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Connecting Devices - Hub, Repeater, Switch, Bridge, Router, Gateway

To understand what connecting devices are, it is important to know about Backbone Networks. Backbone Network is a means of connecting 2 LANs. It provides a transmission channel for packets from being transmitted from one LAN to the other. The individual LANs are connected to the Backbone Network by using some types of devices such as Hubs, Repeaters, Switches, Bridges, Routers and Gateways. Although these terms sound familiar, not many of us know the purpose of using these devices difference between these devices. Hence, it is very important to know the basic function of these devices in order to decide upon the device that is to be used for a particular purpose. Hub A hub works in the physical layer of the OSI model. It is basically a non-intelligent device, and has no decision making capability. What a Hub basically does is take the input data from one of the ports and broadcast the information to all the other ports connected to the network.

Fig 1: 4 port network To demonstrate its working, consider a 4 port network as shown in Fig 1. There are 4 computers connected to the 4 ports. Suppose, if Computer A wants to send some data to Computer B using a Hub, then, Computer A broadcasts the data on the network, and Computer B, being connected to the network, has access to the data. But, in this case all the other ports connected to the network has access to the data that is being transmitted by Computer A. This happens because, the Hub works in the Physical Layer and hence it does not know about the MAC addresses of the ports connected to the network. So, there is a lack of security in the Hub.

Fig 2: USB Hub The picture shows a USB Hub, wherein the data is fed into the input port and is broadcasted to all the other 4 ports. The Network Hubs are outdated and are out of the market. Repeater A repeater is a device similar to the Hub, but has additional features. It also works in the Physical layer. The repeaters are used in places where amplification of input signal is necessary. But, the kind of amplification done by the repeater is different from the regular amplification by amplifiers. The regular amplifies everything fed into

it. That means, if the input signal has noise induced into it, both the desired signal and noise signal are together amplified. But, in the case of a repeater, it regenerates the input signal, and amplifies only the desirable signal. Hence, the noise component of the signal is eliminated.

Fig 3: Repeater The repeaters are necessary since, during the transmission of the signals over long distances, the signal has attenuation, delay distortions and noise, which lead in loss of data. Hence, in order to prevent this, the regenerative repeaters are used. Hence, the repeater regenerates the faded signal. In addition, it has all the features of a Hub. One common problem between the repeaters and the Hubs are that only one transmission can take place on the network at a particular time. If multiple devices transmit data simultaneously, there will be data collision. Switch A switch is an intelligent device that works in the data link layer. The term intelligent refers to the decision making capacity of the Switch. Since it works in the Data link layer, it has knowledge of the MAC addresses of the ports in the network.

Fig 4: Switch Hence, in the Fig 1, if data has to be sent from Computer A to Computer B, then, the data is transferred to the Computer C only, and not to any other computers connected on the network. Hence, it establishes a link between the sender and the receiver based on the MAC addresses. This also means that when data is being sent

from A to B, Computer C can establish a link with Computer D and communication can take place between them. So, simultaneous data transfer is possible in a switch. Also, Hub divides bandwidth, but a Switch does not. It is also to be noted that a switch is a secure device, because it sends information only to the desired destinations, and also certain security features such as firewalls can be implemented in the Switches. Bridge A bridge is also a device which works in the Data Link Layer, but is more primitive when compared to a switch. Initial bridges were used to connect only 2 LANs, but the most recent ones perform similar operation as the switches. It also works on the principle of transfer of information using the MAC addresses of the ports.

Fig 5: Bridge It can be noted is that the normal ADSL modem can be connected via bridging also. The only difference is that, when bridging is used, each time the device has to be connected to the internet, it has to dial to the internet and establish a connection. Also, a bridge alone cannot be used to connect to the internet, because, the bridge works in the Data Link Layer, and has no knowledge of the IP Addresses, which are used in the Internet. Router Any computer can be connected to the internet via MODEM, which performs the MODulation and the DEModulation operations. But, when there are more than one computer at home or in an organization, and you have a single internet connection, you need a Router. Router is a device which is used when multiple devices need to connect to the Internet using the same IP. Any Internet Service Provider (ISP) provides a single IP, and especially for personal use, the IP address is assigned dynamically. This is done because, suppose, an ISP has 1000 IP addresses, it does not mean that it has 1000 customers. An ISP assumes that not all devices will be connected to the internet at the same time. Hence, when a user wants to access the internet, any IP address from the pool of IP addresses from the ISP will be assigned to connect the user to the internet.

Fig 6: Router Hence, the router does the job of connecting multiple devices in a LAN to the internet using the same IP address. Since the router works in the Network Layer, it does forwarding on the basis of IP addresses. The WiFi routers that are commonly used now are the IEEE 802.11 b/g standard router, which is explained below. IEEE 802.11 IEEE 802.11 is a standard for WiFi. There are several different technologies/ generations that have been implemented. As mentioned, the recent modems are IEEE 802.11 b/g modems. The word b/g has the meaning as follows: An IEEE 802.11 b standard uses 2.4GHz band and has a maximum transfer rate of 11 Mbps, while the IEEE 802.11 g standard uses 2.4 GHz band and has maximum transfer rate of 54 Mbps. Thus the b/g modem refers to a dual bandwidth modem, which is compatible with both the b and g standards. The standards are mainly differentiated based on the distance and speed of data transfer. The more recent IEEE 802.11 N standard has the capability to provide speeds of over 100 Mbps. It basically uses multiple wireless signals and antennas, and has increased signal intensity in order to be able to provide network for greater distances. It employs MIMO technology, wherein spatial encoding is used. The spatial pre-coding is done at the transmitter and the post-coding is done at the receiver. Recently, Reliance Communications was in news for implementing MIMO technology to improve its 3G data transfer speeds. Gateway The Gateway devices work in the Transport layer and above, where the different network technologies are implemented. A gateway is necessary when there are different technologies implemented by the different LANs which are to be connected together.

Fig 7: Gateway function The Fig 7 shows the working of a gateway. Consider 2 networks, say in New York, and a network in London. If data has to be sent from one place to another, we need to ensure that the network technologies that are being used by both the networks are the same. If not, we need to use a Gateway. In the more common example, we use a telephone network and internet networks, which works on different technologies. The telephone network follows the ISDN, and the Internet follows the IP. Here, 2 different technologies are being used. In this case, the router fails to work, since the router cannot understand the functionalities of both the networks. Hence, we require a Gateway, which acts as a translator in communicating between the 2 networks. Connecting Cables While connecting different networks, we come across different connecting cables, which are as follows: 1. RJ45/ RJ 11 Connectors: The RJ45 (Registered Jack 45) cable or the Cat 5 cable, is used to connect the two different LANs together. This is normally confused with the RJ11 cable, which is used in the interconnections in the telephone network. 2. Crossover cables: Crossover cables are generally used when 2 different computers are to be connected together. They get the name because, in these cables, a crossover is made between the Transmitter and Receiver ports, i.e., Transmitter of one end of the cable is connected to the Receiver port at the other end and vice versa. 3. Null Modem Cables: The null modem cables are also those which are used in connecting 2 different computers to form a network. They also have a crossover, but generally, the term null modem cables are used for RS232 standard cables. 4. Optical Fibres: The optical fibres are used when gigabit Ethernet is used, and very high rates of data transmission is necessary.

Fig 8: Connecting Cables Summary The features of the connecting devices can be explained in brief as follows:

Hub- Broadcasts data from one port to all other ports in the network. Repeater- Regenerates the input data which is subjected to attenuation. Switch- Intelligent device which sends data to particular port. Bridge-Same function as switch but much more primitive and has lesser ports. Router-Connects all computers from a LAN to internet using same IP. IEEE 802.11- WiFi standard- 802.11 b has speed of 11 Mbps, 802.11 g has a speed of 54 Mbps and 802.11 N uses multiple wireless signals and antennas and has speeds of over 100Mbps. Gateway-Needed when 2 different network technologies are being used. Acts as translator. Connecting Cables- RJ 11(Telephone Cable), RJ 45 (LAN Cable), Twisted pair cables(used in connecting 2 computers), Null Modem Cable(RS232) , Optial Fibre Cable(Gigabit Ethernet).

-oPosted 24th October 2011 by Pavan Kumar P N Labels: Router Hub Computer Networks Electronics IEEE 802.11 b/g Connecting Cables Repeater IEEE 802.11 N Switch Gateway Bridge

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Wireless and Fiber Backhaul Systems: Indian Context

Backhaul systems are gaining high prominence with the advent of newer wireless technologies and increasing data-traffic. Hence, backhaul systems need to have high

capacity

and

be

capable

of

handling

the

data-traffic.

India is a vast country with varying demographics, wherein social and economic conditions vary greatly from region to region. In order to select a backhaul system for the Indian conditions, we must first understand evaluate the pros and cons of both Wireless and Fiber backhaul systems. Wireless backhaul systems often use microwave for transmission. Hence, a frequency spectrum license has to be obtained, in order to install such a backhaul system. These systems require equipment that is less expensive when compared to fiber backhaul systems. In addition, they can be installed at any location and require lesser installation time. Moreover, the equipment could be reused. However, the disadvantage of such systems is that the capacity is limited, and the performance is influenced by climatic conditions. Fiber backhaul systems use fiber optic cables for transmission. Fiber systems provide more bandwidth and very high capacity. They are also very efficient and are reliable. However, the disadvantage is that there is lot of manual installation work that is to be done before using such systems. In addition, the installation and maintenance costs are higher in fiber backhaul systems. In the Indian context, high bandwidth and capacity is generally required in places where the population density and the usage of data services are higher. Hence, fiber backhaul systems would be preferable in the urban conditions, particularly in areas where information technology based industries are located. These places have the requirement of uninterrupted network connections and higher bandwidth. The installation and maintenance would be easier in such areas where there is a necessity of fiber systems that have high capacity. According to statistics, about 80 percent of Indian population lives in the villages or semi-urban conditions. The usage of data services in such locations is very lesser. In addition, the infrastructure needed to support the advanced systems is poor in such areas. Hence, wireless backhaul systems would be more feasible in these conditions. Keeping all the above-mentioned thoughts in mind we could conclude that both wireless and fiber backhaul technologies have their own advantages in the Indian context. Hence, the preferred technology could be decided based on the specific requirement of such services in the location being considered. Posted 24th October 2012 by Pavan Kumar P N Labels: Fiber India Wireless Backhaul System Loading Send feedback

Network Devices

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Networking Devices Hub Switch Router Modem Bridges Brouters Gateways

HUB
Networks using a Star topology require a central point for the devices to connect. Originally this device was called a concentrator since it consolidated the cable runs from all network devices. The basic form of concentrator is the hub.

As shown in Figure; the hub is a hardware device that contains multiple, independent ports that match the cable type of the network. Most common hubs interconnect Category 3 or 5 twistedpair cable with RJ-45 ends, although Coax BNC and Fiber Optic BNC hubs also exist. The hub is considered the least common denominator in device concentrators. Hubs offer an inexpensive option for transporting data between devices, but hubs don't offer any form of intelligence. Hubs can be active or passive. An active hub strengthens and regenerates the incoming signals before sending the data on to its destination. Passive hubs do nothing with the signal.

Ethernet Hubs
An Ethernet hub is also called a multiport repeater. A repeater is a device that amplifies a signal as it passes through it, to counteract the effects of attenuation. If, for example, you have a thin Ethernet network with a cable segment longer than the prescribed maximum of 185 meters, you can install a repeater at some point in the segment to strengthen the signals and increase the maximum segment length. This type of repeater only has two BNC connectors, and is rarely seen these days.

8 Port mini Ethernet Hub The hubs used on UTP Ethernet networks are repeaters as well, but they can have many RJ45 ports instead of just two BNC connectors. When data enters the hub through any of its ports, the hub amplifies the signal and transmits it out through all of the other ports. This enables a star network to have a shared medium, even though each computer has its own separate cable. The hub relays every packet transmitted by any computer on the network to all of the other computers, and also amplifies the signals. The maximum segment length for a UTP cable on an Ethernet network is 100 meters. A segment is defined as the distance between two communicating computers. However, because the hub also functions as a repeater, each of the cables connecting a computer to a hub port can be up to

100 meters long, allowing a segment length of up to 200 meters when one hub is inserted in the network.

Multistation Access Unit

A Multistation Access Unit (MAU) is a special type of hub used for token ring networks. The word "hub" is used most often in relation to Ethernet networks, and MAU only refers to token ring networks. On the outside, the MAU looks like a hub. It connects to multiple network devices, each with a separate cable. Unlike a hub that uses a logical bus topology over a physical star, the MAU uses a logical ring topology over a physical star.

When the MAU detects a problem with a connection, the ring will beacon. Because it uses a physical star topology, the MAU can easily detect which port the problem exists on and close the port, or "wrap" it. The MAU does actively regenerate signals as it transmits data around the ring.

Switches

Switches are a special type of hub that offers an additional layer of intelligence to basic, physical-layer repeater hubs. A switch must be able to read the MAC address of each frame it receives. This information allows switches to repeat incoming data frames only to the computer or computers to which a frame is addressed. This speeds up the network and reduces congestion.

Switches operate at both the physical layer and the data link layer of the OSI Model.

Bridges
A bridge is used to join two network segments together, it allows computers on either segment to access resources on the other. They can also be used to divide large networks into smaller segments. Bridges have all the features of repeaters, but can have more nodes, and since the network is divided, there is fewer computers competing for resources on each segment thus improving network performance.

Bridges can also connect networks that run at different speeds, different topologies, or different protocols. But they cannot, join an Ethernet segment with a Token Ring segment, because these

use different networking standards. Bridges operate at both the Physical Layer and the MAC sublayer of the Data Link layer. Bridges read the MAC header of each frame to determine on which side of the bridge the destination device is located, the bridge then repeats the transmission to the segment where the device is located.

Routers
Routers Are networking devices used to extend or segment networks by forwarding packets from one logical network to another. Routers are most often used in large internetworks that use the TCP/IP protocol suite and for connecting TCP/IP hosts and local area networks (LANs) to the Internet using dedicated leased lines.

Routers work at the network layer (layer 3) of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model for networking to move packets between networks using their logical addresses (which, in the case of TCP/IP, are the IP addresses of destination hosts on the network). Because routers operate at a higher OSI level than bridges do, they have better packet-routing and filtering capabilities and greater processing power, which results in routers costing more than bridges.

Routing tables
Routers contain internal tables of information called routing tables that keep track of all known network addresses and possible paths throughout the internetwork, along with cost of reaching each network. Routers route packets based on the available paths and their costs, thus taking advantage of redundant paths that can exist in a mesh topology network. Because routers use destination network addresses of packets, they work only if the configured network protocol is a routable protocol such as TCP/IP or IPX/SPX. This is different from bridges, which are protocol independent. The routing tables are the heart of a router; without them, there's no way for the router to know where to send the packets it receives. Unlike bridges and switches, routers cannot compile routing tables from the information in the data packets they process. This is because the routing table contains more detailed information than is found in a data packet, and also because the router needs the information in the table to

process the first packets it receives after being activated. A router can't forward a packet to all possible destinations in the way that a bridge can.

Static routers: These must have their routing tables configured manually with all network addresses and paths in the internetwork. Dynamic routers: These automatically create their routing tables by listening to network traffic. Routing tables are the means by which a router selects the fastest or nearest path to the next "hop" on the way to a data packet's final destination. This process is done through the use of routing metrics. Routing metrics which are the means of determining how much distance or time a packet will require to reach the final destination. Routing metrics are provided in different forms. hop is simply a router that the packet must travel through. Ticks measure the time it takes to traverse a link. Each tick is 1/18 of a second. When the router selects a route based on tick and hop metrics, it chooses the one with the lowest number of ticks first.

You can use routers, to segment a large network, and to connect local area segments to a single network backbone that uses a different physical layer and data link layer standard. They can also be used to connect LAN's to a WAN's.

Brouters
Brouters are a combination of router and bridge. This is a special type of equipment used for networks that can be either bridged or routed, based on the protocols being forwarded. Brouters are complex, fairly expensive pieces of equipment and as such are rarely used.

A Brouter transmits two types of traffic at the exact same time: bridged traffic and routed traffic. For bridged traffic, the Brouter handles the traffic the same way a bridge or switch would, forwarding data based on the physical address of the packet. This makes the bridged traffic fairly fast, but slower than if it were sent directly through a bridge because the Brouter has to determine whether the data packet should be bridged or routed.

Gateways
A gateway is a device used to connect networks using different protocols. Gateways operate at the network layer of the OSI model. In order to communicate with a host on another network, an IP host must be configured with a route to the destination network. If a configuration route is not found, the host uses the gateway (default IP router) to transmit the traffic to the destination host. The default t gateway is where the IP sends packets that are destined for remote networks. If no

default gateway is specified, communication is limited to the local network. Gateways receive data from a network using one type of protocol stack, removes that protocol stack and repackages it with the protocol stack that the other network can use. Examples

E-mail gateways-for example, a gateway that receives Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) email, translates it into a standard X.400 format, and forwards it to its destination Gateway Service for NetWare (GSNW), which enables a machine running Microsoft Windows NT Server or Windows Server to be a gateway for Windows clients so that they can access file and print resources on a NetWare server Gateways between a Systems Network Architecture (SNA) host and computers on a TCP/IP network, such as the one provided by Microsoft SNA Server A packet assembler/disassembler (PAD) that provides connectivity between a local area network (LAN) and an X.25 packet-switching network

CSU / DSU (Channel Service Unit / Data Service Unit)

A CSU/DSU is a device that combines the functionality of a channel service unit (CSU) and a data service unit (DSU). These devices are used to connect a LAN to a WAN, and they take care of all the translation required to convert a data stream between these two methods of communication.

A DSU provides all the handshaking and error correction required to maintain a connection across a wide area link, similar to a modem. The DSU will accept a serial data stream from a device on the LAN and translate this into a useable data stream for the digital WAN network. It will also take care of converting any inbound data streams from the WAN back to a serial communication. A CSU is similar to a DSU except it does not have the ability to provide handshaking or error correction. It is strictly an interface between the LAN and the WAN and relies on some other device to provide handshaking and error correction.

NICs (Network Interface Card)

Network Interface Card, or NIC is a hardware card installed in a computer so it can communicate on a network. The network adapter provides one or more ports for the network cable to connect to, and it transmits and receives data onto the network cable. Wireless Lan card

Every networked computer must also have a network adapter driver, which controls the network adapter. Each network adapter driver is configured to run with a certain type of network adapter. Network card

Network Interface Adapter Functions Network interface adapters perform a variety of functions that are crucial to getting data to and from the computer over the network. These functions are as follows: Data encapsulation The network interface adapter and its driver are responsible for building the frame around the data generated by the network layer protocol, in preparation for transmission. The network interface adapter also reads the contents of incoming frames and passes the data to the appropriate network layer protocol. Signal encoding and decoding The network interface adapter implements the physical layer encoding scheme that converts the binary data generated by the network layer-now encapsulated in the frame-into electrical

voltages, light pulses, or whatever other signal type the network medium uses, and converts received signals to binary data for use by the network layer. transmission and reception The primary function of the network interface adapter is to generate and transmit signals of the appropriate type over the network and to receive incoming signals. The nature of the signals depends on the network medium and the data-link layer protocol. On a typical LAN, every computer receives all of the packets transmitted over the network, and the network interface adapter examines the destination address in each packet, to see if it is intended for that computer. If so, the network interface adapter passes the packet to the computer for processing by the next layer in the protocol stack; if not, the network interface adapter discards the packet. Data buffering Network interface adapters transmit and receive data one frame at a time, so they have built-in buffers that enable them to store data arriving either from the computer or from the network until a frame is complete and ready for processing. Serial/parallel conversion The communication between the computer and the network interface adapter runs in parallel, that is, either 16 or 32 bits at a time, depending on the bus the adapter uses. Network communications, however, are serial (running one bit at a time), so the network interface adapter is responsible for performing the conversion between the two types of transmissions. Media access control The network interface adapter also implements the MAC mechanism that the data-link layer protocol uses to regulate access to the network medium. The nature of the MAC mechanism depends on the protocol used.

Network protocols
A networked computer must also have one or more protocol drivers (sometimes called a transport protocol or just a protocol). The protocol driver works between the upper-level network software and the network adapter to package data to be sent on the network. In most cases, for two computers to communicate on a network, they must use identical protocols. Sometimes, a computer is configured to use multiple protocols. In this case, two computers need only one protocol in common to communicate. For example, a computer running File and Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks that uses both NetBEUI and TCP/IP can communicate with computers using only NetBEUI or TCP/IP.

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) adapters

Integrated Services Digital Network adapters can be used to send voice, data, audio, or video over standard telephone cabling. ISDN adapters must be connected directly to a digital telephone network. ISDN adapters are not actually modems, since they neither modulate nor demodulate the digital ISDN signal.

Like standard modems, ISDN adapters are available both as internal devices that connect directly to a computer's expansion bus and as external devices that connect to one of a computer's serial or parallel ports. ISDN can provide data throughput rates from 56 Kbps to 1.544 Mbps (using a T1 carrier service).

ISDN hardware requires a NT (network termination) device, which converts network data signals into the signaling protocols used by ISDN. Some times, the NT interface is included, or integrated, with ISDN adapters and ISDN-compatible routers. In other cases, an NT device separate from the adapter or router must be implemented. ISDN works at the physical, data link, network, and transport layers of the OSI Model.

WAPs (Wireless Access Point)

A wireless network adapter card with a transceiver sometimes called an access point, broadcasts and receives signals to and from the surrounding computers and passes back and forth between the wireless computers and the cabled network.

Access points act as wireless hubs to link multiple wireless NICs into a single subnet. Access points also have at least one fixed Ethernet port to allow the wireless network to be bridged to a traditional wired Ethernet network.

Modems
A modem is a device that makes it possible for computers to communicate over telephone lines. The word modem comes from Modulate and Demodulate. Because standard telephone lines use analog signals, and computers digital signals, a sending modem must modulate its digital signals into analog signals. The computers modem on the receiving end must then demodulate the analog signals into digital signals.

Modems can be external, connected to the computers serial port by an RS-232 cable or internal in one of the computers expansion slots. Modems connect to the phone line using standard telephone RJ-11 connectors.

Transceivers (media converters)

Transceiver short for transmitter-receiver, a device that both transmits and receives analog or digital signals. The term is used most frequently to describe the component in local-area networks (LANs) that actually applies signals onto the network wire and detects signals passing through the wire. For many LANs, the transceiver is built into the network interface card (NIC). Some types of networks, however, require an external transceiver.

In Ethernet networks, a transceiver is also called a Medium Access Unit (MAU). Media converters interconnect different cable types twisted pair, fiber, and Thin or thick coax, within an existing network. They are often used to connect newer 100-Mbps, Gigabit Ethernet, or ATM equipment to existing networks, which are generally 10BASE-T, 100BASE-T, or a mixture of both. They can also be used in pairs to insert a fiber segment into copper networks to increase cabling distances and enhance immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI).

Firewalls
In computing, a firewall is a piece of hardware and/or software which functions in a networked environment to prevent some communications forbidden by the security policy, analogous to the function of firewalls in building construction.

A firewall has the basic task of controlling traffic between different zones of trust. Typical zones of trust include the Internet (a zone with no trust) and an internal network (a zone with high trust). The ultimate goal is to provide controlled connectivity between zones of differing trust levels through the enforcement of a security policy and connectivity model based on the least privilege principle. There are three basic types of firewalls depending on:

whether the communication is being done between a single node and the network, or between two or more networks whether the communication is intercepted at the network layer, or at the application layer whether the communication state is being tracked at the firewall or not

With regard to the scope of filtered communication these firewalls are exist:

Personal firewalls, a software application which normally filters traffic entering or leaving a single computer through the Internet. Network firewalls, normally running on a dedicated network device or computer positioned on the boundary of two or more networks or DMZs (demilitarized zones). Such a firewall filters all traffic entering or leaving the connected networks.

In reference to the layers where the traffic can be intercepted, three main categories of firewalls exist:

network layer firewalls An example would be iptables. application layer firewalls An example would be TCP Wrapper. application firewalls An example would be restricting ftp services through /etc/ftpaccess file

These network-layer and application-layer types of firewall may overlap, even though the personal firewall does not serve a network; indeed, single systems have implemented both together. There's also the notion of application firewalls which are sometimes used during wide area network (WAN) networking on the world-wide web and govern the system software. An extended description would place them lower than application layer firewalls, indeed at the Operating System layer, and could alternately be called operating system firewalls. Lastly, depending on whether the firewalls track packet states, two additional categories of firewalls exist:

stateful firewalls stateless firewalls

Network layer firewalls

Network layer firewalls operate at a (relatively low) level of the TCP/IP protocol stack as IPpacket filters, not allowing packets to pass through the firewall unless they match the rules. The

firewall administrator may define the rules; or default built-in rules may apply (as in some inflexible firewall systems). A more permissive setup could allow any packet to pass the filter as long as it does not match one or more "negative-rules", or "deny rules". Today network firewalls are built into most computer operating system and network appliances. Modern firewalls can filter traffic based on many packet attributes like source IP address, source port, destination IP address or port, destination service like WWW or FTP. They can filter based on protocols, TTL values, netblock of originator, domain name of the source, and many other attributes.

Application-layer firewalls
Application-layer firewalls work on the application level of the TCP/IP stack (i.e., all browser traffic, or all telnet or ftp traffic), and may intercept all packets traveling to or from an application. They block other packets (usually dropping them without acknowledgement to the sender). In principle, application firewalls can prevent all unwanted outside traffic from reaching protected machines. By inspecting all packets for improper content, firewalls can even prevent the spread of the likes of viruses. In practice, however, this becomes so complex and so difficult to attempt (given the variety of applications and the diversity of content each may allow in its packet traffic) that comprehensive firewall design does not generally attempt this approach.

Proxies
A proxy device (running either on dedicated hardware or as software on a general-purpose machine) may act as a firewall by responding to input packets (connection requests, for example) in the manner of an application, whilst blocking other packets.

Proxies make tampering with an internal system from the external network more difficult, and misuse of one internal system would not necessarily cause a security breach exploitable from outside the firewall (as long as the application proxy remains intact and properly configured). Conversely, intruders may hijack a publicly-reachable system and use it as a proxy for their own purposes; the proxy then masquerades as that system to other internal machines. While use of internal address spaces enhances security, crackers may still employ methods such as IP spoofing to attempt to pass packets to a target network.

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Network Repeater
A repeater connects two segments of your network cable. It retimes and regenerates the signals to proper amplitudes and sends them to the other segments. When talking about, ethernet topology, you are probably talking about using a hub as a repeater. Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay which can affect network communication when there are several repeaters in a row. Many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row. Repeaters work only at the physical layer of the OSI network model.

Bridge
A bridge reads the outermost section of data on the data packet, to tell where the message is going. It reduces the traffic on other network segments, since it does not send all packets. Bridges can be programmed to reject packets from particular networks. Bridging occurs at the data link layer of the OSI model, which means the bridge cannot read IP addresses, but only the outermost hardware address of the packet. In our case the bridge can read the ethernet data which gives the hardware address of the destination address, not the IP address. Bridges forward all broadcast messages. Only a special bridge called a translation bridge will allow two networks of different architectures to be connected. Bridges do not normally allow connection of networks with different architectures. The hardware address is also called the MAC (media access control) address. To determine the network segment a MAC address belongs to, bridges use one of:

Transparent Bridging - They build a table of addresses (bridging table) as they receive packets. If the address is not in the bridging table, the packet is forwarded to all segments other than the one it came from. This type of bridge is used on ethernet networks. Source route bridging - The source computer provides path information inside the packet. This is used on Token Ring networks.

Network Router
A router is used to route data packets between two networks. It reads the information in each packet to tell where it is going. If it is destined for an immediate network it has access to, it will strip the outer packet, readdress the packet to the proper ethernet address, and transmit it on that network. If it is destined for another network and must be sent to another router, it will repackage the outer packet to be received by the next router and send it to the next router. The section on routing explains the theory behind this and how routing tables are used to help determine packet destinations. Routing occurs at the network layer of the OSI model. They can

connect networks with different architectures such as Token Ring and Ethernet. Although they can transform information at the data link level, routers cannot transform information from one data format such as TCP/IP to another such as IPX/SPX. Routers do not send broadcast packets or corrupted packets. If the routing table does not indicate the proper address of a packet, the packet is discarded.

Brouter
There is a device called a brouter which will function similar to a bridge for network transport protocols that are not routable, and will function as a router for routable protocols. It functions at the network and data link layers of the OSI network model.

Gateway
A gateway can translate information between different network data formats or network architectures. It can translate TCP/IP to AppleTalk so computers supporting TCP/IP can communicate with Apple brand computers. Most gateways operate at the application layer, but can operate at the network or session layer of the OSI model. Gateways will start at the lower level and strip information until it gets to the required level and repackage the information and work its way back toward the hardware layer of the OSI model. To confuse issues, when talking about a router that is used to interface to another network, the word gateway is often used. This does not mean the routing machine is a gateway as defined here, although it could be.

http://www.slideshare.net/rupinderj/networking-devices-12807479

Advantage of Router a) Router limits the collision domain. b) Router can function on LAN & WAN> c) Router can connects different media & architectures. d) Router can dtermine best path/route for data to reach the destination. e) Router can filter the broadcasts. Diadvantage of Router a) Router is more expensive than Hub, Bridge & Switch. b) Router only waork with routable protocol. c) Routing updates consume bandwidth. d) Increase latency due to greater degree of packet filtering.

A switch is just a another n/w device which has its own Advantages and Disadvantages as compared to a HUB/Router/Bridge etc ... I hope it doesnt have any disadvantages as such unless and until compared to other n/w devices[Note : This is just my opinion,please add details if you have some] Advantages : 1) Reduces the number of Broadcast domains 2) Supports VLAN's which can help in Logical segmentation of ports[physical ports].Splitting up the broadcast domain. 3) Intellegent device[compared to Hub's] which can make use of CAM table for Port to MAC mapping 4) Compared to Bridges ,Switches are more H/w oriented therefore operations are less CPU intense[Basic operations] . 5) The cost to number of ports ratio is best .. ie For a cheaper cost you get switches with more number of ports available than Routers. Disadvantages : 1) Not as good as a router in limiting Broadcasts 2) Communication b/w VLAN's need interVLAN routing [Router] ,but these days there are a number of Multilayer switches available in the market. 3) Handling Multicast packets needs quite a bit of configuration & proper designing. 4) At times swtiches when in Promiscuos mode is a opening for Security attacks [Spoofing ip address or capturing

Switching hubs or Switch operate at the Data Link layer. Switches increase network performance by reducing the number of packets transmitted to the rest of the network. The switch opens a virtual circuit between the source and the destination. This prevents communications between two computers from being broadcast to every computer on the network. When two machines have a virtual circuit, they do not have to share the wire with any other computers. If the network transfer capacity is 10 megabits per second (Mbps), the two machines get the full bandwidth 10Mbps. A switch reduces problems associated with multiple computers transmitting at the same time by subdividing the network into virtual circuits. Advantages

Switches have increased available network bandwidth. There is reduced workload on individual computers. Increased network performance. There are fewer packet collisions.

Disadvantages

They are significantly more expensive. Network problems can be difficult to trace through a switch. Broadcast traffic.

How Bridges Works

When various network segments are established at the data link layer of the OSI model, we refer to it as bridge. However when the packets of data are transferred along a network , without locating the network addresses this process is termed as bridging. The process of bridging is helpful in locating the addresses of unknown addresses to which it is viable to send data. In bridging the data packets contain a header or a packet header which holds the address to the intended device. Bridge can remember and recall the address of the devices for further transmission. There are two kinds of bridging modes, the transparent bridging and the source routing bridging. When the process of bridging occurs, it makes a bridging table along side where it stores the MAC addresses of the various terminals. This table helps the bridges to send the data packet to the exact location next time. However when a specific address does not meet the contents of the bridging table, the data packet is forwarded further ahead to every attached terminal in LAN except from the computer it is connected to. This type of bridging is called transparent bridging. When the source computer presents pathway information within the packet, this type of bridging is known as source route bridging. It is most commonly used in used on Token Ring networks.

Major limitations of network bridges

A network bridge does not incur any communication between network path and the physical hosts of the data. The data packets are not guided as through which path to travel along. Therefore a network data packet is sent to every network terminal. Bridging does not acquire any address placement related to the physical address of the connected terminals. Thus a data packet is sent to every address. This is a bungling way of transporting data. Crippling overhead can occur in stumpy and slow links. In more sever cases broadcasting storm can occur.

Advantages and disadvantages of network bridges

There are many advantages and disadvantages of using network bridges. Bridges have simple configuration modes. Bridges are simple to use and they are relatively inexpensive. It can prove to be an alternative to switches and help resulting in micro segmentation. Bridges help to lower the data load over the data link layer. It appears to be translucent over the MAC layer. Bridges can be effectively programmed to disallow packets from meticulous networks. Bridges are more reliable if one wants to lower the bandwidth utilization. The disadvantages of bridges are that first of all bridges are unable to read specific IP address; they are more concerned with the MAC addresses. Bridges cannot help to build a communication network between the networks of different architectures. Bridges transfer all types of broadcast messages, thus bridges are unable to limit the scope of these messages. Extremely large networks cannot rely on bridges; therefore the large networks as WAN which are IP address specific can not make use of it. Bridges are expensive if we compare the prices of repeaters and hubs to it. Bridging is most suitable to be used for LAN network traffic data load. It is unable to handle more complex and variable data load such as occurring from WAN.

Disadvantages of network bridges

Does not limit the scope of broadcasts [broadcast domain cannot be controlled] Does not scale to extremely large networks

Buffering and processing introduces delays Bridges are more expensive than repeaters or hubs A complex network topology can pose a problem for transparent bridge

How Routers Works

Routers are network devices which transfer the data packets along networks by determining the paths of the networks. Routers determine path to many networks such as Electronic networks, Transportation networks and telephone networks. Routers mainly operate in two ways using either control plane or forwarding plane. In control plane the router acts in a more neat and smart way. It sends the precise data packets to their specific location. While following a forwarding plane, a router does not need to remember the sending or receiving information about the packets. The ultimate objective of the router is to deliver the data packets. The forwarding decision takes place at the data link layer of the OSI model.

Advantages of Routers
Routers deliver the packets of data in an organized way, thus lowering the data load. Routers enable a stead and reliable connection between network hosts. Routers make use of alternative parts incase the main parts fail to transfer data packets. Another advanced version of network routers is wireless routers. The wireless routers establish a communication link between devices and networks without the use of wires. Placing a wireless router in the centre of your home will enable you to work any where you want to in your home including your lawn and swimming pool. If we compare the bridges with network routers, we would end up saying bridges are passive transfer devices which are not able to determine the network path. Hence routers can be used as an adaptable device.

Network Repeaters
Repeater is a powerful network device which is used to regenerate the signals, when they travel over a longer distance, so that the strength of the signal remains the same. Repeaters are used to establish Ethernet network. A repeater exists as the first layer of the OSI layer that is physical layer. Repeaters are used for cables which cover the needs of the 100 meters long cable. Repeaters are used to get signals from optical fibers, copper cables and coaxial cables. The repeaters have been developed to perform more important uses such as to regenerate the microwaves from a satellite; such repeaters are named as transponders. Hence repeaters are capable of carrying electric as well as light signals.

Use of Repeaters
Just like wireless routers, now there are wireless repeaters in the market. Wireless repeaters extend the range of your wireless signals, without embedding further wires or devices. If you require an instant and efficient boost to your detoriating signal strength, all you need to do is to place a wireless repeater between your computer and WAP. Wireless repeaters work by receiving radio signals from a WAP and regenerates and deliver it into the form of frames. The use of wireless repeaters offers an operator sufficient convenience to use wireless repeater instead of adding more access points .wireless repeaters can overcome the major weakness of wireless systems. This major weakness of wireless signals is termed as signal attenuation. Wireless repeaters are capable enough to enhance the coverage of wireless signals. When a repeater is placed in a remote location, where the network signals can travel, but become weak. The connectivity in such cases is increased due to the use of wireless repeaters. For example a person has to travel for its research project, if he or she carries the wireless repeater with him/her; he or she can regenerate the signals using repeater. This is due to the fact that covers the gapes in communication and provide flawless roaming.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Using a Repeater

By Gregory Hamel, eHow Contributor

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Wireless networking is a common alternative to wired networking that allows multiple computers to communicate to one another and share an Internet connection without physical connections. Wireless networking does, however, introduce several notable issues such as signal strength degradation. A wireless repeater or range extender is a device that helps computers maintain stronger wireless signals by taking in signals from routers and remitting them.

Overcoming Obstructions

Another benefit of using a wireless repeater is that it can help you reduce the impact of obstructions that may impact your wireless connection. Physical objects can weaken wireless signals, and solid metal objects like heavy doors, filing cabinets and appliances can have an especially detrimental impact on wireless connectivity. Placing a repeater in a location where few objects rest between it, the router and the computer can allow signals to travel to the computer without passing through many objects. Sponsored Links
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Cost

A wireless repeater is not the cheapest solution for improving weak wireless signals, since you must purchase the repeater itself and it will use electricity. Simply moving the computer close to the router or moving the router closer to the computer can have a similar beneficial impact at no cost.

Repeater Performance

Another potential drawback of using a wireless repeater is that it may not boost signal strength as much as desired. If a repeater is not compatible with your current wireless

networking hardware, signal strength could suffer or the repeater might not work at all. Microsoft recommends that users purchase wireless networking equipment from the same company to ensure compatibility a A network repeater is a device used to expand the boundaries of a wired or wireless (WiFi) local area network (LAN). In the past, wired repeaters were used to join segments of Ethernet cable. They would amplify the data signals before sending them on to the uplinked segment, thereby countering signal decay that occurs over extended lengths of wire. Modern Ethernet networks use more sophisticated switching devices, leaving the wireless flavor of the network repeater a more popular device for use with wireless LANs (WLANs) at work and home. WLANs offer tremendous convenience, but a drawback of these systems is the limited area covered by wireless signals. Obstructions and other common electronic devices interfere with and degrade signal strength. This can make it difficult to connect from a basement, back room, or upstairs office, depending on placement of the wireless router and other variables. A wireless network repeater can be the answer. A WiFi repeater will pick up the signal from a wireless router and amplify it, propagating signal strength to boost the distance and coverage of the WLAN. For example, assume an upstairs office gets only a weak signal from a router located in the basement. The building might have a steel infrastructure, cordless phones and other forms of interference. One option is to relocate the router on another floor to see if the entire building can be covered, but this isnt always convenient.

What Are the Advantages & Disadvantages of Gateways?

By Robert Godard, eHow Contributor

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A gateway can be used to connect computers with dissimilar protocols.

A gateway is used to connect to two computers with different protocols in such a way that they can communicate with one another. This is sometimes referred to as a communication gateway. Gateways can be useful when attempting to connect computers with different operating systems and functions, but can be difficult to troubleshoot. Have a question? Get an answer from Online Tech Support now!

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What Is a Gateway in Reference to Routers?

What Is a Gateway in Computer Networking?

1. Flexibility
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Some networks are set up through a router. A router can be used for computers with similar protocols, meaning that they have similar hardware and software installed. A gateway grants more flexibility for your network because it can translate information from computers with different systems. This means that several different kinds of computers can be set up on the same gateway, and the same information can be accessed from each computer.

Security
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Gateways can also be programmed to grant or deny certain users privileges. Gateways also allow for user authentication, so that a password or another form of security is necessary before a user has access to the gateway. For networks which contain sensitive information, this can be useful in ensuring that only privileged

users have access to information. This kind of security is featured on most networks and is integral to prevent unwanted access. Sponsored Links

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Time
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Since a gateway must translate information from different protocols before passing it on, there may be a time delay when using gateway networks. Instant transfer is almost never possible when using gateways. A gateway may also deliver cached information, or old information that is stored by the gateway, if the cache is not cleared properly. This can lead to further time constraints when using gateways, as time must be taken to clear the cache.

Troubleshooting
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A gateway follows a fairly rigid process and it therefore cannot be easily programmed. Troubleshooting a gateway can be difficult as different tools are necessary for finding problems on computers with different protocols. If a gateway fails, then communication will be lost on the network. This communication cannot be restored until the problem is located, which means going through each computer on the network and troubleshooting them individually until the problem is found.

GATEWAYS:
A gateway is a network element that acts as an entrance point to another network. For example an access gateway is a gateway between telephony network and other network such as internet. LANs may have component called gateways, which assists in transferring from one LAN to another LAN. A gateway is generally a work station or server. It is a two-way path between networks. It is used to connect different types of networks. Gateway is a work station by which we can make out connection between external network and internal network. Gateway belongs to transport layer and application layer of the OSI model.

Gateways also connect the two networks even if the protocols are different. So protocol conversion is also done by gateways. It simply stripped off the old protocol and assigns new protocol to the packets, so it is also called protocol translator. Because it takes it time for protocol conversion, it is little bit slower. Gateways are the simple junctions between two network architectures. They repackage and convert data going from one environment to another so that one environment can understand the other environments data. So a gateway links two systems which have different communication protocols, different language and different architecture. So by that way gateways interconnects the heterogeneous networks e.g. Microsoft windows NT server to SNA (IBMs system network architecture) Gateways never filter out the data. So it passes bad packets too. Gateways are task specific. So they are dedicated to a particular type of transfer. They often referred to by their particular task name e.g. Windows NT server to SNA gateway. Basically there are two types of gateways (1) Transport gateway and (2) application gateway. The former is for transport layer and the later is for application layer. Transport gateways connect two computers that use different connection oriented transport protocol. It can copy the packets to one connection to other, reformatting them as need be. Application gateways understand the format and contents of the data and translate messages from one form to another e.g. an e-mail gateway could translate internet messages to an SMS messages on mobile phone. So it identifies the actual meaning of data. The below fig. shows the gateways and its architectures.

GATEWAY CONNECTING TWO NETWORKS --ADVANTAGES OF GATEWAYS: - Used to expand the network. - Gateway is a server so it provides some security. - We can connect two different types of networks. - Protocol conversion is done. - Effectively handles the traffic problems. - And also establishes connections between internal network and external network.

 DISADVANTAGES OF GATEWAY: - Not an intelligent device. So noise prevention is not done. - Never filter out the data - Some what costly - Protocol conversion is done so transmission rate is slower. - Some what hard to handle.

REPETERS:

In computers in network, one user can send information to other user. While the signal travels along transmission line at beyond sufficient distance, the signal becomes weaken out. So it is necessary to regenerate the signal at desired distance to prevent loss of information because of weakness.

Repeater is for this purpose. As signal travel along a cable it will degrade and distorted in a process called attenuation will finally make a signal unrecognizable. Repeater regenerates or amplifies the signal so that data can travel along additional length of cable. So a repeater enables signals to travel further.

Repeater belongs to the physical layer of the OSI model. And it connects like types of networks. Such as Ethernet LAN to Ethernet LAN.

For a repeater to work, both segments that it joins must have the same media access scheme protocol, logical link control and transmission techniques.

All token ring cable distance can be increased by using repeaters.

Repeaters do not filter out the data. It sends every bit of data from one cable segment to another segment even if data contains bad packets or malformed information. Thus it will not use when data requires filtering.

The repeater just do as explained: It takes weak signal from the one network segment. Then regenerate or amplifies that weak signal. And finally it gives regenerated signal to the other desired network.

Repeater takes small amount of times to regenerate a signal. This can cause a propagation delay, which cause a problem if several repeaters are connected in network. So many network architectures limit the number of repeater that can be used in a row.

Repeaters can support any kind of transmission media.

Repeater is not an intelligent device because it also amplifies the noise due to attenuation in signal. So noise is also amplifies and if corruption in data then it will also sends to the other desired network.

Repeater also not handled the traffic problems very well.

The cost of the repeater is very less. The below fig shows the repeater and its working.

USE A REPEATER WHEN YOU WANT TO :

- Connect two segments at the most cost effective manner.

- When you dont want to filter out the data. - Repeater improves performance by dividing network into segments. - When there is no intelligence needed and there is less traffic in network.

DO NOT USE REPEATER WHEN :

- There is heavy network traffic. - Segments are using different access methods - You need of any kind of data filtering.

ADVANTAGES OF REPEATER:

- Easy to handle - It prevents the signal weaken out. - Supports any kind of transmission media. - Cost effective. - There is no protocol conversion so transfer rate is fast.

DISADVANTAGES OF REPEATER:

- Not an intelligent device. - It cant filter out the data. - The protocol conversion is not done. - Requires same network architectures on both sides. - Traffic problems are not handled by it. - It cant prevent the noise attenuation.