanskrit

at 127.

For the

to the Latin
,

i,

compare
(root,

the inflection of

vah

(first

Sanskrit conjugation) and

veho

veh)

Sahskrit.

Latiw.

2d Sing, Sd Sing,
1st Plur.

vah-a-si
vah-a-ti

veh-i-s(i)

veh-i-t (i)

vah-a-mas
vah-a-nti

veh-i-mus
veh-u-nt(i)

3d Plur.

The

third person plural

i,

is

one of the forms

in

which a has

been changed, not into veh-i-nt

57.

but into u, giving veh-u-nt in place of

The

Sanskrit fourth conjugation adds ja to the root, and to

be referred the affix of the so-called " Verbs in io, of Conjugation Third." The j of this ja is changed to i, the a is often dropped. The parts of the verb in which it is retained and changed
this j a is to

will

be considered at 128.

We

subjoin a specimen of the probable

:

earlier

and

later inflection of

capio

2d Sing. 3d Sing.
1st Pldr.

3d Plub.

=cap-i-3 =cap-i(a)-s =cap-i-t =cap-i(a)-t cap-i(a)-mus^cap-i-mus cap-ja-mas =oap-iu-nt cap-ja-ati =cap-ia-nt

cap-ja-si
cap-ja-ti

Irregular Verbs.
58. Beside those verbs that are classified into conjugations, known as irregular. Irregular verbs

there are, in the Latin, a few

are such as add the personal affixes to the root without an intermediate vowel, and correspond to the Sanskrit second conjugation.

They
:

are of two kinds

Irregular verbs, whose root ends in a vowel. These flo, flare (root, for, fari (root, fa) do, dare (root, da) are in-quam sto, stare (root, sta) fla); no, nare (root, na) qua) eo, ire (root, i). Of these, all except eo and in-

59. (^.)

(root,

quam

are,

from

their resemblance to the first conjugation; usually

classified with that,

improperly, however, for the a of these verbs

2

18
is

ANALYSIS OP THE VERB,

not derived from the affix aja, but constitutes a part of the and do, for example, is to be analyzed, ;

root

ANALYSIS OP THE VEEB.

62. Indicative

19
affix

and Subjunctive.
s

The

is

changed

to r in
lar
;

all

forms ( by 36), except that of the second person singu-

e.g.,

amo

-j-

= amo
final
-\- r

-|-

:= amor.
first

63. Final m, and

s of the

person plural, of the active

:

forms, are dropped before the appended s

e.g.,
;

^ amaba (by 62) =; amabar audixemus = audirerau s = audiremu = audireniur.

amaba -|- s
-|-

amabam

-|-

=
s

-\-

-\-x

64. Active forms terminating in a consonant, except those

men-

tioned under 63, affix s with a connecting vowel.

the second singular,
is i;

This vowel, in

in other cases, u; e.g., regeret -|- b

-|-

regeret
r (by

-|-

u -j- s
;

= regeret =

-(-

= regeretur.
64) capiebas
-|- i -|-

= ^

65. In the second person singular, final s of the active becomes

36) e.g., capiebas -(- s capiebar -)- i -(- s capiebaris.

66.
i,

= (by
final
:

immediately preceding s

of the active voice, appears

(by e (conf. 65 and 16) e.g., mouebis -|- s 64) mouebis -|- i -|- s r= (by 65) moneblr -|- i -f- s := moneber -|- i -|- s moneberis.
in the passive as

Note. amabare, &c.

67.

The second form of the second singular araare, simply an abbreviation of the regular
is

aniaris,

amabaris.
remark to be made upon full form of the reflexive se to the active voice, with the regular change of ama -\- re cape -|- se cape -\- re. s to r e.g., ama -j- se In other respects, this mood is formed according to the rules given
68. iMPEltATlVB.
is,

The only

special

the imperative

that

its

second person singular adds the

above for the indicative. 69. Infinitive. To form the infinitive, s (changed to r) is e inserted, and the final added as above, a coimecting vowel

e of the active form changed to i. Thus, we have successively, amare, amare-r, amare-er, amari-er. This form amarier, of
frequent occurrence in earlier Latin authors,
is

reduced to the later

farther,

amari, by the elision of the

final syllable.

In the third conjugation,

still

the corruption seems to have been carried

and

for

forms like regi (obtained by elision from regier)

tured an earlier regerier.
70.

may be
is

conjec-

Remark.
its initial

We have

said that the passive voice

it

formed

from the active by

noun, or
ever, to

aflixing to

the accusative of the reflexive pro-

consonant.

Exception to

this principle is,

how-

be taken

in the case of the second person plural.

The

20
present indicative

ANALYSIS OF THE VEKB,

amamini,

for instance

cannot be explained

Compare monebitis with monebimiui regeretis with regeremini. In each instance, there is added to the base of the tense the ending mini and this mini, identical in root with the Greek menos, is to be regarded as no other than the nominative plural mascuhne of a passive participial affix in minus-a-um. Thus, amaminus, amamina, amaminum plural, amamini, amaminae, amamina. Conalso
;
; ;

as a union of se with the con-esponding active amatis.

sidered as a participle, this form suits the requirements of the place in respect to number and case, and as usually employed in respect to gender
;

for forms like capti estis are

much more

fre-

quent than captae estis, while capta estis would be almost impossible.

Amamini
estis
as
;

is,

then, to be understood as standing for

amamini

same ground

and the omission of estis must be put upon the the not infrequent suppression of est and sunt
:

with the existing participle in tus

thus,

amatus

for

amatus

est,

amati
it is

for

amati sunt.

As confirmatory

of the above explanation,

of interest to notice, in

this connection, traces of the

use of

this

same

participle in the singular

number;
is

e.g.,

alumnus (from
a fos-

alo, to cherisK) for

alu-minus, one that

cherished, hence

ter-child; ter-minus, iAai whichis passed over,

from an old Sanskrit

root (ter), signifying to go over

so probably

geminus

for gen-

minus.

MODAI, AND TbMPOKAL AfFIXES.

We now proceed to review the several tenses of the different moods, considering the affixes, modal or temporal, by which they
are respectively characterized.

Indicativb.
71.

Present.

This form receives no

affix to

mark

either its

mood
affix

or tense, the personal endings being added directly to the

of conjugation; e.g., am-a-t, reg-i-mus.

72.

Imperfect.

This tense receives a temporal

affix identical
he.

in its origin

with the imperfect of the Sanskrit verb to

We

subjoin the inflection of this Sanskrit imperfect in the singular,

omitting the augment.

bhav-a-m
bhav-a-3
bhav-a-t

) Dropping from these ( bav-a-m C forms tho aspirate h, 3 foav-a-S there remains J I and

respectively,

(.

tav-a-t

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

These forms are
still

21

farther abbreviated
a's,

by the syncopation of
becomes
5,

the T, and the union of the two

a change identical with that

by which

aja, the affix of the first conjugation,

and

analogous to that by which the Latin

ma-olo, nialo.

becomes ba-as,

mavolo becomes successively Thus bav-a-m becomes ba-eun, bam; bav-a-s bas, &c. Of bam, bas, bat, the letters m, s, t,
:

are the respective personal endings

there remains the

after the elision of these,

is

common form ba, which

;

the temporal afiix of

the Latin imperfect

e.g.

JOOT.

22

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

remains the

common form bi

(first

singular,
;

bo

third plural, bu),

which

is

the affix of the future indicative

e.g.

lOOT.

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

later fui.

23

ahie)

is

purely an

In the word pos-sum for pot-sum, pot (for potis, adjective element; heuce, in the perfect
is

pot-ui, the verbal force must reside wholly in the ui.

present of

possum
potis

As the compounded of potis and the present of

as the perfect of the

sum, we should have expected,

pot-fui;
i.e.,

same verb,
is

+ the perfect of sum.

is

As then

verbal

in its character, as the actual pot-ui so far coincides with the

conjectural pot-fui, and as there

no other primitive with which be

justified in identifying

ui admits of being associated,

it

we

shall

with

fui,

and

in recognizing this

(i is

simply connective) as

the old

ba-bhuv

carried to the utmost limit of abbreviation.

To

the same origin must of course be referred the

;

(or

v)

characterizing the perfect tense of other verbs

Root.

e.g.

 "
24

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

78. Aside from the three classes specified above, there remains

a large number from which all trace of an original prefix or affix has disappeared, save, perhaps, in the changed quantity of the
legi from root ISg, radical vowel, e.g., vidi from root vid where the lengthening of the vowel may be regarded as compen;

sation for the syncopation of a consonant, or the aphicresis * of

It is to be supposed that all Latin verbs, had an existence in the earlier period of the language, originally designated the perfect by some special char-

the reduplicate syllable.

certainly all which

acteristic.

Ill its

loss

we

only see carried one step farther the

process of corruption by which

u,

ba-bhuv

has been reduced to

This tense is formed by adding to the base of the perfect, the imperfect of the verb sum. Thus rex (for reg+s)-erat, amav-eram, ce-cin-eratis. In the first of these examples, the root rog expresses abstractly the idea of "ruling." The form reg s expresses concretely the idea of " having ruled

and esam to s. 79. Pluperfect.

and the form reg

+ s + era

-)- 1,

with

its

double temporal and

single personal limitation, reduces the generic conception " ruling " to the specific thought " he was having ruled," i.e., " he had

ruled."

80. Future Perfect. The future perfect adds to the base of the perfect the future of sum; e.g., cimav-ero, rez-ero,
ce-cin-ero.
81. There occurs also an old future perfect in so, formed by

adding to the base of the perfect eso (later ero; vid. "Tablel."), with the aphaeresis of e: e.g., amas-so, by assimilation for

amav-so

habes-sit for habev-sit

cap-so, probably for caVid. capio and facio

cap-so; faxo (fac-so) for fa-fazo. under "Anomalous Formations."

Subjunctive.

The Latin Subjunctive, though known as a mood, in reality comprises two, which are distinct in origin, and may be designated the Conjunctive and Optative.
82. Present.
single

83.

To

the conjunctive belongs the present subjunctive of conIts

jugations second, third, and fourth.

* Aphseresis
is

modal

affix is a.

the loss of a syllable or letter at the beginning of a word.

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

25
first plural,

The

full

will therefore

form of moneo, in the present subjunctive, be

:

Root.

Gohj. Ap.

Mod.

Ai'.

Pbks.

Ai'.

mou

aja

mus

or (changing aj to e by 53),

mou
long)

ea

mus

or (combining the a's of the conjugational and modal affiles into a

mou
The
in like
full

mus = moneamu3.
first plural,

form of rego, present subjunctive,

:

manner be

would

ROOT.

CoKJ. Ap.

Mod. Ap.

26
foiirth.

ANALYSIS OF THE VEKB.

The modal

affix is

ja.

The

full

form of amo,

in the
:

present subjunctive, third person plural, would therefore be

Root,
Coifj. Ap.

Mod. A.

Pbks. Af.

am

aja

ja

ut
ja),

or (converting aja into

a by 52, and dropping the a of

j

am
or (changing
j

a
to
i

ut

by

9,

and combining ai to form e by 8),

c

am
By
a like process
is

nt

^ ament.

obtained the later form of rego, future

indicative,

thud

plural.

Root.

Comj. Ap.

Mob. Af.

Pers. Af.

reg

ja

nt
into

or (by the elision of the modal a, the conversion of

the union of

i,

and

a with

i),

reg

nt

= regent
would

The
in like
Root.

full

form of audio, future

:

manner be

indicative, third plural,

Conj. Af.

Mod. Af.

Pers. Af.

aud

aja
i,

ja

ut
and the conversion of the

or (by the change of aj to

by

54,

modal

to

i),

aud

ia

ia

nt.

or (by the elision of the modal

tional

a with the modal

i

to

a, and the union of the conjugaform e),

aud
The
first

nt=audient
is,

person singular of these futures

however, to be ex-

plained as

conjunctive rather than optative, and hence forms

regam

for

regem, and audiam

for

audiem.

ANALYSIS OP THE VERB.

27

86. As optatives are to be reckoned also forms like du-i-m, credu-i-m, perdu-i-m (conf. 84) also ed-i-m, to eat (conf. 60). 87. Imperfect. The verb is conjugated in this tense by the
;

use of the imperfect subjunctive forms of the verb to

ses,
affix

be,

sem,

&c. (vid. "Table I."), which after the conjugational or a connecting vowel become (by 36) rem, res, ret. Exset,
:

amples are
Root.

28

ANALYSIS OF THE VEEB.

Amavessem might have proceeded e, but not the converse. from amavissem, but not amavissem from amavessem.
Imperative.
91.

The

imperative receives no modal or temporal

affix

aflSx,

but

adds the personal endings directly to the

Inpinitivi!.

of conjugation.

92.

The Latin

infinitives

are

simply oblique

cases
is

(dative,

accusative, or ablative) of the nomi.

As a

dative

to

be considits

ered, j^rrf, the infinitive present.

This adds to the root, with

conjugational
Boot.

affix,

the ending se (later re)

Coitj. Af.

Mod. Ap.

am
This ending
is
still

a
farther to
to he,

se

= amare.
s,

be resolved into
e,

the radical

consonant of the verb

and

the case

affix

of the dative.

The use of

this

e as a case sign appears, for example, in such

causa -(- e aquae aqua -|- e. The i of forms like Romano-i, populo-i, &c. (later Romano, populo)
datives as causae
;

is

the second element of this e(=a-|-i).

93. Second, the infinitive perfect active.

to the base of the perfect indicative,

This tense joins

initial

by means of the connecting

its

vowel
(conf.

i,

the ending se with the reduplication of

;

90)

e.g.

Root.

ANALYSIS OF THE VEEB.

tences solent cogiteure,

29
respectively

non audeo

coniiterl,

may be

rendered, they are accustomed to thought,

have not the courage

should be em-

for a
97.

confession.

Remark

2.

That

infinitives strictly dative

ployed to denote a variety of relations foreign to the dative, is but another illustration of the principle, that the exact use of
forms can exist only with the consciousness of their exact import. So long as e was remembered as a case affix, and to recognized
as a preposition,

amare, and
;

to lave

could ouiy render the service

of a dative and objective

but the gradual identification of these

elements with the body of the word resulted also in the loss of
those definite relations of which they had been the symbol.

98. As an accusative

is

to

be considered the
in

infinitive

com-

monly known
conjugational
X,

as the
affix,

" supine

m."

This adds either to the

or to the root with or without the connective

Examples of these three modes of attachment are, am-a-tum, mou-i-tum, dic-tum. For the correspondence of the Sanskrit infinitive with this Latin form compare Sanskrit stha-tuiu, to stand, with sta-tum pa-tum, to drink, with po-tum; jan-i-tum, to beget, with gen-i-tum; da-tum, to give, with da-tum. This affix may be resolved thus, tH-m. Tii is an element quite commonly employed in the Latin to form nouns of action and condition. Conf. sta-tu-s, tac-tu-s, son-i-tu-s, or-tu-s. is the case sign of the accusative, common to aU the

the affix tQm.

declensions.

This

infinitive is

used after verbs of motion, to

denote that in which the motion ends, and hence as the oblique

of Limit. be recognized an ablative infinitive. This is formed from the same base as the infinitive This in m, and is characterized by the aflSx tu (for tii-(d).
case of a substantive
falls

readily under the Accusative

99. In the "supine in

u" may

ending

may be
tii

resolved thus, tu-Q.

The
:

first

element
final is

is

identical

with the

of tu-m, considered above

the

a reduplicate

of the radical vowel (received in the ablative for emphasis), and

combines with
tii-s
tii-d.

it

to

form
is

long.

Compare

the nominative fruc-

with the ablative fruo-tii (=fruc-tii-u), for the earlier fruc-

This infinitive

employed to

define the

application of
is

adjectives,

and hence,
1.

as the oblique case of

specification.
this

a substantive,

to

be classed with ablatives of

100. Remark

In the future passive

mood combines

the

dative infinitive iri (impersonal passive from eo) with the accusa-

::

30
tive infinitive in

ANALYSIS OF THE VEKbI

m.
In the use of
this accusative after eo, note

the conformity with the princij)Ie stated at the close of the 98th
section.

101.

Remark

2.

Though properly
is

the modal afiix of these

three varieties of infinitive

respectively se, turn, and tu, for the

sake of convenience the formative case elements, e, m, and u, will in the "Tables" be separated from the base, and entered under

" Case

Affix."

PjUKTICIPLB.

distinct affixes.

102. The Latin participles are formed in the use of but three First, nt, which is added to the affix of conjuga-

tion to form the participle present.

To

the base as thus composed

;

there

is

affixed in the nominative the case sign s

e.g.

Boot.

Cohj. Af.

Mod. Af.

Case Af. s

am

nt

^ (by 28,

a)

amans.

103. With the exchange of the surd lingual t for the sonant
lingual d, nt, the
affix

of the verbal adjective (participle)

of the verbal

is

converted into nd, the

Boot.

affix

noun (gerund)
Case Af.

e.g.

Conj. Af.

Mod. Af.

mon

nd

i (genitive)

104. nt with the addition of u, and the conversion of t into d,

as above, forms the affix of the future participle passive
;

e.g.

Boot.

Conj. Af.

Mod. Af.

Case Af. s (nominative)

am
105.

ndu

Any

reluctance to identify such forms as

amans and

amandus, on the ground that one is passive, and the other active, may be removed by noting the traces of an original active force
ill

both.

to avoid,

come respectively
:

Thus from sequor,

to

follow; voluto,

to roll;

and vito,

Boot.

Coh.i. Af.

Mod. Af. Case Af.

sequ

= secundus, following = volutabundus, = vitabundus, avoiding

the

one.

the rolling one.

the

one.

A dash

denotes that a part

is

wantixig.

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

31
it is

The

last

example

is pax-ticulai-ly

interesting, in that

not only-

used in an active sense, but is also employed by Livy with a dependent accusative Hauuo vitabuudus castra hostium. 106. Note. The lettei-s bu in forms like vita-bu-udus,

vid. also

treme-bu-ndus, are referred to 72 and 73).

added to the
affix
i,

tlie

root

bhu

(Latin fu, fu-i

107. The secoiid variety of participial

the connective

affix is

turu, which

is

of conjugation, or to the root with or without to form the future participle active e.g.
;

Root.

32

ANALYSIS OF THE VEKB.

is

endings, singular and plural, giving to each that which

its

most probable and best approved derivation. 111. First Person Singular. The old root of the first personal pronoun is ma. This root, with, however, the attenuation
of
its

vowel, appears in the oblique forms me-i, mi-hi, me-.

As
con-

still

farther reduced to

m, by the surrender of

its

vowel,

it

stitutes the affix

of the first person. In but two verbs, su-m (compare the English a-m) , and inqua-m, is this retained in

the present indicative.

It has also disappeared from the perfect

and future perfect indicative, and from the future of conjugations Examples of the use and abandonment of this first and second.
affix

are respectively
KOOT.

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

33
also

US. Remaric
office

1.
;

The

third person in to

may

perform the

of the second

hence am-a-, or am-a-to.

116. Remakk 2. An old form of affix in the imperative is tod. Thus in the "Twelve Tables" occurs the expression Fidios af patre leiber estod; i.e., Filius a patre liber esto. This

ending
sonant.

is

to

be explained as the reduplication of to with suppresai-e

sion of the second vowel, and the conversion of t into

Examples of the third person

Root.

its

cognate

34:

AKALTSIS OF THE VEEB.

121.

The

first

a of anta

is

retained only
is

when

the ending

is

attached to consonantal bases, and

influence of the nasal

then modified to u, under the

only in

n (by
:

15).

The second a appears

the imperative, and that under the attenuated form of o.

ples of the third person are
KOOT.

Exam-

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

35

Conjugation Second.
125. In the
final
first

person singular of the present indicative the

a of aja is retiiined, and attenuated to o. Hence, mon-aja becomes successively niou-aia, mon-ea, mon-eo. In the present subjunctive, it is likewise preserved, and combines with the modal a to form a long. A few verbs like fleo, fle-vi, fle-tum extend
tlie

use of the

affix to the

three systems

but

it

is,

in almost all

cases, limited to the first: e.g.,

doc-eo, doc-ui, doc-tum; augi is

eo, auzi, auc-tum.

inserted: e.g.,
liab-(i)-tuia.

In the third system, a connective

;

often

mou-eo, mon-ui, inon-(i)-tum

bab-eo, hab-ui,

Conjugation Fourth.
126.
of

The a

final
:

of the

affix

aja

is

retained and modified in the

in the first

following forms
tlie

it is

attenuated to
;

person singular
to e in

present indicative

to

in the third person plural of the

;

same

tense, as also in the third plural of the unperati\ e

the imperfect indicative, and before the participial affix nt (nd,

ndn).

Examples of the above changes are

respectively, aud-io,

aud-iu-nt, aud-iu-nto, aud-ie-bant, aud-ie-n(t)s.

In the con-

junctive forms, the final vowel of the affix combines with the

to form

a long.

In the optative,

it

unites with the

modal modal i to

foiin

e.g.

Hoot.

36

ANALYSIS OF THE VEEB.

e (by 18), except in the case of the verbs dico, duco, and fero, where it is dropped. In the imperfect subjunctive and present infinitive, i becomes e under the influence of r (according to 16).
128. The parts of the verb which, in conjugation fourth,
in its modified or unmodified form, the final
retain,

vowel of the

affix aja,

retain

and

treat in like

manner the

final
i

vowel of the
is

aflix

ja in

the second class of conjugation third,

converted to e in the

same forms of the verb, and

in class first, except in the

in obedience to the

same principles
its

as

second singular imperative of facio,

affixes

where

it is

dropped.

This conjugation limits the use of

a and ja

to the present system,

in rare instances, e.g.,

however,

in-

serting in the third a connective i:

claud-o, clau(d)-si,

clau(d)-s'um; but gem-o, gem-ui, sem-(i)-tum.

TABLE
The
roots,

I.

Conjugation of Esse.

es and
first

parts of the Latin verb

fu.

to

be are

formed

in the

use of two

Although s

is

rarely found in the parts formed

from the

of these, yet that

it

was

originally radical appears

from the comparison of the third singular, present indicative, in

the cognate languages
:

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

Future.
SINGULAR.
Frobibli Frihitivb.
Latbr Dbbivatiyb.

37

PLURAL.
PBOBABLB PRIUITITB.
LaTBB SSRtTATITB. -

1. 2. 3.

ea-io-m
esi

er-o
er-

ea-i

-mua
-

er-i

-mus

-a

i -

ea-

i -tda

er-i -tda

ea-

i -t

er-

i -

ea-iu-nt

er-u-nt

Perfect.
1.

fu-i-m

fu-i-

fu-i-raua
fu-i-tia
fu-i-Jit

fu-i

-mua

2. fu-i-a 8. fu-i-t

u-i-(a)ti
fu-i-t

fu-i-(B)ti3

fu-e-(r)uiit

Pluperfect.

Ai-eaam
fu-eaaa
fu-esat

fu-eram
fu-eraa
fu-erat

fu-eaatuua
fu-esatia

fu-eramua
fu-eratia

fu-eaaut

fu-erant

Future Perfect.
1.

2.

3.

38

ANALYSIS OP THE VEEB.

Pluperfect,
singulae.
Fbobablb FaiuiTiTB.
Later Debivatitb.

plural.
Fbobable Fbihitivb.
Latbb Debivatitb.

1.

fu-i-sem

fu-i-(s)-sem
fu-i-([s)-se3

fu-i-semus
fu-i-setis

fu-i-(s)-semus
fu-i-(s)-setis

2. fu-i-ses 3. fu-i-set

fu-i-(s)-set

fu-i-sent

fu-i-(s)-sent

nVCPEEATrVIi.
2. es-td, or


ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.
later e-s.
.

39

We prefer to regard

the syncopation as removing the

affix, as

of the two consonants of an impossible combination the syncopation usually falls upon the s of the root rather than of the
first.

130. Imperfect. This tense inserts a connective a throughout, and makes the usual change of s to r between two vowels. 131. Future. The future es-io-m (or es-io later es-o) es-i-s, es-i-t, &c., is formed from the root es in the use of the same affix ja, by which b-io (later b-o) b-i-s, b-i-t is produced from the radical b (vid. 73). It requires to be noticed that while the
,

verb, in

its

simple form, retains in the third plural the latter of

the two vowels iu,

when compounded with

the base of the perfect

is

to form the future perfect, the former only

preserved.

Hence

fu-er-iu-nt becomes, not fu-er-u-nt, but fu-er-i-at; am-a-v-er-

iu-nt gives, not am-a-v-er-u-nt, but am-a-v-er-i-nt.

132. SoBjUNCTiVE.

and

affixes as its
ia,

version

Present. This form of esse is optative, modal sign ja, which becomes by the usual conand by attenuation ie. Hence the earlier forms s-le-m,

s-ie-s, s-ie-t,

&c. In later Latin ie are contracted into long i. Thus, s-i-mus, s-i-tis. In explanation of the short i of s-i-m

and
fu,

s-i-t, vid.

17.

The

present subjunctive fuaiu, fuas, &c.,

is

to be explained as an old conjunctive form, based

upon the root

and appending the conjunctive modal

This tense
is

affix

a; hence, fu-a-m,

fu-a-s.

133. Imperfect.

optative,

es-a, the base of the imperfect indicative,

modal sign

ia.

Hence,
e,

es-a-i-tis,

and is formed from by affixing i of the es-a-i-ut, &c., which, by the

respectively es-e-tis, es-e-nt, forms of actual occurrence in earher authors. For the derivation of es(s)-e-m, &c., from the earlier es-e-m, conf. 90. The forms

union of ai to form

become

es-e-m, es-e-s, &c., with the aphasresis of the vowel, constitute

the affix of the several conjugations in the imperfect subjunctive
e.g., am-a-rem, reg-e-rem for am-a-sem, reg-e-sem. Porem, probably a corruption of fu-rem, is to be explained as a union of the same ending rem (for sem) with the root fu.

134. Infinitive.

Pi-esent.

The present
e.

infinitive

ai'.ds

to

the root, es, the case sign

of the dative,

This form es-e,

its

which occurs in earlier Latin, developed by the reduplication of consonant into the later e3(s)-e. Pore, another form of the
tense, with however, in general, a futm-e signification, stands

same

40
for fure,

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

and this for fu-se; i.e., the sign of the dative infinitive added to the root fu. 135. Participle. Present. This participle appears only in composition, and then with the aphseresis of e. Hence, nominative ab-seus (for ab-s-e-nt-s), genitive ab-s-e-nt-is. The compomids abseus and prsesens have been commonly resolved
thus
:

abs-ens, prees-ens.

The

belongs,

however, in each
ea.

case, to the second element,

and represents the old root

ANALYSIS OP IHE VRB.

41

TABLE

II.

Conjugation op Amo.
Active Voice.
ANALYTIC.

42

ANALYSIS OF THE VEEB.

ANALYTIC.

ANALYSIS OP THE VERB,

43

TABLE
Active Voice.

III.

Conjugation of Moneo.
Present System.

ANALYTIC.

ANALYSIS OP THE VERB.

ANALYTIC.

ANALYSIS OP THE VERB.

45

ANALYTIC.

46

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

ANALYTIC.
Mood and

SYNTHETIC.

ANALYSIS OP THE VERB.

47

ANALYTIC.

48

ANALYSIS OP THE VERB.

ANOMALOUS FORMATIONS.
The
following
list

comprises verbs

parts, are inexplicable

Accumbo = ad +
Apiscor.

wliicli, in some or all of their by the more general rules of conjugation. cubo. The nasal prefixed (by 37) to the

labial characteristic takes the

form of

(by 41, 6).

Root ap (conf. ap-tum), which is strengthened in This the present system by the addition of sc with i coimective. same root probably appears also in coepi (for co-api) possibly which see. also in capio (for c'-apio, i.e., con-apio)
; ;

of

Bibo, formed from the root bo, by reduplication. The identity bo with po (conf. po-tum, a draught) rests upon the interlabial.

change of the surd and sonant

Caedo. The perfect ce-oidi contains in its reduplicate syllable the second element of the diphthong ee. The long vowel of its radical syllable represents the weight of the diphthongal root.

Rootcap: by reduplication, ca-oap by syncopation and by union of vowels, cep. If, however (vid. apiscor), capio is for conaplo, the base cep is obtained without
Capio.
;

attenuation, ca-ip;

syncopation; thus, c'-ap, c'-a-ap, c'-a-ip, c'-ep.

Cedo,
ative)

say.

This defective verb (occurring only in the imperaffix,

employs no conjugational
affix

and hence the concurrent

consonants of root and

require to be accommodated, as fol-

lows

ced

+ to ^ (by 41, a) + =

ced + do

= ce-do

by syncopation.

With

reference to the question whether the syncopated letter was

radical or terminational, conf. the closing

remark of 129. The accommodates the sonant to the surd, instead of the converse, and makes ced te cet-te. Censeo. The supine when formed without a connective becomes successively cens-tum, cena-aum, cen-sum. Ceruo. Root ere (conf. cre-vi, cre-tum). Ore becomes by metathesis car and by 37, earn. Coepi CO -]- api con apt (vid. apiscor). For the
plural
;

method of obtaining api from

ap, vid. capio.

For

similarity of

formation, conf. co-epi, from con-ap, with co-egl, from con-ag.

Comminiscor
i -j- sc.

^ cum
-f-

-\-

For the root min,

vid.

miuiscor minisc the base memiui.

;

= min
si

-|-

Connivao

= cum

obsolete niveo.
(o

Niv + si

= nio + =

nixl (vid. 26, and conf. nic-to,

wink).

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

Curro.
aflSx

49
that before

Curr

+ sum = cur-sum,
:

by the law

an

beginning with a consonant a doubled letter becomes single.

Disco.

Root die

conf. perfect di-dic-i

The

present disco

therefore stands for dic-sc-o.

Conf. for identity of root, doc-eo;

similarity of formation, the Greelc

and

for identity of root

and
is

di-dasco, for di-dac-sc-o.

Do.

Koot da.

This

commonly

classed as a verb of the

first

conjugation.

It is such,

however, only in appearance, the a being

not a conjugational affix corrupted fiom aja, but simply an element of the root, to which, without an intervening affix of conjugation,
the other endings are directly appended; e.g., da-mus, da-ba-m, da-re.

verbs of the
increment.

This serves to explain the nonconformity ot do with first conjugation in respect to the quantity of its first

The

Sanskrit has two roots,

da and dha,

similar in

form yet distinct in origin. Of these the former signifies to give, and is represented by the Greek do. The latter signifies to place, and appears in the Greek the. Both of these roots are represented in Latin by a single form da, which however, in the sense of to place, occurs only in composition. In the following compounds
this

element

is

employed

in the sense of to give

;

de-do,

inter-do, red-do, tra-do (for trans-do)

probably also di-do

to place, it occurs in the comcircum-do, con-do, in-do, ob-do, per-do, sub-do, super-do probably e-do. To these are to be

and pro-do.

With the sense of

ab-do,

pounds,

ad-do,

added, also,

vendo or venundo ( venum + do) pessundo (^pessum-j- do), and credo ( ^^ Sanskrit root srat, faith, -{,

do).
radical

In the

first

person singular, present indicative active, the

a becomes o by the same change that the conjugational affix a becomes o in the same part of verbs like reg-o (for reg-a). For the irregular forms of subjunctive made by this verb and its compounds, vid. 84 and 86. Edo, to eat (vid. 60). Those parts of the verb which employ no connective attach the ending to the root in accordance with the
rule, that before t or s the radical

is

changed to

s.

Exception.

In the second singular indicative and imperative d is dropped. Observe that in the imperfect subjunctive and present infinitive,
the s of the affix has been retained, under the protection of the

preceding consonant (conf. 87).

Eo.

Root
is

this root is

not preserved in
first

all

the forms of the

verb, but

extended (1) to eo, in the 4

singular, present indic-

50
ative

ANALYSIS OF THE VEKB.

;

(2) to

ea

in the present subjunctive

t.

(3) to

eu before

followed by

or

While

it

is

impossible to explain these

various

modifications

other than

influence of the consonants, with which,

i

by general reference to the by inflection, the original

became

associated,

it is

of interest to notice in this connection

same methods of extension have also been employed by the pronominal root i, of the pronoun i-s, i-d, &c.
that precisely the

Thus,

1.

<

Abl. Sing. Gen. Plur. [Acc. Plur.

r

eo.

'NoM. Sing.
Acc. Sing.
2. (

ea.

eo-rum.
eo-s.

ea-m.

3.

{Acc. Sing. eu-m.

Abl. Sing. ea. N. & Acc. Plur. ea. Gen. Plur. ea-rum.
affix

In the present subjunctive, the modal

final

vowel of ea to form a long;

e.g.,

a combines with the ea-mus, ea-tis. I-ns,

the unmodified form

e-ns.

of the participle, would become,

by 16,
satisfied,

The requirements of euphony have, however, been

i retained,

and the radical

i-e-ns.

by the

insertion of an e inorganic,

Faoio.
fio.

This verb will be best considered in connection with

Sanskrit root bhu, to be, becomes, by the addition of

The

the passive affix ja, bhu-ja, or, syncopating u, and representing

bh by

the Latin equivalent

f,

f-ja.

In the same mannner as from

the. original cap-ja,

we have
;

seen (at 57) developed the forms

so,

cap-io, cap-i-s, cap-i-t, &c.

f-io, f-l-s, fi-t.

from

f-ja is derived the Latiii

This same root

bhu
is,

appears also in the strengthened form bhav.

in general,

Now,

employed in Sanskrit with a but ^e knows (vid. 50) bodh-aja-ti^Ae informs, i.e., he causes to know. As then bhu, or bhav, means to be, bhav-aja means to cause to be, i.e., to make. It has been already seen that in some cases v is hardened to a Substituting in the palatal; e.g., fluc-si for fluv-si, from flu-o. Sanskrit bhav-aja f for bh, as above, and o for v, there would result the form fac-aja, whose development in the first plural, for example, into fao-i-mus, differs from the development of sop-aja into sop-i-mua (vid. 54) only in the quantity of its vowel. Adthe affix aja
causal signification: e.g., bodh-a-ti

mitting the correctness of this explanation, facio must then be

ANALYSIS OF THE VERB.

considered as radically identical with
relation of causal to primitive.
fio,

51
it

and standing to

in the

The

perfect feci contains a con-

cealed reduplication (vid. 46)

fa-fac, fa-fic, fa-ic, fee.

its

Fero.

This verb originally formed

affix.

parts without the use of

a conjugational
still

Traces of

this

retained,

(1)
;

method of conjugation are

(by assimilation for fers-

in the

second and third person singular of the

:

present indicative
is),
(.3)

fer-s, fer-t

ferr-is

fert-ur

(2)

in the

second plm-al, indicative active, fertis

;

throughout the imperfect subjunctive, fer-rem, &c.

and (4)

in

the present infinitive, fer-re.

In the subjunctive and imperative, we might have expected that under the protection of the preceding consonant, the a of the original affix would bo retained. Its con-

version to r results, in this instance, from assimilation.

in this respect,

Compare,

vel-lem
is

for

vel-sem.

In the parts not specified

fer occurs only in

above, the verb

inflected after the analogy of the third conjuga-

tion; i.e., in the use of the affix a.

The root

the

present system.

For the bases tul and la of the perfect

and supine, see tollo.

rerveot
is

In the perfect ferb-ui (for ferv-ui), the radical

its

represented by

associate cognate sonant.

is

Pigo.

In the supine, contrary to rule, the t of turn

con-

verted to 3 after the palatal.

ilzrum.

Hence, fig-tum, fic-tum, fic-sum,

fidi, vid. 47.

Findo. Root
Fio.

fid.

In explanation of the perfect

Vid. facio.

Fluo. A secondary form of the root flu, occurring in the second and third systems, is fluv (vid. 10). Thus, fluxi for fluc-si, and flue -|- turn Supine, fluv -|- turn this for fluv-si (by 26).
fluo
-}-

sum ^ fluzum.
frag.
fra-fragi,

Frango. Root
cation,

Full form of the perfect

made by
fra-frigi,

reduplifra-igl,

which

became

successively

fregL

Frendeo. Root probably fred. Fruor, root fru or (by 10) fruv; from the latter, fructus for fruvtus. This verb is also explained by supposing the present to
firuor for frugor. have syncopated a radical palatal, gaud -f- sus gau -)- bus. Gaudeo. Gaud -f- tus

=
v

In the
i

union of the

affix

with the base, the verb assumes long

&her

the analogy of the fourth conjug.ation, necessai'ily accompanying

this insertion

with th conversion of

into

hence, gav-i-sua.

52
Gigno.

ANALYSIS OF THE VEKB.

Vid. 49.
(later,

Gnosco. Rootgno

no).

When in composition with ad

i

or con, the root attenuates

its

to

in the forms of the third

system; e.g., ag-ni-tum (for ag-gni-tum). Hsereo. This verb is exceptional to 35, in that
t of the supine into
s,

it

converts the

Haurio.

and syncopates the characteristic. For hausum, vid. haesum from haereo.
in
-f-

Inquam,

i.e.,

quam

early root (retained only in the

first

singular of the present indicative) ,

qua

later form, qui.

limiting viz., a, a pure verb, it employs a conjugational affix, its use, however, to precisely those forms in which the a of ia (ja)
is

Though

retained in verbs like capio, and subjecting

it

to the

same

euphonic changes.
verbs in
dental
;

Though
them the
it is-

coinciding thus in appearance with

is

io,

of conjugation third, the resemblance

i is

purely acciof ja, in the

for while in

derived from the

verb we are considering

Jacio.

an element of the root.

Root

jao.

Perfect, ja-jaoi, ja-jici, ja-ici, jeoi.

Jubeo. In this verb the t of the supine is converted into s, and both in the perfect and supine the radical labial assimilated. Hence jus-si and jus-sum, for the regular jup-si and jup-tum (vid. 25 and 31). Jungo. Koot jug. Although appearing in all the forms of the verb, the nasal is not to be considered as radicaL Conf. jug-um,
con-jug-is.
Iiabor.
Participle lap-sus, for the regular lap-tus.

La-tum. Vid. tollo. Lavo. Of the three forms of supine lav-a-tum, lau-tum,
lo-tum, the
first is
,

regular.

The second

converts

into

(lau'

tum

for

lav-tum) the third combines au of the second

into o,

by 8. Linquo. Root liqu. Conf. liqu-i, iic-tum (in re-lictum) Malo. Vid. volo. Memini. Root mam, to think. This is a perfect formed by reduplication accompanied with the usual attenuation. Compare, The same root with in the latter respect, ce-cidi from root cad.
the attenuation of
its

vowel appears in com-min-iscor, and re-

min-iscor, also in

mon-eo

(Sanskrit man-aja;

vid.

53), in
there-

which eo

is

the corruption of the causal affix aja.

Mon-eo

fore signifies to cause to think, i.e., to advise.

Metior. Root

ma

(conf.

mo-dus)

later form,

met

The

ANALYSIS OP THE VERB.

participle
tion,

53
inser-

men-sus

is for

ment-sua, the n being a euphonic

and

the t disappearing according to rule.

As

regards the

euphonic nasal, compare the Latin uiensis formed from the same
root

ma. Misceo.

Root mig.

Mig + so

= (by syncopation) misc, the

The
full
affix,

form of the supine, would be migsc-tum. This is corrupted to the form miz-tum, by the syncopation of the second palatal, c and to mis-tum, by the sacrifice of both o and g. Morior. The perfect participle passive is regularly formed in
including root, inchoative sign, and modal
;

base of the present and perfect.

the use of tu. occurred.

Forms

in

tuu

(for

tvu) seem
fa.

also to

have be

Conf. fa-tuu-s from root

To

this

class is to

referred the perfect participle mor-tuu-s, root

mor.
system
affix sc.

Nanciscor.
Nitor.
first is

Root nac.

The root

inserts in the first

(and optionally in the third) a euphonic n, and adds the

Of

the two forms of participle nisus and nizus, the

regular.

In explanation of the second, which contains a

palatal, I conjecture a connection with nicto, to strive.

Nolo. Vid. Volo. Pango. Root pag.

pa-pigi.

The

perfect pegi

is

for paigi

and that

for

This seems have been conjugated as a verb in io of the third conjugation, and to have assimilated the i pello for pel-io.
Fello.
originally to

Root pal; hence pe-pul-i, pul-sum.

Fercello
pello.

= per
is

-|-

obsolete

cello.

The

perfect per-ciili
for
cel-lo.

is

for per-ce-oiil-ij

and the present cel-lo

Conf.

Fingo.
stantive

n n

probably euphonic.

Conf. pic-tum and the sub-

pig-mentum.
euphonic.

Pinso.

Conf. pia-tum, and the substantives

pis-tor and pis-trinum.

Pono

for pos-n-o,

n
;

euphonic.
;

Root prac whence by attenuation, preo by attenuation and aphaeresis, roc or rog; by attenuation and metathesis, pore. These three forms of the root, preo, rog, pore, appear For respectively in preo-or, rog-o, po-sc-o, for porc-sc-o.
Posco.
the syncopation of ro before the inchoative so, conf. di-sc-o for

dic-sc-o.

Poto.

Root pot, lengthened from po

(vid.

bibo).

Of

the

54

ANALYSIS OF THE VEBB.

first

two supines, pot-a-tum and po-tum, the

the longer, the second from the shorter root.

is

formed from

Fremo.
prem-sura.

Perfect pres-si for

prem-sl

Supine pres-sum for

Qusero (by 36)

for quESSo,

which also occurs.

Rumpo. Root
Scindo.
lable.

rup.

Vid. 41.

Koot scid.

The

perfect scitdi probably results from

syl-

an old reduplicated form by the aphseresis of the repeated

sow ; perfect se-vi, supine sa-tum. The authorities method of reconciling the three forms, Ber, I suggest the se, sa, under which the root of the verb appears. following. There is no part of a verb from which the original
Sero,
to

give no clew to a valid

root

may be

with more

confidence

deduced, than the supine.

It is

Here we
sar.
still

find not sar-tum, but

sa-tum.

more

natural, then,

to consider sar a lengthening of sa, than sa an abbreviation of

This view is confirmed by the se of the perfect se-vi, and more by the noun of agency, sa-tor, which, uniformly with the method by which in general this formation is obtained, we should expect to be compounded of the root in its earliest form and the affix tor. How then is ser to be derived from sa. It must be either by the addition of r, or by the addition of some
other consonant subsequently converted to
ginal assumption of
r, is

r.

To

aflSrm the ori-

to suppose a case quite exceptional to

the general method of Latin formation.

Had

either of the Un-

guals

t,

d, n, l,.been affixed, there could have

been nothing in the

position between
Still

less

palatal.

two vowels to occasion its conversion into r. ground is there for supposing an original labial or Only s remains, a letter which not only finds a possible*

r, but one which, if standing between two vowels, under discussion, we should have expected to be thus converted, conformably to the almost universal requirements of

representative in
as in the case

the language.
tion of

But what

s?

We

is the explanation of an original addianswer, reduplication. It is true that as the

reduplication of

gen

gives gi-gen (later gi-gn), and that of

bo

gives bi-b (vid. bibo),

si-s,

we might have expected

si-r-o
;

in place of se-s,

and thus

in place of se-r-o,

but the use of e instead

of

i,

in the present instance, is only in accord with the principle

tendency of r

already stated (at 16), and abundantly illustrated, that the general is to convert the preceding i into e.

ANALYSIS OP THE VERB.

Sisto. Root sta. For the formation of the present, and 49. For the perfect, vid. sto. Sperno. Root spre, by metathesis sper n euphonic.
;

55
vid.

42

Spoudeo.
Sterno.
Sto.

Vid. 44.
Couf. sperno.
sta.

Root

The

perfect of both sto and sisto

is

formed

by the

reduplication of sta according to 44.

Struo.

Sum.
Tango.

Root stru or struv. Vid. " Table I."

Conf. fluo.

Root tag. n euphonic. Root tern. In the simple verb p is never inserted before s and t (conf. 27 and 33) but optionally cou-tem-si, or

Temno.

con-tem-p-si

so the supine.

Tendo.
Tero.

The

supine ten-turn

is

exceptional to

34

in

its

retention of the affix

;

t
;

Root tri by metathesis tir by 16 ter. Root tal. This root seems to have been conjugated originally as a verb in io of conjugation third. Thus tal-io, or by attenuation tol-io; by assiniilaiion, tol-io. The perfect tilli (appeai'ing in sus-tfili) results I'roui the original te-tiili (used by Plautus) by the aphseresis of the reduplicate syllable. The regular form of supine would be tal-tum, or by metathesis tla-tum. It is probable that la-tum is a corruption from this by aphseresis. TuLL Vid. tollo. Tundo. Root tud. Volo. The old root val appears under the three attenuated
Tollo.
,

forms, vul, vol, vel.

its

original

method of
first

In the following parts the verb retains inflection without a conjugational affix:

the present indicative (u in

vol-u-mus

is

simply connective),

except the
junctive,

person singular, the present and imperfect subinfinitive.

and present

The present
this for

optative

vel-i-m for vel-i-m, and

subjunctive is an vel-ja-m or vel-ie-m.

affix
;

The

imperfect subjunctive assimilates the s of the

vel-leni

for vel-sem.

So the

infinitive vel-le for vel-se.

In other parts
is

the verb employs the affix of conjugation third.

Like volo

con-

jugated

malo (magis -j- volo) and nolo (non -\- volo)

THE ENS.