Alexandria University Faculty of Engineering

Dept. of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE STRUCTURES

2.1 Idealized structure. Idealization of ship structures Estimates of the loadings, points of application and material strength of a structure must be made to analyze a real structure. Therefore, an exact analysis can never be carried out. A structural engineer, or naval architect (in case of ship structures) must be able to model or idealize the structure in order to make a force analysis of the structural members. Structural idealization or mathematical modeling (i.e. replacing the actual structure with a simple system that is possible to analyze mathematically) involves the following techniques: support connections, idealizing the structure and load modeling. 2.1.1 Support Connections Structural members are joined together in various ways. Fig. 1.9 shows the most common supports. When selecting a particular support or joint, the engineer must be aware of how the assumptions will affect the performance and whether they are reasonable. 2.1.2 Structure Idealization A structure must be represented in a simple manner to allow analysis. Structural components have width and thickness. Lines that are located along the centroids of the structural components are used to represent them. The sketch of a structure idealized in this manner is usually called a line diagram. For the beam shown in Fig. 2.1(a), the connection at point A allows some freedom for rotation and may be idealized as a typical pin support, while the support at B provides a point of smooth contact and may be idealized as a roller support. Fig. 2.1(b) shows the line diagram of the beam.

Fig. 2.1

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Alexandria University Faculty of Engineering

Dept. of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

A line diagram for a transverse structure of a ship is shown in Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2 2.1.3 Load Modeling Forces must also be modeled. The analysis of the loadings should give results that closely approximate the actual loadings. Concentrated forces rarely act at a point. They are distributed over small areas. Distributed forces act over a large area. They may be: uniform, triangular, trapezoidal, sinusoidal, etc.

2.2 Equations of equilibrium From statics, we know that a structure or a structural member is in equilibrium when a balance of forces and moments is maintained. For plane (2-D) structures, the following requirements for equilibrium must be satisfied:

F F M

=0

y z

=0 =0

(2.1)

That is: the algebraic sums of all forces acting in the x and y directions, respectively, must equal zero. Also, the algebraic sum of the moments of these force components about an axis perpendicular to the x-y plane (the z axis) must equal zero. Before applying the equations of equilibrium it is necessary to draw a free-body diagram of the structure or its members. 11

Alexandria University Faculty of Engineering

Dept. of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

2.3 Free-body diagrams For a member, it must be isolated from its supports and adjacent members. All forces and moments that act on the member must be shown, including support reactions. Forces common to two members act with equal magnitudes but different directions on the respective free-body diagrams of the members. If internal forces and moments at a point in a member are to be determined, a cut or section perpendicular to the axis of the member at the point in question is made. Each segment is isolated and equations of equilibrium are applied. Internal loadings consist of a normal force N, shear force V, and bending moment M. Fig 2.3(a) shows a beam with two supports acted upon by two concentrated loads. In Fig. 2.3(b), a free-body diagram of the entire beam shows the reaction forces. If we cut the beam at A, we obtain two segments of the beam. Fig. 2.3(c) shows the free-body diagrams with the internal forces now seen. Notice that the internal forces on the two segments are the same but in opposite direction. The right-hand part pushes the lefthand part down and the left-hand part pushes the right-hand part up. Free-body diagrams open the way to the analysis of structures.

Fig. 2.3 2.4 Determinacy and stability Determinacy When all the forces in a structure can be determined solely using the equilibrium equations, the structure is statically determinate. Structures with more unknown forces than equilibrium equations are called statically indeterminate. In order to determine if a structure is statically determinate or indeterminate, a freebody diagram must be drawn for its members or segments and the total number of unknown reaction forces and moments is compared with the number of equilibrium equations (3 equilibrium equations for each segment). So, if there are n segments and r reactions: r = 3n, statically determinate (2.2a) r > 3n, statically indeterminate (2.2b) 12

Alexandria University Faculty of Engineering

Dept. of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

The following examples show how to classify the determinacy of a structure. 2.4.1 Beams Example 1 Fig. 2.4a to 2.4d show beams that are to be classified as determinate or indeterminate. Fig. 2.4c and 2.4d show compound beams composed of pin connected members. The free-body diagrams are shown.

Fig. 2.4

Example 2 This example shows pin-connected structures which are similar to beams. The freebody diagrams are shown in Fig. 2.5 along with the resulting classifications.

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Alexandria University Faculty of Engineering

Dept. of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

Fig. 2.5

2.4.2 Frames Frames are structures composed of beams and columns that are either pinned or fixed connected. The loading on a frame causes bending of its members and usually have rigid joint connections. Example 3 Sometimes the members of a frame form internal loops, as seen in Fig. 2.6a. To obtain free-body diagrams we cut one section through the loop. The frame in Fig. 2.6b has no loops.

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Alexandria University Faculty of Engineering

Dept. of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

Fig. 2.6 Stability To ensure equilibrium of a structure, the members must be properly constrained by their supports. Two situations may occur: Partial constraints Sometimes there are less reactions than equilibrium equations and the structure is partially constrained, such as shown in Fig. 2.7. Here horizontal equilibrium is not satisfied and the structure is unstable.

Fig. 2.7

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Alexandria University Faculty of Engineering

Dept. of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

Improper constraints - If support reactions are concurrent at a point or are all parallel, instability or movement of the structure develops, as shown in Fig. 2.8.

Fig. 2.8

For a 2-D structure having n members or segments with r unknown reactions, we have:
r < 3n unstable r 3n unstable if reactions are concurrent or parallel

(2.3a) (2.3b)

The following example shows how structures are classified as stable or unstable. Example 4

r = 3, n = 1. The structure is stable and statically determinate.

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Alexandria University Faculty of Engineering

Dept. of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

r = 8, n = 2. The structure is stable and indeterminate to the second degree.

The structure is unstable since the three reactions are concurrent at B.

The structure is unstable since the three reactions are parallel.

r = 7, n = 3. The structure is unstable, AB can move horizontally. 2.5 Principle of superposition The total internal loadings at a point in a structure subjected to several external loadings can be determined by adding together the internal loadings caused by each of the external loads acting separately. For the principle of superposition to apply, the following must be satisfied: 1- The material is linear-elastic, and Hooke's law applies: = E. 2- The geometry of the structure does not undergo significant change (displacements are small)

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Alexandria University Faculty of Engineering

Dept. of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

Fig. 2.10 represents how this principle is applied to a simply supported beam.

Fig. 2.10

2.6 Application of the equations of equilibrium Consider the three-member pin-connected frame shown in Fig. 2.11. It is subjected to loads P1 and P2. There are nine unknowns and nine equations of equilibrium, so the frame is statically determinate. From the free-body diagram of the entire frame, the three reactions Ax, Ay and Cx can be determined. By analyzing any two of the remaining members, the other six unknowns may be determined. Applying equilibrium to the third member, the answers can be checked.

Fig. 2.11

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Alexandria University Faculty of Engineering

Dept. of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

For the two-member pin-connected frame shown in Fig. 2.12, there are six unknowns. From the free-body diagrams of the members, we have six equilibrium equations, three for each member. The structure is statically determinate. The freebody diagram of the entire frame can be used to find the reactions. Equilibrium is then applied to either one of the members to find the other two unknowns.

Fig. 2.12 If the solution of equilibrium equations yields a negative value for an unknown force or moment, then the direction is opposite to that assumed in the free-body diagram. Example 5 Determine the reactions on the beam in Fig. 2.13.

Fig. 2.13 19

Alexandria University Faculty of Engineering

Dept. of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

Example 6 The shown girder supports a boat and is idealized as shown in Fig. 2.14a, where A is a roller and B is a pin. Fig. 2.14b shows the loads acting on the girder: a uniformly distributed deck load, a horizontal wind force and the weight of the boat which is equal to 23 tonnes. Determine the reactions at the supports. The boat and girder are considered as a single system.

Fig. 2.14

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Alexandria University Faculty of Engineering

Dept. of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

Example 7 Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at the pins A, B and C of the pin-connected frame shown in Fig. 2.15.

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