11.

Chinese
11.0.1. We provide the modern neutral pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese [ptohu /phu5thu6hwa/ (pu^thU,7wa), common language, based on Pekin{g}ese), by using the ocial transliteration [pinyin /5phin5jin/ (^pI~5jIn)), accompanied by a careful phonetic transcription (which is necessary to show and acquire a good pronunciation) and by a phonemic transcription (established according to precise descriptive and teaching strategies). Chinese has various (especially vocalic) taxophones and a syllabic structure with denite phonotactic limitations. erefore, in the presentation of phonemes it is always useful to deal with all the various possible syllables, especially when they have peculiar characteristics. We maintain the criterion that Chinese syllables have a consonantal initial before a final element, which in addition to a vocalic nucleus (/i, y, M, u e, X, o a/) may have an intermediate consonantal element (/j, , w/ i u) a terminal one (which can be vocalic: /i, e u, o/; or consonantal: /n, , >/). 11.0.2. We will see that Chinese syllables always begin with a contoid, even when they lack a real initial. In the case of close vowels, //i, y, u// (whereas /M/ only occurs after the initials /q[h], s/}, we actually have /ji, y, wu/ (recognized by pinyin too: yi yu wu). e other vowels, /e, X, o, a/, are preceded by () (or, but less advisably, by the following voiced phones (y, H, r, ) respectively, velar semi-approximant, {lenis} laryngeal approximant, uvular tap, and semi-provelar nasal). 11.0.3. Let us observe that the Chinese phonetic tradition still follows the phonic fantasies of the Swedish sinologist Karlgren, who thought that Mandarin had two retroex (or apical) vowels, rendered with q, Q. Actually, the former is simply a back-central vocoid, (M) (where neither retroexion nor the lamina are active); the latter, on the other hand, is precisely a postalveolar approximant contoid found in the initial () />/ r changed into the corresponding intense (syllabic) contoid, (). e same phonetic tradition also lists another rare retroex (mid) vowel, rendered with & which in actual fact is just the sequence (X) /X>/ er It seems surprising, to say the least, that the Journal of the International Phonetic Association has accepted and published (in 2003), as an illustration of the IPA, a paper which still proposes q, Q although ipa-like masqueraded as () in both cases! by describing them as (apico-)laminal denti-alveolar (where no groove is rightly mentioned) and apical post-alveolar approximants respectively. e latter is correctly described ( can()), while the former is still not ( can()); there is a great (articulatory, auditory, and acoustic) dierence between () and (M).

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Continuing our review of the peculiarities of this kind of phonetics la chinoise (done in China) and based on a Karlgrenized pinyin, we will then see a real phonetic transcription (whose appropriate symbols we will present here in square brackets, ( )). In the West, some things can be rectied, but generally others are messed up erefore, Mandarin would have seven vowels: rst, i (i, I, ) /i/, but with two additional variants incorrectly placed among front vowels (because of the grapheme i] q (M) /M/, in zi (qM) /qM/, ci (qhM) /qhM/, si (sM) /sM/, and Q () //, in i () //, >i (h) /h/, i () //, ri () />/; however, they are true phonemes, not variants. en, (y, Y) /y/ and u (u, U) /u/, with the additional variant (y, Y) /y/, in yu ju qu xu where the only actual variant would be just the grapheme: u instead of after palatal consonantal graphemes, since as a phoneme /y/ is always /y/, irrespective of the way it is spelled. 11.0.4. Continuing, we have e (X, , , x, ) /X/, with its variant () /e/, in contact with /j, , i/, and () in /ae/. But it is decidedly safer to consider /X/ and /e/ as two separate phonemes, given the great phonetic dierence, because of interphonemic reasons (even if, from an intraphonemic point of view, just within the Chinese language, they could or should be considered as taxophones of the same phoneme). In addition, o (, ) /o/, with its variant (U) /u/ which, on the contrary, is a dierent phoneme. Instead, o in contact with labials [mo bo po fo ou wo/Cuo] could be considered as a variant of /X/, as many Chinese phonologists do, by using (X, ). However, the occurrence of the syllables o yo lo (although rare) requires that a phoneme /o/ is introduced, which will obviously occur near labials as well. en we have a (a, , A) /a/, with its variants (jEn, n), for ian an nally, this phonetics la chinoise even has a zero (graphic) vowel, when pinyin smartly economizes on vowels, by writing un for /wXn/ (wn), and iu for /jou/ (jPU), ui for /wei/ (wI), where a vowel is denitely present, phonically! No doubt, uen iou uei would have been much better. anks to the use of diaphonemes, then, more realistically we will also have the diphthongs /ae, ao/ (, A), instead of a more abstract representation as /ai, au/: ai ao (pinyin stays on the fence: -i -o)! 11.0.5. We will now present the ocial romanization. Starting from the (consonantal) initials, which are 23 (with a double occurrence of y with two dierent values), we will not present them alphabetically, but by logical phonic groups, accompanied by their phonemic and simple phonetic transcriptions. e latter is simple, because it shows only one variant (whereas, below, we will provide all necessary details): b /p/ (p), p /ph/ (ph), m /m/ (m), f /f/ (f) d /t/ (t), t /th/ (th), n /n/ (n), z /q/ (q), c /qh/ (qh), s /s/ (s), l /l/ (l) // (), > /h/ (h), // (), r />/ () j /q/ (), q /qh/ (h), x /s/ () g /k/ (k), k /kh/ (kh), h /h/ () w /w/ (w), y /j/ (j) // ().

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11.0.6. e nals are 39 (with a triple occurrence of i with three dierent values). ey are presented according to their graphic syllabic nucleus. is time, they are given in alphabetical order, even in the seven cases where the romanization has not been a happy one (as we will show in > ). Also the exclamations e /e/ (), yo /jo/ (j) occur (with various tonemes, including zero). e three nals which do not occur without an initial are marked with an asterisk (*): a /a/ (a), ia ya /ja/ (ja), ua wa /wa/ (wa) ai /ae/ (), uai wai /wae/ (wa) yai /jae/ (sole word, yi) an /an/ (n), ian yan /jan/ (jEn), uan wan /wan/ (wn), an yuan (j/q/x + uan) /an/ (n) a /a/ (a,), ia ya /ja/ (ja,), ua wa /wa/ (wA,) ao /ao/ (A), iao yao /jao/ (ja). e /X/ (X, Xx|, x|), ie ye /je/ (j), e yue (j/q/x + ue) /e/ () ei* /ei/ (I) {(I)}, en /Xn/ (n), er /X>/ (X) e* /X/ (x,), ue we /wX/ (w,) {(w,)}. i /i, ji/ (i, ji), (s-/z-/c-) /M/ (M) > (with ], (-/-/>-) // () > in yin /in/ (In, jIn) i yi /i/ (, j) ui wei /wei/ (wI) {(wi)} > uei . o /o/ (, x|), ou /ou/ (U) {(U)}, uo wo /wo/ (w, wx|) {(w, wx)} o* /u/ (U,) > u , io yo /ju/ (jU,) {(U,)} > iu yu . u wu /u, wu/ (u, wu) yu (j/q/x + u) /y, y/ (y, y) un wen /wXn/ (wn) > uen ; n yun (j/q/x + un) /yn, yn/ ([]Yn) {([]In, [j]Yn)} iu you /jou/ (jPU) {(ju)} > iou . Vowels 11.1.1. In our analysis, Chinese has eight vowel phonemes: /i, y, M, u e, X, o a/ ( 11.1). Instead, 11.2.- show the thirteen taxophones ( contextual allophones grey markers), which are very important for a good neutral pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese. On the other hand, 11.8 presents the most recommendable realizations for an international pronunciation, which is slightly simplied, but not distorted. Of course, this international pronunciation will not use the realizations shown in 11.2-7, which however are very important, because the foreign speakers who can recognize them will be greatly helped in better understanding spoken Chinese (though they need not be able to use actively those shown in 11.6-7). Let us start then, by systematically considering each phoneme, with all the taxo-

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phones belonging to neutral pronunciation (indicating some possible phonetic variant as well, again more to for recognition than for actual use, 11.4). 11.1.2. We rst nd the close front phoneme, /i/: /[j]i, [j]in, [j]i/ ([j]i, [j]In, [j],) (C/y)i (C/y)in (C/y)i\ (5ji) /5ji/ yi ([~ii) /ni/ n` (4jIn) /jin/ yn (5In) /5qin/ jin (7j) /6ji/ y (5,) /5qi/ ji e close front-central rounded, /y/, has a fairly limited distribution, ju qu xu yu n l (with or without -n), /[]y, []yn/ (y, Yn) [variants with -n (In, jYn)]: (5y) /5qy/ ju ([yy) /qhy/ q (7y) /6sy/ x ([yy) /y/ y (5Yn, 5In) /5qyn/ jun (4Yn, 4In) /qhyn/ qn (7Yc, 7Ic) /6syn/ xn (4Yn, 4In, 4jYn) /yn/ yn More conveniently, pinyin could have used z c s y, by phonemically interpreting these syllables as we do: (y, hy, y) /qy, qhy, sy/. It could also have avoided introducing an allograph without dieresis, by using y for ocial yu (y) /y/ as well. Indeed, /y/ could even be /jy/; but since the phoneme // is present, it is more adequate to use it. In this way, as it seems convenient, it could also be used to show even phonemically the possible oscillations between (Yn, jYn, In): /yn/, and /jyn, in/). erefore, it could have been possible to write z/c/siu, instead of the ocial j/q/xio for (jU,, hjU,, jU,) /qju, qhju, sju/ (thus also -u instead of the ocial -o for (0U,) /0u/). 11.1.3. en we nd the close back-central (without lip rounding!), /M/, which only occurs in /qM, qhM, sM/ (qM, qhM, sM) zi ci si\ (7q) /6qM/ z (4qM) /qhM/ c (5sM) /5sM/ si (but we could extend its use to a sequence like /M>/, in place of //, for /, h, , >/ (, h, , ) i >i i ri\ ([) // ` (5) /5h/ >i (4) // (7) /6>/ r] e last close phoneme is back rounded, /u/ (u, U), and we are obliged to use two dierent graphemes, because of the nature of pinyinization: u o (instead of a more logical u]\ ([wuu) /wu/ w (4lu) /lu/ l (5kU,) /5ku/ go (7U) /6u/
11.1. Mandarin vowels. /[j]i/ ([j]i) (y)i /[]y/ ([]y) (l/n) yu ( j/q/x + u] /je/ (j) ie ye /e/ () (l/n)e yue ( j/q/x + ue] /M/ (M) (z/c/s)i /[w]u/ ([w]u) (w)u /X/ (X, Xx|) ()e /X>/ (X) ()er /[w]o/ ([w], [w]x|) (u)o (w)o

/a/ (a) ()a /ja/ (ja) ia ya /wa/ (wa) ua wa

11.1.4. e inventory of the vowels of neutral Chinese continues with three mid vowels. We always nd /e/ () e in the sequences /je, e/ (j, ) ye/Cie yue/Ce\ (4j) /je/ y (5tj) /5tje/ die ([) /se/ xu (7) /6e/ yu. en, /X/, with the following distribution /X, X>, [w]Xn, [w]X/ (X[x|], X, n,

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wn, x,, w,) e er en un/wen e ue/we. e last one has the variant (w,) (which, if necessary, could be indicated as /wo/): (7$[*|]) /6X/ (5n) /5Xn/ en (4X) /X>/ r (7fc) /6fXn/ fn ([wc) /wXn/ wn (7f*) /6fX/ f (5w, 5w,) /5wX/ we (7w 7w) /6wX/ w nally, we have /o/ ([x|]) o which can occur in the syllables /o, jo/ ([x|], j[x|]), in addition to normal /mo, po, pho, [0]wo/ ([[x|], ([x|], (h[x|], [0]w[x|]), mo bo po wo/Cuo\ (5[[x|]) /5mo/ mo (4([x|]) /po/ b (7([*|]) /6pho/ p ([w, [w*|) /wo/ w (5w) /5wo/ uo (A,5j) /ha5jo/ hyo (7[x|]) /6o/ ! en nal, before a pause, /X, o/ normally have the accompaniment (x), as can be seen from various examples. Instead of /mo, po, pho/, we could even pose /mwo, pwo, phwo/, for ([[x|], ([x|], (h[x|]), while maintaining /mou, phou/ (mU, phU) (/pou/ does not occur), by dissimilation. 11.1.5. Lastly, we nd the open vowel, /a/, with its distributions and various taxophones, /[0]a, jan, an, [w/0]an, [j]a, wa/ (a, jEn, n, [w/0]n, [j]a,, wA,): (5a&a) /5aqa/ aza (7ta) /6tha/ t (4jEn) /jan/ yn ([tjEEc) /tjan/ din (7c) /6an/ yun (5n) /5qhan/ quan ([c) /an/ n (4pn) /phan/ pn (4pa,) /pha/ p ([wc) /wan/ wn (5ja,) /5ja/ ya ([wAA) /wa/ w
11.2.. Important taxophones. /[j]in/ ([j]In) (y)in /[]yn/ ([]Yn) {([]In), [j]Yn)} yun ( j/q/x + un, ln) /Xn/ (n) ()en /wXn/ (wn) un wen /[w]an/ ([w]n) (u)an (w)an

/jan/ (jEn) ian yan /an/ (n) yuan ( + j/q/x + un, lan] 11.2.. Further important taxophones.

/[j]i/ ([j],) (y)ing /X/ (x,) eng /X|/ (x) e /[j]a/ ([j]a,) (i)ang (y)ang

/u/ (U,) ong /ju/ (jU) {(U,)} iong yong {/[w]o/ ([w], [w]x|) (u)o (w)o] /wX/ (w,) {(w,)} ueng weng /wa/ (wA,) uang wang

Diphthongs 11.1.6. Moving to diphthongs ( 11.3), we have /[w]ei, [w]ae, [j]ao, [j]ou/ (I, wI, , wa, ja, A, U, jPU) ei ui (u)ai (i)ao ou iu for /[w]ei, [j]ou/ there are also the possible variants (shown in 11.4, which are not necessary for a good pronunciation, and will be given only here), (I, wi, U, ju): (5fI 5fI) /5fei/ fei (5twI 5twi) /5twei/ dui ([) /ae/ i (7wa) /6wae/ wi ([AA) /ao/ o ([AA)

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/hao/ ho (4ja) /jao/ yo (5U 5U) /5ou/ Ou ([mU [mU) /mou/ mu (5tjPU 5tju) /5tjou/ diu
11.3. Mandarin diphthongs.

/wei/ (wI) ui wei /ei/ (I) ei /ae/ () ()ai /wae/ (wa) uai wai 11.4. Possible diphthong variants. {/wei/ (wi) ui wei] {/ei/ (I) ei]

/jou/ (jPU) iu you /ou/ (U) ()ou /jao/ (ja) iao yao /ao/ (A) ()ao

{/jou/ (ju) iu you] {/ou/ (U) ()ou]

Vowels with nal in />/ () -r 11.1.7. is characteristic is typical of Peking (Beijing). It enjoys prestige, but is not completely accepted into neutral language, ptohu, although it is regularly indicated in dictionaries and grammars. Actually, the Pekinese themselves often try to avoid it; whereas the other Chinese (whether Mandarin or non-Mandarin) have not fully master of its use, uctuating considerably. However, its true and genuine distribution shows very substantial neutralizations, since the segments that actually occur (besides //, preceded by /[h]-, -, >-/: (, h, , ) i >i i ri, already seen in 11.1.3) are /X>, X>, a>, a>/ (X, , , ), as shown in 11.5 (which includes (X) /X>/ er 1.4). ey are represented in pinyin either by e(n)r er a(n)r ar or by the original syllables with the addition of -r although their pronunciation is reduced to the four already seen, which can be preceded by the middle consonants /j, , w/, often deriving from original /i, y, u/. Let us see at once the four types: (5kX) /5kX>/ ger ([p$$Y) /pX>/ bnr (4) /hX>/ hr ([nY) /na>/ nr (7pY) /6pa>/ bnr (5q) /5qa>/ zar (5w) /5hwa>/ huar (7mjY) /6mja>/ minr We will now consider those with etymological writing, but which are always realized as /X>, X>, a>, a>/ (X, , , ), preceded or not by /j, , w/ (sometimes /, w/ correspond to and u/o]\ (4p) /pha>/ pir (7$Y) /6qhX>/ qr (7w$Y) /6wX>/ r (7q$Y) /6qhX>/ cr ([q$$Y) /qX>/ z`r (5kw) /5kwa>/ guanr (5kw) /5kwX>/ gor (5swn&~X, -~&~-) /5swXnnX>/ sunnr (4i&fwX) /sifwX>/ xfur (^4ljX) /5ljX>/ ilir (4jX) /qjX>/ jir (5a2b[tw$$Y) /5hapathwX>/ habatu`r (7tUj<Y) /6tuqjX>/ djir (7j$Y) /6jX>/ ynr ([s$$Y) /sX>/ s`r (5X)

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/5hX>/ heir (5tj) /5thja>/ tianr (4mj) /mja>/ mior (7qw$Y) /6qhwX>/ cur (4twX) /thwX>/ tur (^m5pwX) /5an5phwX>/ anpor
11.5. Vowels with />/ () -r.

/X>/ (X) -e(n)r /X>/ () -engr /a>/ () -a(n)r /a>/ () -angr

11.1.8. Ocial orthography separates the forms which in Chinese characters are normal plus r erefore, non-Mandarin people tend to pronounce the two syllables separated and with their tones (as in a sort of international Mandarin). In addition, many non-Pekinese Mandarin people join the two syllables into one, but with less neutralizations. Hence, besides the four genuine syllables (with or without middle consonants), we can also nd the following ones, excluding those with front close vowels, /i, y/ (i, I, y, Y), that articulatorily do not adapt to (), which is postalveolar. us, we mark them with an asterisk, to advise that, although it is possible to hear them pronounced in that way by Chinese people, they do not fall within neutral pronunciation: *(7uY) /6wX>/ r *(5kU 5k) /5kwX>/ gor *(4i&fu) /sifwX>/ xfur *(^4ljPU -4lju) /5ljX>/ ilir *(4j 4j) /qjX>/ jir *(5ab[twY) /5hapathwX>/ habatu`r *(5 5) /5hX>/ heir *(4mja) /mja>/ mior *(7qwY 7qwY) /6qhwX>/ cur *(4tU 4tU) /thwX>/ tur *(^m5p) /5an5phwX>/ anpor In any case, of course, these pronunciations are not to be imitated. Vowel reductions 11.1.9. In syllables with neuter/zero tonemes ( 11.3.3.4), some timbric reductions occur (together with shortenings), mainly in dierent positions from word-nal ones, or in intonemes. As a matter of fact, in actual language, apart from in slow and accurate speech, some neutralizations occur too. It is fundamental to know them, at least to understand spoken Chinese (well). ey need not be used actively, although an appropriate use of them decidedly improves pronunciation. In order to adequately show the behavior of dierent unstressed syllables (for vowel, consonant, and pitch reductions), sometimes we also had to use rare words, rather than omitting something signicant. 11.6 shows the most important reductions, which actually occur in non-tonic syllables ( in the real sense of deprived of any of the four basic tonemes, 11.3.3.1-3). e examples given are to be interpreted as in a sort of decreasing scale, starting from a prepausal position, in an intoneme (for the rst variants), up to modications produced within a sentence, in a preintoneme (for the others). As

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can be seen, () applies to /i[n/], y[n]/: (7tii), (-3d) /6titi/ ddi (5kw~&i), (-3B) /5kwansi/ guanxi (7jay), (-3i, -3) /6sjaqy/ xiqu and (), to /M[>], u[]/: (7ji), (-3z) /6jisM/ ysi (7), (-3) /6>Xn/ rni (5u&u), (-v) /5ufu/ ufu
11.6. Reductions in syllables with zero tones. /i, y/ () /Xn, e/ (), /[w]ei/ ([j]) /a[n]/ ([n]), /[w]ae/ ([j]) /M, u/ () /X[], o/ (X), /[j]ou/ ([]X) /a/ (,), /[j]ao/ ([])

In syllables with a zero tone, in quick speech, not in an intoneme (whereas, in an intoneme, the distinct timbres of 11.1-3 are used).

11.1.10. In addition, we have (), for /[j/]e, [w]Xn/, and () for /[w]ei/: ([j^), (-1, -1) /qjeqje/ jijie (7c), (-3c, -3c) /6ae>Xn/ iren (7mImI), (-3m) /6meimei/ mimei then (X), for /X, [w]X, [w]o/, and ([j]X), for /[j]ou/: (5kX&X), (-2gX) /5kXkX/ gege (t^2X), (-1"X) /tiX/ d`e (5jEN&x,), (-2X,) /5sjanX/ xiane (7jm$), (-3m$) /6qjemo/ jimo (nw^j), (-1hjX) /nwanhwo/ nunhuo (7UU), (-3d$) /6utou/ ytou (4px,&jU), (-2X) /phXjou/ pyou Lastly, we have: () in /a[n], [w]a, [w]ae/: (7paa), (-3b) /6papa/ bba (5ma&ma), (-2m) /5mama/ mama (i^wan), (-1hjn) /sihwan/ x`huan (7ttha), (-3t) /6thaethae/ titai and () in /a, [j]ao/: ([w^a,), (-1,) /wana/ wna (5&A), (-2d) /5tao/ idao
11.7. Further reductions in syllables with zero tones.

/i, y, M[>], u/ () /ae/ (), /ja/ (j) /ou, uo, ao/ () /X, -X- a, -a-/ () In syllables with a zero tone, in even quicker speech, not in an intoneme. en, the realizations of 11.6 are also possible in an intoneme.

11.1.11. In 11.7 other attenuations are shown, or neutralizations too, which are possible in even faster but still normal and genuine speech. We nd () for /i, y, M, u >/ (z/c/s />/)i u\ (7tii), (-3d, -3d^) /6titi/ ddi (5kw~&i), (-2B, -2B^) /5kwansi/ guanxi (7jay), (-3i, -3, -3^) /6sjaqy/ xiqu (7ji), (-3z, -3z^) /6jisM/ ysi (7), (-3, -3^) /6>Xn/ rni (5u&u), (-2v, -2v^) /5ufu/ ufu and () for /ou, uo, ao/: (nw^w), (-1hjX, -1h) /nwanhwo/ nunhuo (7UU), (-3d$, -3d) /6utou/ ytou (4px,&jU), (-2X, -2) /phXjou/ pyou (5&A), (-2d, -2d) /5tao/ idao

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Besides, () in /ae, ja/ (, ): (7tth), (-3t, -3t) /6thaethae/ titai (4~&a), (-2, -2) />Xnqja/ rnjia and () for /X/ an for any other /a/ a: (5kX&X), (-2g) /5kXkX/ gege (t^X), (-1) /tiX/ d`e (7*c), (-3c) /6ae>Xn/ iren (5jEN&x,), (-2,) /5sjanX/ xiane (7paa), (-3b, -3b) /6papa/ bba (5mama), (-3m, -3m) /5mama/ mama (i^wan), (-1hjn, -1hjn, -1hn) /sihwan/ x`huan (w^a,), (-1,, -1,) /wana/ wna International Mandarin vowels 11.1.12. 11.8 shows the vowel realizations that are sucient for an international pronunciation of Chinese, without taxophones (thus, without either attenuations or neutralizations such as those given in 11.6-7; equally, we do not even mark creaky voice, which is superuous in an international kind of pronunciation). So we have only eight monophthongs (and four diphthongs, obtained by combining ve of the eight basic ones). ey are a satisfactory result, once (M, x) have been learned. erefore, we have: (5ji) /5ji/ yi ([~ii) /ni/ n` (jin) /jin/ yn (5in) /5qin/ jin (7ji) /6ji/ y (5i) /5qi/ ji en: (5y) /5qy/ ju ([hyy) /qhy/ q (7y) /6sy/ x ([yy) /y/ y (5yn) /5qyn/ jun (hyn) /qhyn/ qn (7yn) /6syn/ xn (yn) /yn/ yn Besides: ([wuu) /wu/ w (lu) /lu/ l (5ku) /5ku/ go (7u) /6u/ (j) /je/ y (5tj) /5tje/ die (7) /6e/ yu ([) /se/ xu and (7x) /6X/ (5xn) /5Xn/ en (X) /X>/ r (7fxn) /6fXn/ fn ([wxxn) /wXn/ wn (7fx) /6fX/ f (5wx) /5wX/ we (7wx) /6wX/ w More: (5m) /5mo/ mo (p) /po/ b (7ph) /6pho/ p ([w) /wo/ w (5w) /5wo/ uo (ha5j) /ha5jo/ hyo (7) /6o/ ! and (5a&qa) /5aqa/ aza (7tha) /6tha/ t (jan) /jan/ yn ([tjaan) /tjan/ din (7an) /6an/ yun (5han) /5qhan/ quan ([aan) /an/ n (phan) /phan/ pn (pha) /pha/ p ([waan) /wan/ wn (5ja) /5ja/ ya ([waa) /wa/ w 11.1.13. And with />/: ([) // ` (5h) /5h/ >i () // (7) /6>/ r (5kx) /5kX>/ ger ([pxx) /pX>/ bnr (h) /hX>/ hr ([naa) /na>/ nr (7pa) /6pa>/ bnr (5q) /5qa>/ zar (5hwa) /5hwa>/ huar (7mja) /6mja>/ minr and (pha) /pha>/ pir (7hx) /6qhX>/ qr (7wx) /6wX>/ r (7qhx) /6qhX>/ cr ([qxx) /qX>/ z`r (5kwa) /5kwa>/ guanr (5kw) /5kwX>/ gor (5swxn&nx) /5swXnnX>/ sunnr (i&fwx) /sifwX>/ xfur (^ljx) /5ljX>/ ilir (jx) /qjX>/ jir (^ha2pa[thwxx) /5hapathwX>/ habatu`r (7tuj) /6tuqjX>/ djir (7jx) /6jX>/ ynr ([sxx) /sX>/ s`r (5hx) /5hX>/ heir (5thja) /5thja>/ tianr (mja) /mja>/ mior (7qhwx) /6qhwX>/ cur (thwx) /thwX>/ tur (^am5phwx, -n5p-) /5an5phwX>/ anpor For diphthongs, we have: (5fi) /5fei/ fei (5twi) /5twei/ dui ([aa) /ae/ i (7wa) /6wae/ wi ([aa) /ao/ o ([haa) /hao/ ho (ja) /jao/ yo (5u) /5ou/ Ou ([mu) /mou/ mu (5tju) /5tjou/ diu

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11.1.14. In a type of international pronunciation, even vowel reductions are not so necessary; thus (fairly safely) we have: (7ti3ti) /6titi/ ddi (5kwa~&i, -n&i) /5kwansi/ guanxi (7jay) /6sjaqy/ xiqu and (7jisM) /6jisM/ ysi (7xN, -n) /6>Xn/ rni (5u&fu) /5ufu/ ufu ([j^j) /qjeqje/ jijie (7axn) /6ae>Xn/ iren (7mimi) /6meimei/ mimei. In addition: (5kx&kx) /5kXkX/ gege (ti^x) /tiX/ d`e (5jaN&x, -n&x) /5sjanX/ xiane (7jm) /6qjemo/ jimo (nwa^hw, nwan-) /nwanhwo/ nunhuo (7utu) /6utou/ ytou (phx&ju) /phXjou/ pyou also (7papa) /6papa/ bba (5ma&ma) /5mama/ mama (i^hwan) /sihwan/ x`huan (7thatha) /6thaethae/ titai and (waN^a, -n^a) /wana/ wna (5&ta) /5tao/ idao
11.8. International Mandarin Chinese vowels. /i[n/]/ ([j]i[n/]) /y[n]/ ([]y, []yn) /je/ (j), /e/ (), /[w]ei/ ([w]i) /[j//w]a[n/], [w]ae, [j]ao/ ([j//w]a[n/], [w]a, [j]a) /M/ (M) /u/ ([w]u), /[j]u/ ([j]u) /X/ (x), /[w]Xn/ ([w]xn), /[w]X/ ([w]x) /[w]o/ ([w]), /[j]ou/ ([j]u)

Consonants 11.2.0. e consonant system of (Mandarin) Chinese has some interesting peculiarities, as we will see, including some alternative possibilities of phonemic analysis. e most important one regards the choice on the phonemic status of (, h, ); in fact, pinyin has chosen their ocial acknowledgement as j q x to the detriment of vowels, which are rendered as i u after (, h, ), with the following values: /i, y j, /. On the contrary, it would have been sucient to systematically use (instead of uctuating between yu ju qu xu and n l] that is always y j q x n l (all the more so because with n l both a dieresis and tone-accents must be used). Besides, z c s (M, hM, M) would have been useful as well, by producing even greater coherence (which is always useful). Consequently, also > r ought to have been used (instead of the pinyin ocial i >i i ri] with the value of (, h, , ). At this point, having seen the vowel phonemic inventory (which we have established, 11.1.1-5), it is obvious that our analysis prefers to consider (, h, ) as the result of the assimilation of /q, qh, s/ in contact with /i, y j, /. All this, of course, is irrespective of morphological considerations, which are lexically derived, since they are not at all absolute (rather, they are quite capricious indeed). us, even for native speakers, the ocial choices have only limited (or seeming) advantages; therefore, we are convinced that the possibility of considering (, h, ) as realizations of /k, kh, h/ is much less preferable even though sequences like */ki, khi, hi, ky, khy, hy/ do not occur, which would allow to speak of complementary

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distribution. Phonology, in order to be useful, must be explicit and not at all esoteric (although this would not be wrong diachronically). In the table of 11.9, which gives the consonantal articulations of Mandarin Chinese, to save space, we show as /05/ (whereas here we use /0[h]/ = /0, 0h/) the consonants which are distinct phonemically. In fact, simple consonants oppose aspiration sequences ( Stops, 11.2.2, and Stopstrictives, 11.2.3). Instead, 1.9-15 show the orograms, grouped by manners of articulation, of all the contoids given in the chapters of this handbook for the 12 languages dealt with, including secondary, occasional, or regional variants.
11.9. Table of Chinese consonants.
bilabialized prepalatal (* prepalat.) labiodental round. bilabial rounded postpalatal rounded

labiodental

postalveolar

velar rounded

alveolar

bilabial

palatal

dental

F _

m ([) (M) p5 (b) ((5 {) f (v) (5 )

(n) n (N) t5 (d) q5 (Q) 5 (") s (z) ( )

(~)* (5 ) ( B)

() k5 (g)

uvular

, () ()

l // (,), />/ (), /h/ (, h, , )

j|() |(%) ()

w|(j) ()

Nasals 11.2.1.1. ere are three nasal phonemes, /m, n, / (m, [ M, n, N, ~, ,) m n In syllable-nal position only /n, / occur; and the latter always maintains its uvular articulation ((,)) even before any consonants. Instead, /n/ regularly assimilates (except in very slow and accurate pronunciation), even if assimilation is only partial for /nj, n, nw/ (~j, ~, w) (instead of *(Nj, N/, w) which are theoretical). However, let us notice the reduced forms of wmen and tamen, which become monosyllabic, with /m/ ( 11.3.1.2). e tendency of /n/ to assimilation is so strong that we can nd cases such as: (j5jn2lX&ma31, -jl2lX-) /qje5hwXnlXma?/ Ji hun le ma? Mandarin has /n/ (~) + /i, y j, / (although Pekinese presents instead (n), which can be used fairly safely). On the other hand, we need not use a more specic symbol, ( () ), before dentals /t, th, q, qh, s/. On the contrary, it is useful to choose ([) in /mo/ (which could be rendered as /mwo/ ([[x]), whereas /mou/ is (mU), by dissimilation). Syllable- and word-nal nasals always have an inaudible release, even before a pause: ((n, ,)). (is is quite normal for other oriental languages such as Cantonese, ai, Cambodian, cetnamese, Tagalog, Malay, and Indonesian even for nal voiceless stops, which Mandarin has lost.)

laryngeal

velar

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11.2.1.2. Here are some examples: (5mA) /5mao/ mao (5[) /5mo/ mo ([nAA) /nao/ no (4pn) /phXn/ pn (4px,) /phX/ p (c7$[*|]) /hXn6X/ hn (n[tii) /qhanthi/ qunt` (Ic[qAA) /qinqao/ j`nzo (0twn7ljEc) /6twan6ljan/ dunlin (m4mIn) />Xnmin/ rnmn (lwm5pn) /lwXn5pan/ lnban (0kaM[faa) /6khanfa/ knf (^pjE~4i) /5pjanqi/ bianj (0IN[) /6qin/ jn` (0p4) /6phanqe/ pnju (pjE4y) /pjany/ biny (k[c) /kan>an/ gnrn (pI[kwc) /5pinkwan/ bingun (0jE7wA) /6qjan6wa/ jinw (ljE,5wn) /ljan5hwan/ linhuan th //: (ji7lu p,5n) /ji6lu phi5an/ yl p'an (^fx,7mjEc) /5fX6mjan/ femin (2kU7pu) /khu6pu/ kb (0la,7fI) /6la6fei/ lfi (^fx,[tii) /5fXti/ fed` (2kU7i) /khu6si/ kx (p,4y) /phiy/ py (^x,7) /5X6>/ er (^fx,7c) /5fX6an/ fen (p,[kw, -[kw*|) /phikwo/ pgu In an international-like pronunciation, it is sucient to use (), instead of (,), and also (n) before /i, y j, / (and, possibly, before other consonants too] Stops 11.2.2.1. We have three voiceless phonemes, /p, t, k/, which occur as either plain, /0/, or in aspiration sequences, /0h/, with distinctive values. Before seeing some examples, we have to explain the nature and consistency of both voicelessness and aspiration. In fact, except in slow (or very accurate) speech, /p, t, k/, are realized as (p, t, k) only in fully stressed syllables (or after pauses), whereas in half-stressed syllables they are (, , ) or, in unstressed syllables, even (b, d, g). On the other hand in a parallel way /ph, th, kh/, in fully stressed syllables (or after pauses), are sequences of voiceless stops and a laryngeal constrictive (decidedly strong, (p, t, k) (however, it is possible to nd a semi-constrictive as well, ( (0) ), which is weaker). In half-stressed syllables, we have sequences with a laryngeal approximant, (ph, th, kh); whereas, in unstressed syllables, we can even nd plain voiceless stops, (p, t, k). We choose to adopt this kind of normalized transcription (although oscillations are frequent indeed, including sequences with a voiceless laryngeal semi-approximant, ( (0h) )). A degree of distinctivity between aspiration and non-aspiration, however, is guaranteed. In fact, we have: /0h/ ('=, &=h, =), /0/ ('=, &, ), with strong and weak extremes meeting, as (=). Although they coincide phonetically, they remain distinct functionally, from a phonemic point of view. Before /o/ (not /ou/, by dissimilation) we nd ((), which sounds rather dierent from the common (p) of other languages. 11.2.2.2. Let us now see the following examples: (5pIn) /5pin/ bin (4() /po/ bo (7() /6pho/ p (4tj) /tje/ di (4kwI) /khwei/ ku (^p,5pa,) /5phi5pha/ pipa (0tjA[wuu) /6thjaowu/ tiow (5kx,) /5khX/ ke (7paa|, 7pa3b) /6papa/ bba (7tii|, 7ti3dI) /6titi/ ddi (5kX&X|, 5kX2g) /5kXkX/ gege (7-

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ph|, 73p) /6phae/ pai (4pu&thA|, 4pu2t) /phuthao/ ptao (4pu2t[jU -2t-) /phuthaoqjou/ ptaoji (7qkh$|, -3k) /6qhMkhX/ cke As we have seen ( 11.0.2 11.2.1), there is also a laryngeal stop, which is important though not phonemic (with some less advisable alternative variants, (y, H, r, )). It is useful to adequately maintain the articulatory identity of nal consonants (/n, , >/) before initial vowels. Stop-strictives 11.2.3. As far as this manner (of articulation) is concerned, in our analysis (with the same normalized characteristics of voicing and aspiration as for Chinese stops) we have /q, qh/ ('q, &, Q 'q, &qh, q) z c in addition to (', &, ', &h, ) j q before /i, y j, / ( 11.2.0), and /, h/ (', &2, " ', &h, ) > Here are some examples (expressly chosen with nal syllables without tonemes): (5q) /5qae/ zai (7qwc) /6qhwan/ cun (5y) /5qy/ ju (4U, 4jU,) /qu/ qi (7I) /6ei/ i (4) // > (4pi&M|, 4pi2Q) /piqM/ bzi (4Yn&qh|, 4Yn2q 4jYn-) /ynqhae/ yncai (7tjEi|, 7tjE2) /6tjanqi/ dinji (5tjE~&hi|, 5tjE~) /5thjanqhi/ tianqi (4q&2|, 4q2") /qhae/ cii (4pI&hn|, 4pI2n) /pheihXn/ pi>en Constrictives 11.2.4. ere are three constrictive phonemes. Again they are all phonemically voiceless, but with the usual voicings which depend on syllable-strength attenuation. us we have: /f/ ('f, &, v) f, /s/ ('s, &, z) s and (', &, B) x, // (', &, ) \ (4fu) /fu/ f (4ma&n|, 4mavn) /mafan/ mfan (7swI 7swi) /6swei/ su (5fx,&u|, 5fx,2z) /5fXsu/ fesu (4&i|, 42B) /sesi/ xuxi (5u) /5u/ u (4lja,&|, 4lja,2) /lja/ lii Before /o/ (not /ou/) we nd (5) (as happens for other labial phonemes): (45{x}) /fo/ f erefore, we could even pose /fwo/ instead of /fo/ (but /fou/ (fU), by dissimilation). Approximants 11.2.5.1. Chinese has ve approximant phonemes in our analysis. e rst is postalveolar, />/ (): (4n) />Xn/ rn (4wc) />wXn/ rn (4X) /X>/ r ([) // ` (British English />/ (>) is laterally contracted and has a certain amount of lip rounding, thus is dierent English ('>a;) /'<aO/ row dispute and Chinese (7A) /'>ao/ ro coil.) Besides, we have: /j/ (j, ), // (, %), /w/ (w, j), with attenuated variants in weak syllables, that is unstressed, because with zero toneme (provided it is not before a pause), respectively: semi-palatal (), semi-postpalatal rounded (%), and se-

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mi-velar rounded (j): (5ja,) /5ja/ ya (4tj) /tje/ di (5j) /5qje/ jie (li^jEn|, li1bEn, -1bn) /lipjan/ l`bian ([yy) /y/ y (7) /6qhe/ qu (7tiU|, 7ti3B%U) /6tisu/ dxio (4wA,) /wa/ w (5wI 5wi) /5hwei/ hui (tA^lwn|, tA1ljn) /thaolwXn/ tolun nally, we nd /h/ (', &, h) (in addition to ('0, &0h, 0`), already seen for stops and stop-constrictives): ([AA) /hao/ ho (5&A|, 5n2h) /5Xnhao/ enhao In theory, we could have two dierent phonemes in the inventory of consonants: /x, h/, with /x/ = (', &, h); but it is better to have only one, with the taxophones already seen (which are dierent although auditorily quite similar, but with a phone of contact, (h)). Traditionally, the Chinese prefer to consider initial consonants in a unitary way, with /05/ dierent from /0/, intraphonemically; but this choice does not present any real advantage from an interphonemic point of view, which is interested in several languages of the world quite the contrary! International Mandarin consonants 11.2.5.2. In a kind of international pronunciation (as for vowels, 11.1.1214), it is sucient to always use the basic forms, independently of stress: (j, , w), even for (, %, j), and (h) for /h/, without variations, also in /0h/ (0h) (against /0/ (0)), and again without creaky voice: (5ja) /5ja/ ya (li^pjan) /lipjan/ l`bian ([yy) /y/ y (7tiu) /6tisu/ dxio (4wa) /wa/ w (5hwi) /5hwei/ hui (tha^lwxn) /thaolwXn/ tolun However, it is important to be able to hear dierent realizations, in order to understand spoken Chinese (better). Obviously, to achieve a more genuine pronunciation, it would be decidedly better to appropriately acquire and use all the characteristics we describe. Laterals 11.2.6. For the last manner (of articulation) necessary for Mandarin, we nd just one phoneme, /l/ (l) (which remains unchanged even before /i, y j, /): (4l) /lae/ li (4lU,) /lu/ l ([ljEEc) /ljan/ lin (7ly) /6ly/ l Structures 11.3.0. We will deal, in particular, with the typical tones (tonemes as distinctive elements), including a zero ton(em)e and their combinatory variants (taxotones), in addition to degrees of stress, and nally intonation, which overlaps tone characteristics, by changing them further (as we will see). A typical Mandarin Chinese pronunciation shows a particular kind of voice with a paraphonic setting with raised larynx @, not only for wemen. Other Chinese languages, instead, use a normal (or modal) laryngeal setting, or else one with

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a lowered larynx. ese paraphonic dierences can be a good cue in identifying the origins of Chinese people, even when they speak English or other foreign languages. Taxophonics 11.3.1.1. As regards possible reductions, especially in weak syllables, we have already illustrated those of vowel and consonant timbres, in particular, in 11.1.911 and 11.6-7, and here and there in 11.2.0-6. We would like to underline here that in fast speech, in a preintoneme, two other types of reduction are possible, which can make Chinese less easy to understand. us it is important at least to know their mechanisms. Should foreign learners want to apply them in an appropriate manner, naturalness would certainly be improved. erefore, obviously not in an intoneme again, after dierent consonants from sonants ( after /p[h], t[h], k[h] q[h], [h] f, s, , h/), and with tone 4 (above all when it is complete, /6/ (7), see below), close vowels, /i, y, M, u/ (i, I, y, Y M u, U), can be devoiced, (, , , , ). We will show this fact only here (and just for partial devoicing): (0p4u) /6phi>u/ pr (0p[faa) /6pufa/ bf (0t5n) /6thi5Xn/ ten (0t[kU) /6tukhou/ dku (04twn) /6qythwan/ jtun (0k[aa) /6khuha/ k> (0k7k$) /6ku6khX/ gk (0q5i) /6qhM5qi/ cji (0q[muu) /6qMmu/ zm (07fc) /6hu6fan/ >fn (0,7qw) /6qi6qwo/ jzu (0f7pu) /6fu6pu/ fb (0~[jaa) /6sinja/ xny (0[yy) /6syqhy/ xq (04fu) /6ufu/ f (07A) /6hu6ao/ ho Besides, in syllables with zero tones, but not in an intoneme, approximant realizations are possible: (, ), for /s/ (s, z , B), and () for // (, ), but also for (q[h], Q [h], ) and ([h], "): (7kAz|, 7kA3, -3^) /6kaosu/ gosu (5pI&QM|, 5pI2, -2) /5peiqM/ beizi (4qU&QU|, 4qU2, -2) /qhouqhou/ cucou (5tU,&Bi|, 5tU,2, -2) /5tusi/ doxi (jaa^,|, jaa1,, -1,) /jaqi/ yji (5u&y|, 5u2, -2) /5huqhy/ >uqu (5&|, 52) /5/ ii (5pa,&"u|, 5pa,2, -2) /5pau/ bau (5,&u|, 5,2, -2) /5qhihu/ qi>u 11.3.1.2. As we have said, Chinese words are formed by initial and nal elements. However, their combinations have some limitations; in fact, among all theoretical possibilities, only 55% are actually used, for slightly over 400 typical syllables (which are regularly indicated in teaching textbooks, with some oscillations for the less frequent ones). Here we will report only the most remarkable characteristics. (X) /X>/ er occurs with no initial; /f/ has a fairly limited distribution: it does not occur before /i, j y, w/ and some other phonemes; whereas, only in loanwords /v/ is found (which is thus a xenophoneme added to the (v) taxophone of /f/). Besides, ([h], ) (with other variants already seen) are taxophones of /q[h], s/, which only occur before /i, j y, /, and are spelled j q x Equally, /M/ only occurs after /q[h], s/; and // after /[h], , >/ /o/, only after /m, p[h], f, w/ (and in

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some particular forms after /j, l/ or with a zero segment); and /y/, only after /j, l/, /n/ (~), or after /q[h], s/ ([h], ). nally, we would like to add that /m, p[h], f/ do not occur before /X, M, w y, > [j]u/ or some other segments; neither do /[h], / occur before /i, j y, / (or some others), nor /k[h], h/ before /i, j y, / or /o, wX/. ere are some other more specic limitations; but this is the spirit of Mandarin phonotactics /n, / are the only, very frequent, syllable-nal consonants (besides, />/, which is extremely rare). ere are some remarkable reductions of words such as the following (which are quite normal, except in intonemes or in formal speech): (4Xm, 4X, 4X2m, 4X2mX) /XnmX/ nme ([q$$C, q$1, q$1m, q$1mX) /qXnmX/ znme ([wC, w, w1mn, -1mn) /womXn/ wmen (5tam, 5ta, 5tamn, -mn) /5thamXn/ tamen Contrary to some other Chinese languages, in Mandarin there is a somewhat exceptional occurrence of /m/ in nal position, as indeed that of (), which we nd in : (4) /Xm/ really?/what??, (7) /6Xm/ yes/I understand. Stress 11.3.2.1. At the end of the previous section, as well as in 11.1.9-11, we saw a few words with weak syllables too, without either a toneme or a strong stress (at most they had a secondary stress on posttonic syllables). We will see below that weak syllables may also occur before the last one, and that generally even grammemes (or grammatical particles) are weak. On the contrary, in most Mandarin words all syllables bear one of the four marked tonemes ( 11.3.3.1-3). Among these, two-syllable words have the following stress pattern (&I'I): (^4n) /5an/ iyun (ljE~7i) /ljan6si/ linx (^I[pc) /5heipan/ heibn (0jA5) /6qjao5/ jioi Chinese writing has separate characters (ideograms), but without separation between words, phrases, and sentences, except for punctuation (which also includes a mini-comma () that is used to separate words in a list, but it is used less and less). In trisyllables, without any weak syllables, we have the pattern ('I&I'I): (5jPU0[[kc) /5jou6mokan/ youmgn (fx,05i) /fX,6>Xn5qi/ frnji (w^hX7c) /hwo5hX6an/ hu>en en Chinese words reach four or ve syllables, lexical compounding coincides with syntactical composition. In fact, the various components are simply juxtaposed. However, there is a way to manage to show lexicalization better, within sentences. As a matter of fact, if for instance we separately have (0q[muu) /6qMmu/ zm letter, grapheme, (^pI~5jIn) /5phin5jin/ pinyin syllabication, when we put the two words together, we obtain (5pI~^jIn 0[muu) /5phin5jin 6qMmu/ pinyin zm romanization, transliteration, alphabetic writing (to show pronunciation), instead of a simpler but more articial (^pI~5jIn 0[muu); consider also (6ti0i0A7tA) /6ti6ti6tao6tao/ dddodo

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11.3.2.2. In sentences, however (as will be seen from the text in 11.4.2.2 as well), there are frequent oscillations with regard to actual stresses on dierent syllables, both for rhythmic reasons and prominence interplay, and even for communicative purposes, even when they are not distinctive. us, for instance, /5akanu6jiX/ agny can have two frequent realizations, (5a,u0ji[$$, 5a,2u7ji2$); equally, even forms such as the following often oscillate: (0ji[tjEEc, 7jijEc) /6jitjan/ ydin (0(4fI, 7(&I) /6pofei/ pfi (^qM7wI, 5qM0wI) /5qM6wei/ ziwi (0I[fuu, 7Iu) /6sinfu/ xnf (^In5tjEn, 5In^thjEn) /5qin5thjan/ jntian (0[lii, 7li) /6aeli/ il` (^km5pI, 5km^I) /5kan5pei/ ganbei! All this can happen both in intonemes and preintonemes. And, what is more, even opposite cases are frequent, that is syllables with zero tone which bear a strong stress, verging on mid pitch (again independently of any intoneme): (4px,&jPU, &px,'jPU) /phXjou/ pyou (7tN, 0N') /6tan/ dni (4&U, &'U) /hou/ hou In addition, even forms bearing a tone (even written) are weakened, as happens to the grammemes and locatives in the following examples: (5w0a, -&a,) /5wo 6a/ uo (6ti0ja, -&ja) /6ti 6sja/ d xi (5wuli, 5wu&li) /5wu li/ wu l` (4t,li, -&li) /thi li/ t l` Tones 11.3.3.1. e most remarkable aspect of the various Chinese languages (and one of the most serious problems for foreigners) resides in the use of tones. In fact, in languages such as Mandarin, a dierent pitch on a syllable is able to make its meaning change completely. erefore, we have to speak of tonemes for distinctive elements of a phonemic system, and of tones for their actual realizations, including taxotones, combinatory variants, as can be seen from the examples given below. In order to draw attention to their importance, and not to confuse concepts and words, let us choose the example of ([m) /mae/ mi to buy and (7m) /6mae/ mi to sell. We now add some classical examples (giving some of the most frequent meanings, among the possible ones, since transliterations may unify dierent words {as phonic transcriptions do too}, represented by dierent characters, or ideograms): (5ma) /5ma/ ma mother, (4ma) /ma/ m hemp, ([maa) /ma/ m horse, (7ma) /6ma/ m scold, curse As some transcriptions have already shown, tonemes 3 and 4 are realized with creaky (or laryngealized) voice, when their low taxophones occur: ([), () and (7) (with secondary stress, (0)), but not when the high ones occur: () and (6). Tonemes 1 and 2, which are high, (5), (4), always have normal voice quality. A prudential warning is necessary about some diagrams which appeared in certain publications, not only in tourist-like books, since they are too often completely wrong so they are of no help at all to unfortunate readers Mandarin is relatively simple, in comparison with other Chinese languages, also as far as taxotones are concerned. In fact, Mandarin has only four marked tonemes, traditionally indicated and listed as 1 (5) /5/ >1 o\ (5ji) /5ji/ yi 2 (4) // >Q \

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(4wu) /wu/ w 3 ([) // >5 \ ([) /se/ xu 4 (7) /6/ >Z \ (7ja) /6qja/ qi 11.10 shows for the four tonemes the four basic tones, in addition to three taxotones, which are as important phonetically (or rather tonetically): in addition to 3=2 ( 3+3 = 3+2) () // >5 ( a toneme 3 occurring before another 3 which becomes almost a tone 2 {although it is generally but falsely identied with an actual tone 2}), we have a half 3, () // >5 ( a 3 before one of the other three), and a half 4, (6) /6/ >Z ( a 4 before another 4). As can be seen, from both tonograms and phonetic transcriptions which will follow, the last two are actually realized as the rst half of their full forms. In a kind of international pronunciation, toneme 2 can be realized as () (instead of (4) ((-1))), as the ocial taxotone of // followed by another //. e pitch characteristics of the other ton(em)es ought to be very similar to the ocial ones, even for the zero toneme, as we have done in our transcriptions (although for the latter, somehow, a realization of mid pitch {and weak stress} could be sucient, (2), again in this type of international pronunciation).
11.10. Mandarin tonemes and tones.

1 /5/ (5) >1 2 // (4) >Q

3 // ([) >5 3 // () >5 3 // () >5 4 /6/ (7) >Z 4 /6/ (6) >Z

11.3.3.2. Obviously, although at rst all this might seem to be a useless complication, in actual fact, it is a real facilitation for contextual realizations. As a matter of fact, it is a simplication, from a tonetic point of view, which is visible only thanks to accurate phonetic (or rather phonotonetic) transcriptions, whereas phonemic ( phonotonemic) transcriptions, as well as graphemic renderings, do not change at all, since their entity, their essence, remains the same. As can be seen from the following examples, and above all from 11.11, the allotones ( taxophones) of tonemes 3 and 4 present a simplication, by assimilation.
11.11. Fundamental taxotones. / 5/ / / / / / 6/ /6 6/ = = = = = ( 5) ( 4) ( [) ( 7) (0 7)

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In fact, toneme 3, ([) = (), // >5 shortens (even as its segmental duration does), when it occurs before tonemes which are dierent from itself: (w5X) /hwo5hX/ hu>e (t*4y) /tXy/ dy (kA7) /khao6/ ko on the other hand, when it occurs before itself, / / >5 5 it has the taxotone (): (U[pjAA) /oupjao/ ubio Even in this case, it is right to keep its tonemic and graphemic representation unchanged, since, should we modify them, they would lead us to think of dierent structures, not only from a phonic point of view, but also lexically and, then, semantically. Toneme 4 resorts to a (halved) taxotone before itself: (0fa,7ja) /6fa6qja/ fji Tonemes 1 and 2 do not have any variants; and, although the taxotone of 3 (+ 3) is tonetically (more) similar to toneme 2, it nevertheless remains a taxotone of toneme 3 (except in the international accent {which is a simplication}).
11.12. Taxotones of particular tonemic sequences. /5 5/ = /5 / = /5 / = /5 6/ = /5 5 5/ (5 5) /5 5 / (5 4) /5 5 / (5 [) /5 5 6/ (5 7)

11.13. Taxotones of other tonemic sequences. / 5/ = / / = / / = / 6/ = / 5 5/ (4 5) / 5 / (4 4) / 5 / (4 [) / 5 6/ (4 63)

11.14. Further taxotones of tonemic sequences. /5 / = / / = / / = (5 [) = (4 [) = ( [) = (5 [) (4 [) ( [)

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11.3.3.3. As far as sequences of three tonemes are concerned, there are some dierences (and they must be indicated and applied too) in comparison with tonemic (and graphemic) representations. 11.12 shows what happens to sequences of /5 / followed by one of the other four tonemes: (5tU,^nM5fx,) /5tunan5fX/ donn-fe (5s~^~jE~4i) /5sannjanqi/ sannin-j (5jEN^~[jaa) /5sjan>Xnqja/ xianrn-ji (5i^U,7) /5sihu6/ xih. 11.13 shows sequences of / / followed by one of the other four tonemes: (4mI^laM5fa,) /meilan5fa/ Mi Lnfa (4^mI4l) /haemeilae/ hi mi li (4w~^hn[tUU) /wanqhantu/ wnqun d (4Y~^ja,7jEc) /synja6qjan/ xny-jin nally, 11.14 shows the behavior of the sequence / / preceded by one of the rst three tonemes: (5s~^jEn[j<<Y) /5sanjanqjX>/ Sanyn Jir (4N^u[pjAA) /hanupjao/ hnbio (w^j[jU) /wojejou/ w y yu 11.3.3.4. In addition, there is a zero tone, which is realized in four dierent ways (that are representable, however, with only three signs), according to the previous toneme. It is much simpler to refer to 11.15, which shows that a zero tone has mid pitch after tonemes 1 and 2, although strictly speaking after toneme 1 pitch is [lower] mid, whereas it is [upper-central] mid after toneme 2: (5pi&(h) /5pipho/ bipo (4pi&hi) /piqhi/ bqi After a toneme 3, the unmarked toneme is [lower] high; whereas, it is [lower-central] low, after a toneme 4: (pi^a,) /pifa/ b`fa (7piwI) /6pihwei/ bhui As we have said, three symbols are necessary (and sucient), since as we will see shortly intonation slightly modies and compresses what we are explaining here, which refers to an ideal pronunciation and is used in isolated forms, outside actual communicative contexts. en two unmarked tonemes occur after a marked one, their pitch is as shown in the tonograms of 11.16: (5k2ll$) /5khaelaelX/ kailaile (4na2ll$) /nalaelX/ nlaile (qU1l^lX) /qoulaelX/ zulaile (7sU3ll$) /6sulaelX/ slaile Lastly, 11.17 shows how a zero toneme behaves when it occurs between marked tonemes (by observing its tonetic logic as a gradual transition): (5tjE~1i7wI) /5thjanqi6wei/ Tianjiwi (4a,1"U7) /haou6/ Hou (li2hU,5a,) /lihu5a/ L`hoa (lja,2gX4n) /ljakX>Xn/ lige rn (6kn2dX7jEc) /6khantX6qjan/ kn-de-jin
11.15. Contextual pitches of a zero tone in bisyllables.

/5 / (5 &)

/ / (4 &)

/ / ( )

/6 / (7 )

11.16. Contextual pitches of two zero tones in trisyllables.

/5 / (5 2 )

/ / (4 2 )

/ / ( 1 )

/6 / (7 3 )

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11.17. Contextual pitches of an internal zero tone in trisyllables.

/5 6/ (5 1 7)

/ 6/ (4 1 7)

/ 5/ ( 2 5)

/ / ( 2 4)

/ / ( 2 7)

11.3.3.5. To conclude about tones, we must indicate some syntactic-lexical variations, which have to be memorized as they are. We are talking about three numbers: (5ji) /5ji/ yi one, (5i) /5qhi/ qi seven, (5pa) /5pa/ ba eight, and the negation (7pu) /6pu/ b no, not. e three numbers are realized with a tone (6) before one of the rst three tonemes (/5, , /): (6ji, 6i, 6pa), but with tone () before a 4 (/6/): (ji, i, pa) (but now even (5i) is acceptable). Also /6pu/, before a 4, becomes (): (pu). Besides, (5ji) /5ji/ yi becomes (4) //, even before a zero toneme, which derives from (7) /6/, as in (4ji&X) /jikX/ yge. Intonation 11.3.4.1. Although Chinese is a tone language, with relevant and distinctive syllable pitch, it uses intonation too, as non-tone languages do. Obviously, in this case, things are more complicated, since the basic tonemes with the taxotones we have seen ( 11.3.3.1-5) are slightly modied by intonation, which superimposes on tones. In fact, it makes them change according to the typical movements of the intonemes. 11.18 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of Mandarin, with their characteristics. e preintonemes force the pitch of every single tone to be canalized into the shapes indicated (which, in a more sophisticated than really necessary notation, could even be indicated with some small rings, as we will see shortly). A normal preintoneme is compressed (/ / ( ), ( ( ) )), an interrogative one is raised (/ / ( ), ( ( ) )), whereas an imperative one is falling (/ / ( ), ( ( ) )); nally, an emphatic preintoneme is extended, non-compressed, (/ / ( ), ( ( ) )). 11.18 also shows the modications undergone by the intonemes: the conclusive is falling (/./ (13)), the interrogative is rising (/?/ (31)), the continuative one is compressed (/,/ (2)), whereas the suspensive is extended (/2/ (^)).
11.18. Mandarin preintonemes and intonemes. //()( ( ) ) / / ( ) ( ( ) ) / / ( ) ( ( ) ) / /( ) ( ( ) ) /./ (13) /?/ (31) // (^) /,/ (2)

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11.3.4.2. Besides isolated tones (typical of separate words {as examples are} and of a suspensive intoneme, and of an emphatic preintoneme as well, which are given in black), 11.19 also shows the taxotones (given in grey) of the four marked tonemes, as they are modied when they are realized in conclusive (/./ (13)), interrogative (/?/ (31)), and continuative (/,/ (2)) intonemes. It is obvious that the tonetic notation used is necessarily just an indication of the deformation undergone by actual tones. Of course, in non-tonal languages, the use of tonetic symbols is automatically much more precise, since it is free from any phonemic value applied to lexical pitch. In addition, 11.20 shows in grey all the allotones occurring in the four preintonemes. e four marked in black, in the emphatic preintoneme, correspond to the four isolated tones. ey are also useful for comparisons, which must be done very carefully, in order to appropriately memorize and master them in actual sentences (at rst as a simple identication step, then as active drills as well). Undoubtedly, they require a good deal of commitment and constancy. But any eort will certainly be rewarded. Of course, paraphonics further modies things depending on attititudes, feelings, . 11.3.4.3. Lastly, we will see three examples to start an accurate analysis of intonation which is always in an indissoluble relation with tones. Given the complexity of this enterprise, we will use the same basic sentence, with the same tonemes. Of course, other tonal combinations are to be experimented as well, on the basis of the examples provided: /./: (5ta0 4ji2gX X7c2dX 5ku&~ja,13) /5tha jikX hX6antX 5kunja./ Ta yge hn de gunia. /?/: (5ta0 4ji2gX X7c2dX 5ku&~ja,2ma31) /5tha jikX hX6antX 5kunjama?/ Ta yge hn de gunia ma? //: (5ta0 4ji2gX X7c2dX 5ku&~ja,^ 7t3 w1bu 7tha13) /5tha jikX hX6antX 5kunja 6tan wopu 6aetha./ Ta yge hn de gunia, dni w b i ta.
11.19. e four tonemes combined with the four intonemes.
the 4 tones with /./ (13) the 4 tones with /?/ (31) the 4 tones with /,/ (2) the 4 tones with // (^)

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11.20. e seven allotones combined with the four preintonemes. //() // ( ) // ( ) // ( )

Text 11.4.0. e story e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in four dierent normalized versions. We start with the (neutral) Chinese pronunciation of (neutral British) English this is the rst step of the phonetic method (the written text is given in 2.5.2.0). e Chinese translation follows, in its neutral and international versions. Please, note the creaky vowels before pauses ( with creaky phonation type, or laryngealization, (); whereas in Mandarin creaky voice is in relation with low tones, also for the voiced consonants belonging to the same syllable coda). ese creaky vowels confer great authenticity, together with a (paraphonic) postdorsal setting, that is with a slight but permanent or frequent raising of the dorsum towards the velum together with the raising of the larynx # @. At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronunciation of Chinese, by neutral British speakers, uent in Chinese (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciation of English, given rst. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Chinese pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Chinese, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help should they need it and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics 0.12).

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Chinese pronunciation (of English) 11.4.1. #@ (2tX'ns 'jin2 2Xn2X'san2 2jX2is'phju2ti, 'ji 2jXs2Xs'thl2$13| 'jn 2X'thlV2lX2 'khIm 2X'l,2 'lp 2in2X'jm 'khlUk13| 2IX'li2\ 22X'jan 2u'fXs 2sXk'ii2 2in'mI2ki, 2X'thlV2lX2 'thIk 2is'khlUk 'f^| &u2i2kXn'i2X 2sX"thl2gX 2Xn2i'a2$13|| 'n2 2X'ns 'jin2 'lu2 2Xs'aX2 2X2i'khu13| 2X2X'[ 2i'lu^| 2X'[ 'khlUs2li2 &i2X'thlV2l$2\ '5U 2is'khlUk X'lAn2iC13| 2Xn2Xt'las2\ 2X'ns 'jin2 'I 'Vap 2iX'thCp13|| 'n2 2X'san 'n 'At13 'jm2li13| 2Xn2i'mii2tli2\ 2X'thV2lX 'thuk 'f3 3 2is'khlUk13|| 2Xn'sU2 2X'ns 'jin2 2jXs2X'bl 2tX2kXM'fs2| 2X2X'san13 2jXs2Xs'thl2X13 2X2X'thu13|| &i2ju'lk31 2Xs'thli2| 2ju'jn 2tX'iX2lit 2X'c31|||) Mandarin text 11.4.2. Yu y hu bife gen tiy zinar eln ide bni d, uoe uoe lile yge zudorde, ena >uane yjin hu pozi. Tamen li ji alia ho le uo, i n xian jio ge zudorde b tade pozi tuole xilai a, ji sun ide bni d. Ho, bife ji `qi d jn li j`ngua j`ngua, k ta guade yu lhai, nige rn b pozi gude yu j`n; do mlior bife mile fzi, `ho ji sunle. Yhu`r tiy ji >uli rrerde y i, ni zudorde m ji b pozi tuole xilai. Suy` bife b n b >rn dod` hii tiy b` ta bni d. N` x`huan u rge ma? Wmen zi > y bin ma? Neutral Mandarin Chinese pronunciation 11.4.3. #@ (jU7jiwI^| I5fx,2 2gn7t&ja,2\ 6x,&3nY ^2x,7lwc13| 4I2dX p1 7ta13|| 5w2"X^w2"X2| 4l2lX &i2gXU7tY3d$13|| 5N&a,2 5wN2"X2 4ji0jE 7U 4pA2Q13|| 5tam [ljaa2\ 0jU5a,2lja, A1lX 5wx2|| ^4I &nx,5jE~0jA2\ 7$3g$U7tY3d$2| pa5ta2dX 4pA2Q2| 5tw2lX 7ja3la2|| 0jPU7sw2 4I2dX p1 7ta13|| [AA^|| pI5fx,2 0jU1i 7ta2 7Ic&l2 I5kwa2 I5kwa13|| k$15ta^|| 5kwa2dX 7 7li3h2 0nI3g$4n^|| [paa2| 4pA2Q2 kw1dX 0[IIc13|| 7tA 0[[ljY^|| pI5fx, 4mI2lX 4fa2Q13|| 4AA2 0jU7swc3l$13|| 0ji[w$$Y^|| 7tja, 0jU5u&l2|| 0$5X2dX ji713|| nU7tY3d$2|| ma7a2 0jU[paa 4pA2Q2 5tw2lX 7ja3l13|| swji2| pI5fx,2|| 0pu4nx,0u hx,7c^|| 7tA2ii2 4 7t&ja,2| pi5ta2 p1 7ta13|| ~ii^wN 7$U $Y5kX2ma31|| wC7q2 7a ji7pjEC3ma31|||)

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International Mandarin Chinese pronunciation 11.4.4. (ju0ji4hwi^| pi5fx2 kxn0tha4ja2\ 0x7qa3na ^x7lwxn13| 4i2tx pxN1 7ta13|| 5w2x 5w2x2| 4la2lx 4ji2kx qu7ta3tx13|| 5xN&a2 5hwaN2x2 ji7jan 7hu 4pha2qM13|| 5tham[xn] [ljaa2\ 0ju5a2lja ha1lx 5w2|| ^4i &nx5ja~ 7ja2\ 7X3kX qu7ta3tx2| pa5tha2tx 4pha2qM2| 5thw2lx 7ja3laa2|| 0ju7swaN2 4i2tx pxN1 7ta13|| [haa^|| pi5fx2 0ju1i 7ta2 0in4la i5kwa2 i5kwa13|| khx15tha^|| 5kwa2tx 7 7li3ha2 7ni3kx 4xn^|| [paa2| 4pha2qM2 kw1tx 0[iin13|| 7ta 0m[ljaa^|| pi5fx2 4mi2lx 4fa2qM13|| [haa2 0ju7swan3lx13|| 0ji[hwxx^|| 0tha4ja 7ju^hu4la2|| 0x5x2tx ji7a13|| niqu7ta3tx2|| ma7a2 0ju[paa 4pha2qM2 5thw2lx 7ja3la13|| sw[jii2| pi5fx2|| 7pu&nx7pu hx7xn^|| 0ta[tii2 4ha 0tha4ja2| pi5tha2 pxN1 7ta13|| ni i5hwaN 0x[u x5kx2ma31|| w2m[xn]7qa2 7ha ji7pjam3ma31|||) English pronunciation of Chinese 11.4.5. (j'jI;i&hwI32| bI'f:2 gn'Tha&j:2\ 5ch&tsan &Gl':n3 3| 5SID 'ph~Z 'ThA:3 3|| S'Gs&G2| 5lal &jIigts'ThA;D3 3|| 'S;n&S:2 c'A;~G2 5jIiGi& 'h; 'phats3 3|| 5ThA:m li'A:2\ G5Sli& 'hal S':2|| ^5S;I nSi'nGi&a2\ 'c;g ts'ThA;D2| phA;5ThA;D 'phats2| Th5l Si'A;la2|| Gi&s'n2 'SID 'ph~S 'ThA:3 3|| 'ha;32|| bI'f:2 Gi'S;Gi 'ThA:2 'chn&la2 &Gk'A: &Gk'A:3 3|| 5kh;Z 'ThA:32|| kh5A;D 'j;I 'lIi&ha2 &nIg'>:n32|| 'phA:2| 'phats2 'khwD jI'chn:3 3|| 5Tha; &mli'A:32|| bI5f 'mIl 'fA;ts3 3|| 'ch:&ha2 ci&'swnl3 3|| &jIi'hw:32|| 5Tha;&j Gi&'chula2|| >'>;D &jIi'Sa;3 3|| &nIts'thA;D2|| mA;'S:2 ci5phA: 'phats2 5Thw;l Si'A;la3 3|| 'sw;jIi2| bI5f:2|| &phu5n&phu ch'>:n32|| 'ThaDi2 5haZ 'Tha;&j2| phIi'ThA:2 5ph;~Z 'ThA:3 3|| nIi5SIi&hwn 'ch;S 'kh;m21|| &wm'tsa;2 5ch &jIipi'nm21|||) A short appendix 11.4.6. (6ta0M7pA) /6ta6qM6pao/ dzbo (5kU,&u) /5kufu/ gofu (kung fu, 11.1.9 for (-2v)), (0i5kU,) /6qhi5ku/ qgo (7tA) /6tao/ do (4jhn7tA) /qjeqhan6tao/ jiqundo (jeet kune do), (5ti4n) /6thaeqiqhan/ tijqun (5pa0wa[aa) /5pa6kwaa/ bagu Besides: (^U,4kw[x]) /5ukwo/ ogu China (pI5,) /pei5qi/ Biji, (5tjEn^m4m wA[aa) /5thjan5anmXn kwaha/ Tian'anmn Gu> (0s5wn) /6sM5hwan/ S>uan (t5wn) /thae5wan/ Ti-

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wan (kwA5tU,) /kwa5tu/ Gudo Canton (0a[) /6ahae/ hi More: (4mA^X5tU,) /maoqX5tu/ Mo Zdo (4N0N7A) /an6>Xn6ao/ Yun Rn o (traditionally: Yuen Ren ao ] (5U ^n4l) /5ou 5Xnlae/ ou Enli (7t* jA4p,) /6tX sjaophi/ D Xiop (lIm5pjA) /lin 5pjao/ Ln Biao (ljPU A4i) /ljou aoqhi/ Li oq Lastly: (5snli4twn, -4twX) /5sanlithwXn, -twX>/ Sanl`tn(r) (0ku5kU,) /6ku5ku/ Ggo (a,4x,) /hahX/ > (4jiX4n) /jihXan/ Yhyun (5a, 0ji4[U) /5a 6jimou/ a Ymu (kU7li) /ku6li/ G L (^U5U) /5ou5ou/ Ouou Europe, (lwn5twn) /lwXn5twXn/ Lndun London, (j,4kw[x]) /5jikwo/ Yigu England, (5suX4ln) /5sukXlan/ Sugln Scotland, (6ji0a7li) /6ji6ta6li/ Ydl Italy, (l[maa) /loma/ Lm Rome, (5wI^~i5sM) /5weini5sM/ Weinsi Venice, (7pIw5fn) /6pei5two5fXn/ Biduofen Beethoven.