Materials Selection and Design Design & Selection: Materials Indices

1
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

Materials Selection and Design
For selection, one must establish a link between materials and
function, with shape and process playing also a possibly
important role (now ignored.)
Materials
Attributes: physical,
mechanical, thermal,
electrical, economic,
environmental.
function
shape
process
AREAS OF DESIGN CONCERN
Function- support a load, contain a
pressure, transmit heat, etc.
What does component do?
Objective- make thing cheaply, light weight,
increase safety, etc., or combinations of these.
What is to be maximized or minimized?
Constraints- make thing cheaply, light weight,
increase safety, etc., or combinations of these.
What is non-negotiable conditions to be met?
What is negotiable but desired conditions?
Following Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, M. Ashby
Design & Selection: Materials Indices
Structural elements perform physical functions (carry load or heat, store energy,..),
and so they must satisfy certain functional requirements specified by the design,
such as specified tensile load, max. heat flux, spring restoring force, etc.
Material index is a combination of materials properties that characterizes the
Performance of a material in a given application.
Performance of a structural element may be specified by the
functional requirements, the geometry, and the materials properties.
PERFORMANCE:
P[ (Functional needs, F); (Geometric, G); (Material Property, M)]
For OPTIMUM design, we need to MAXIMIZE or MINIMIZE the functional P.
Consider only the simplest cases where these factors form a separable equation.
P = f
1
(F) f
2
(G) f
3
(M)
Examples of Materials Indices
Function, Objective, and Constraint Index
Tie, minimum weight, stiffness E/
Beam, minimum weight, stiffness E
1/2
/
Beam, minimum weight, strength
2/3
/
Beam, minimum cost, stiffness E
1/2
/C
m
Beam, minimum cost, strength

2/3
/C
m
Column, minimum cost, buckling load E

1/2
/C
m
Spring, minimum weight for given energy storage

YS
2
/E
Thermal insulation, minimum cost, heat flux 1/( C
m
)
Electromagnet, maximum field, temperature rise C
p
=thermal cond
C
m
=cost/mass
=elec. cond
Design & Selection: Materials Indices
PERFORMANCE: (using separable form) P = f
1
(F) f
2
(G) f
3
(M)
When separable, the optimum subset of materials can be identified
without solving the complete design problem,
knowing details of F and G.
There is then enormous simplification and performance can be
optimized by focusing on f
3
(M), which is the materials index
S= safety factor should always be included!
2
Price and Availability of Materials
Current Prices on the web
(a)
: TRENDS
-Short term: fluctuations due to supply/demand.
-Long term: prices increase as deposits are depleted.
Materials require energy to process them:
- Energy to produce
materials (GJ/ton)
Al
PET
Cu
steel
glass
paper
237 (17)
(b)
103 (13)
(c)
97 (20)
(b)
20
(d)
13
(e)
9
(f)
- Cost of energy used in
processing materials ($/GJ)
(g)
elect resistance
propane
natural gas
oil
25
11
9
8
a http://www.statcan.ca/english/pgdb/economy/primary/prim44.htm
a http://www.metalprices.com
b http://www.automotive.copper.org/recyclability.htm
c http://members.aol.com/profchm/escalant.html
d http://www.steel.org.facts/power/energy.htm
e http://eren.doe.gov/EE/industry_glass.html
f http://www.aifq.qc.ca/english/industry/energy.html#1
g http://www.wren.doe.gov/consumerinfo/rebriefs/cb5.html
Recycling indicated in green.
Relative Cost (in $) of Materials
Reference material:
-Rolled A36 carbon steel.
Relative cost fluctuates
less than actual cost over
time.
Based on data in Appendix
C, Callister, 6e.

$ =
$/kg
($/kg)
ref material
Materials Selection Examples in Mechanical
Design with Separable Performance Factor
Example 1: Material Index for a Light, Strong, Tie-Rod
Example 2: Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam in Tension
Example 3: Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam in Deflection
Example 4: Torsionally stressed shaft (Callister Chapter 6)
Example 5: Material Index for a Cheap, Stiff Support Column
Example 6: Selecting a Slender but strong Table Leg
Example 7: Elastic Recovery of Springs
Example 8: Safe Pressure Vessel (some from M.F. Ashby)
PERFORMANCE: functional needs , geometry, and materials index
P = f
1
(F) f
2
(G) f
3
(M) ---> optimize the material index f
3
(M).
Example 1: Material Index for a Light, Strong, Tie-Rod
A Tie-rod is common mechanical component.
Functional needs: F, L,
f

Tie-rod must carry tensile force, F.
NO failure. Stress must be less than
f
. (f=YS, UTS)
L is usually fixed by design, can vary Area A.
While strong, need to be lightweight, or low mass.
A = x-area
Or Maximize Materials Index:
F
minimize for small m
F
A

f
S
-Strength relation: - Mass of rod:

m = LA
Eliminate the "free" design parameter, A:

m (FS)(L)

f

M =

f
For light, strong, tie-rod

3
Example 1: square rod (its all the same!)
Carry F without failing; fixed initial length L.
Maximize the Materials Performance Index:
-Strength relation: - Mass of bar:

M= Lc
2
Eliminate the "free" design parameter, c:
specified by application
minimize for small M

M
index
=

f
(strong, light tension members)

M = (FLS)

f
S
=
F
c
2
Maximize M =
f
/ Consider log
f
vs log
What are units of M=
f
/ ?
For fixed M, look at
log
f
= (1/1) log + C
For fixed M, you look for lines
of slope = 1.
Along each line materials have
the same M values! But NOT the
same materials properties (
f
or
) e.g. some less dense (lighter).
For fixed M: log M = log
f
log = constant = C
M
=
1
0
M
=
1
0
0
M
=
1
0
0
0
Bar must not lengthen by more than
under force F; must have initial length L.
Maximize the Materials Index:
- Stiffness relation: - Mass of bar:

F
c
2
= E
L
( = E)

m = Lc
2
Eliminate the "free" design parameter, c:

m =
FL
2

E

M =
E
(stiff, light tension members)
Example 2: Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam in Tension
Example 3: Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam in Deflection
Bending is common mode of loading,
e.g., golf clubs, wing spars, floor joists.
m
12S
C
1
L

1/2
(L
3
)

E
1/2

M =
E
1/ 2
If only beam height can change (not A), then M= (E

1/3
/) (Car door) I b
3
w
If only beam width can change (not A), then M= (E/)
Bar with initial length L must not deflect
by more than under force F.
- Stiffness relation: - Mass of bar:

C
1
EI
L
3
=
C
1
E
L
3
b
4
12

=
C
1
E
L
3
A
2
12

m = b
2
L = AL
Maximize
Light, Stiff Beam
F
=deflection
L b
b
specified by
application
4
Light, Stiff Plate E/
Light, Stiff Beam E
1/2
/
Light, Stiff Panel E
1/3
/
Performance of Square Beam vs. Fixed Height or Width
Example 4: Torsionally stressed shaft (Callister Chpt. 6)
shaft must carry moment, Mt, with length L.
Maximize the Materials Index:
- Strength relation: - Mass of bar:
Eliminate the "free" design parameter, R:
specified by application minimize for small M
(strong, light torsion members)

f
S
=
2M
t
R
3

m = R
2
L

m = 2 SM
t ( )
2/ 3
L

f
2/ 3

M =

f
2/ 3
Mass plus Twisting Moment, M

t
: = 2M
t
/R
3
Ashby Plot: Strength vs Density (on log scale)
M = 30 has 1/3 the mass of
M =10 (mass 1/M ).
* All materials that lie on these lines will perform equally for strength-per-mass basis.
However, each line has a different Materials M index, or overall Performance P index.
M=
2/3

log = 3/2 log
+ 3/2 logM
3
10
30
100
Data Overview:
Strong & Light Tension/Torsion Members
Adapted from Fig. 6.22,
Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.22
adapted from M.F. Ashby,
Materials Selection in
Mechanical Design,
Butterworth-Heinemann
Ltd., 1992.)
Increasing M
for strong
tension
members
Increasing M
for strong
torsion members

0.1 1 10 30
1
10
10
2

10
3

10
4

Density,
(Mg/m
3
)
Strength,
f
(MPa)
s
lo
p
e
=
1
0.1
Metal
alloys
Steels
Ceramics
PMCs
Polymers
|| grain
grain
w
o
o
d

Cermets
s
lo
p
e
=
3
/2

5
Strength vs Density
Additional constraints may
be added, such as strength
having minimum value, e.g.,
f
> 300 GPa.
Seach area is then limited
to the area in plot above all
lines (if maximizing).
Other Material Indices: Cost factor
Considering
(Cost/mass)*mass
Maximize:
M =
2/3
/C
m
4340 Steel is best!

Considering mass
Maximize:
M =
2/3
/
CRFP are best!
22x10
3
M=
2/3
/C
m
13x10
3
11x10
3
9x10
3
1x10
3
Other factors:
--require f > 300MPa.
--Rule out ceramics and glasses: KIc too small.
Maximize the Performance Index:

P =

f
2/ 3
Numerical Data:
Lightest: Carbon fiber reinf. epoxy
(CFRE) member.
material
CFRE (vf=0.65)
GFRE (vf=0.65)
Al alloy (2024-T6)
Ti alloy (Ti-6Al-4V)
4340 steel (oil
quench & temper)
(Mg/m
3
)
1.5
2.0
2.8
4.4
7.8
P (MPa)
2/3
m
3
/Mg)
73
52
16
15
11
Data from Table 6.6, Callister 6e.
f (MPa)
1140
1060
300
525
780
Details: Strong, Light Torsion Members
Details: Strong, Low-Cost Torsion Members
Minimize Cost: Cost Index ~ m$ ~ $/M (since m ~ 1/M)
Numerical Data:
Lowest cost: 4340 steel (oil quench & temper)
material
CFRE (vf=0.65)
GFRE (vf=0.65)
Al alloy (2024-T6)
Ti alloy (Ti-6Al-4V)
4340 steel (oil
quench & temper)
$
80
40
15
110
5
M (MPa)
2/3
m
3
/Mg)
73
52
16
15
11
($/M)x100
112
76
93
748
46
Need to consider machining, joining costs also.
Data from Table 6.7, Callister 6e.
6
Example 5: Material Index for a Cheap, Stiff Support Column
L
d
Buckle
deflection
Radius, r
A slender column of fixed intial length L uses
less material than a fat one; but must not be
so slender than it buckles under load F.
FF
crit
=
N
2
EI
L
2
Load less than Euler Load.
N given by end constraint on column.
C
4
n

1/2
F
L
2

1/2
L
3
C
m
E
1/2

E
1/ 2
C
m

(From Ashby Matierals Selection in Mechanical Design)

C = mC
m
= ALC
m
- No buckling relation: - Cost objective:
C
m
is the cost/kg of
(usually processed)
material.
Maximize
Cheap, Stiff Beam
specified by
application
Performance of Stiff but Cost Effective Beam
With cost considered,
now polymers and
metals area useful!
Example 6: Selecting a Slender but strong Table Leg
(Note this uses previous example from Ashby.)
Luigi Tavolina, furniture designer, conceives of a lightweight table of simplicity,
with a flat toughened glass top on slender, unbraced, cylindrical legs.
For attractiveness, legs must be solid (to be thin) and light as possible (to make
table easy to move). Legs must support table top and load without buckling.
What material would you recommend to Luigi?
m
4P
[
\
|
|

)
j
j
1/ 2
L
2
[
\
|

)
j
E
1/ 2
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
r =
4P
crit
3
[
\
|
|
|

)
j
j
j
1/4
L
1/2
[
\
|
|

)
j
j
1
E
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1/4
M
2
= E
M
1
=
E
1/ 2

2 indices to meet

m = R
2
L
- Critical Elastic Load: - Mass of leg:

F
2
EI
L
2
=
3
ER
4
4L
2
Eliminate the "free" design parameter, R:
Maximize
For slenderness, get R for Critical Load Eq.:
Example 5: (cont)
Material indices:
M
1
=
E
1/ 2

and M
2
= E
Wood is good choice.
So is composite CFRP (higher E).
Ceramic meets stated design
goals, but are brittle
E
1/2
/ guideline (slope of 2)
M
2
= E =100 GPa
M
1
= 6 (GPa)
1/2
/(Mg/m
3
)
7
Example 7: Elastic Recovery of Springs
Recall from Hookes Law and Resilience, U
el
=
2
/2E.
We wish to maximize this, but the spring willl be damage if >
ys
. U
el
=
ys
2
/2E
(Torsion bars and lead spring are less efficient than axial springs because some of
the material is not fully loaded, for instance, the neutral axis it is not loaded at all!)
F
F/2
F/2
Deflection,d
Can show that U
el
= (
ys
2
/E)/18
Addition constraint can be added.
If in-service, a spring under goes deflection of d under force F, then
ys
2
/E
has to be high enough to avoid permanent set (a high resilience!).
For this reason spring materials are heavily SS-strengthening and work-hardening
(e.g, cold-rolled single-phase brass or bronze), SS plus precipitation strengthening
(spring steel).
Annealing any spring material removes work-hardening, or cause precipitation to
coarsen, reducing YS and making materials useless as a spring!
Example 8: Safe Pressure Vessel
Uses info from leak-before-fail example.
p
R
t
t
= pR/t
2a
Design requirements
Function: contain pressure, p
Objective: maximum safety
Constraints: (a) must yield before break
(b) must leak before break
(c) t small: reduces mass and cost
Choose t so that at working pressure, p, the stress is less than
ys
.
Check (by x-ray, ultrasonics, etc.) that no cracks greater than 2a
c
are present;
then the stress required to active crack propagation is
Safety (should have safety factor, S) achieved for stress less than this, but greater
safety obtained requiring no cracks proposgate even if =
ys
(stably deform).
This condition ( =
ys
) yields
=
K
Ic
Y a
c
a
c
1
Y
2
K
Ic
ys

2
M
1
= K
Ic
/
ys
Example 8: Safe Pressure Vessel (cont)
Tolerable crack size is maximized by choosing largest
Large pressure vessels cannot always be tested for cracks and stress
testing is impractical. Cracks grow over time by corrosion or cyclic
loading (cannot be determined by one measurement at start of service).
Leak-before-fail criterion (leaks can be detected over lifetime)
Wall thickness was designed to contain pressure w/o yielding, so
Two equations solved for maximum pressure gives
Largest M
1
and M
2
for smallest
ys
. FOOLISH for pressure vessel.
Wall thickness must be thin for lightness and economy.
Thinnest wall has largest yield stress, so
M
1
= K
Ic
/
ys
=
K
Ic
Y t
t
pR
ys
M
2
= (K
Ic
)
2
/
ys
M
3
=
ys
Example 8: Safe Pressure Vessel (cont)
Yield-before-break
M
1
= K
Ic
/
ys
Leak-before-break
M
2
= (K
Ic
)
2
/
ys
Thin wall, strong
M
3
=
ys
Large pressure vessels are
always made of steel.
Models are made of Cu,
for resistance to corrosion.
Check that M
2
favors steel.
M
3
=100 MPa eliminates Al.
Steels
Cu-alloys
Al-alloys
S
E
A
R
C
H
M
3
=100 MPa
M
1
=0.6 m
1/2
8
High magnetic fields permit study
(2)
of:
- electron energy levels,
- conditions for superconductivity
- conversion of insulators into conductors.
Largest Example:
- short pulse of 800,000 gauss
(Earth's magnetic field: ~ 0.5 Gauss)
Technical Challenges:
- Intense resistive heating
can melt the coil.
- Lorentz stress can exceed
the material strength.
Goal: Select an optimal coil material.
(1) Based on discussions with Greg Boebinger, Dwight Rickel, and James Sims,
National High Magnetic Field Lab (NHMFL), Los Alamos National Labs, NM (April, 2002).
(2) See G. Boebinger, Al Passner, and Joze Bevk, "Building World Record Magnets",
Scientific American, pp. 58-66, June 1995, for more information.
Pulsed magnetic
capable of 600,000
gauss field during
20ms period.
Fractured magnet coil.
(Photos from NHMFL,
Los Alamos National Labs,
NM (Apr. 2002) by P.M.
Anderson)
Optimal Magnet Coil Material (see CDROM)
Applied magnetic field, H:
H = N I/L
Lorentz "hoop" stress: Resistive heating: (adiabatic)

=
I
o
HR
A
(

f
S
)
temp increase
during current
pulse of t

T =
I
2
e
A
2
c
v
t (< T
max
)
Magnetic field
out of plane.
elect. resistivity
specific heat

Force
length
= I
o
H
Lorentz Stress & Heating
Mass of coil:
m =
d
AL
Eliminate "free" design parameters A, I from the
stress & heating equations (previous slide):
Applied magnetic field:
H = N I/L

H
2
m

1
2R
2
L
o
N
d
--Stress requirement
Performance Index P1:
maximize for large H
2
/M

H t
m

T
max
2 RL
1
d
c
v
e
Performance Index P2:
maximize for large Ht
1/2
/M
--Heating requirement
Magnet Coil: Performance Index
Relative cost of coil:
$ = $ M
Eliminate M from the stress & heating equations:
Applied magnetic field:
H = N I/L
--Stress requirement
Cost Index C1:
maximize for
large H
2
/$
Cost Index C2:
maximize for
large Ht
1/2
/$
--Heating requirement

H t
$

T
max
2 RL
1
d
$
c
v
e

H
2
$

1
2R
2
L
o
N

f
d
$
Magnet Coil: Cost Index
9
From Appendices B and C, Callister 6e:
Material
1020 steel (an)
1100 Al (an)
7075 Al (T6)
11000 Cu (an)
17200 Be-Cu (st)
71500 Cu-Ni (hr)
Pt
Ag (an)
Ni 200
units
f
395
90
572
220
475
380
145
170
462
MPa
d
7.85
2.71
2.80
8.89
8.25
8.94
21.5
10.5
8.89
g/cm3
$
0.8
12.3
13.4
7.9
51.4
12.9
1.8e4
271
31.4
--
cv
486
904
960
385
420
380
132
235
456
J/kg-K
e
1.60
0.29
0.52
0.17
0.57
3.75
1.06
0.15
0.95
-m3
P1
50
33
204
25
58
43
7
16
52
f/d
P2
2
21
15
5
3
1
19
<1
2
(cv/e)0.5
d
C1
63
3
15
3
1
3
<1
<1
2
P1/$
C2
2.5
1.7
1.1
0.6
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
P2/$
Avg. values used. an = annealed; T6 = heat treated & aged;
st = solution heat treated; hr = hot rolled
Lightest for a given H: 7075 Al (T6)
Lightest for a given H(t)
0.5
: 1100 Al (an)
Lowest cost for a given H: 1020 steel (an)
Lowest cost for a given H(t)
0.5
: 1020 steel (an) C2
C1
P2
P1
Indices For A Coil Material
Material costs fluctuate but rise over long term as:
- rich deposits are depleted,
- energy costs increase.
Recycled materials reduce energy use significantly.
Materials are selected based on:
- performance or cost indices.
Examples:
- design of minimum mass, maximum strength of:
shafts under torsion,
bars under tension,
plates under bending,
- selection to optimize more than one property:
leg slenderness and mass.
pressure vessel safety.
material for a magnet coil (see CD-ROM).
SUMMARY

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1

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

Beam, minimum cost, strength

Column, minimum cost, buckling load E

Spring, minimum weight for given energy storage

For light, strong, tie-rod

(strong, light tension members)

If only beam height can change (not A), then M= (E

Mass plus Twisting Moment, M

4340 Steel is best!

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