Nuclear Reactions and Radiation

3.1 Radiation is all around us

L. R. Foulke

Overview
Previous Module Atomic structure, binding energy Nuclear stability, nuclear decay Types of radiation This Module Types of radiation interactions Calculation of reaction rates Fission

Radiation
What is radiation? Transmitted Energy Types of radiation Electromagnetic (radio, visible, x-rays, rays) Charged particles (electrons, protons, particles) Other (neutrons, neutrinos, other exotic beasts) Categorized as either ionizing or non-ionizing Depending on whether they can ionize other particles (i.e., rip off electrons from the atom)

Effects of Radiation Interactions

The local effects of radiation on a given material is characterized by two quantities: Range
The average total distance traveled by a single particle of radiation (cm).

Linear Energy Transfer (LET)

The total energy transferred from a particle of radiation to its surroundings, per unit distance travelled (keV/m).

Range and LET values are unique to the type and energy of the radiation as well as the target material.

Charged Particle Interactions

Charge: -1
Beta particle (electron)

Charged particles (by ascending charge)

Electrons, positrons, protons, alpha particles, recoil nuclei, fission fragments.

Charge: +1
Positron Proton

Charge: +2
-particle

As particles travel through a sea of negatively charged electrons, long range electrostatic forces act as a drag force.
Charged particle LET is directly proportional to charge. Charged particle range is directly proportional to velocity.

Charge: > +2
Ionized nucleus (positive ion)

Image Source: See Note 1 for Ionized nucleus

Charged Particle Interactions Example of Ionization Interaction

Before After

proton neutron electron

Image Source: See Note 2

Electromagnetic Interactions
X and rays interact with free and bound electrons in the material. Photoelectric Effect
Photon energy is transferred to bound electron, causing it to be ejected from electron cloud.

Compton Scattering
Photon scatters off of an electron, changing the wavelength of the photon and giving kinetic energy to the electron.

Pair production
Photon with energy > 1.022 MeV spontaneously turns into an electron and a positron.

Electromagnetic Interactions
Pre-Collision

Photoelectric Effect

Compton Scattering

proton neutron electron positron ray

Image Source: See Note 2

Pair Production

Annihilation

Ionizing Radiation
Radiation that contains enough energy to remove one or more electrons from an atom or molecule. All charged particles are ionizing. Only photons with an energy greater than the ionization energy of a given atom or molecule are considered ionizing. Some molecules are affected by photons in the visible or UV range, but typically only x-rays and gamma rays are considered ionizing.

Effects of Radiation
All three radiation types (charged particles, electromagnetic radiation, and neutrons) are capable of ionizing target atoms in materials. Ionization events are the root cause behind ALL observable effects of radiation.
Ionization reactions damage materials by breaking chemical bonds and disrupting normal chemical processes (material embrittlement, biological damage, etc.)

The rate of ionization (damage) depends on the type and energy of the radiation, as well as the constituent atoms in the target material.

Ionization Density
The number of ionization events that a single particle of radiation can produce is determined by the energy of the radiation. The ionization density is determined by the LET
---------------------------------------------------------Relative Relative Radiation Range LET ---------------------------------------------------------Alpha 1 10,000 Beta 100 100 Gamma 10,000 1 ----------------------------------------------------------

Ionization Density
Average Human Cell

neutron gamma ray x-ray alpha particle

Separation of ion clusters relative to size of a human cell (conceptualized)

Image Source: See Note 3

Penetrating Properties of Radiation

Neutron Interactions
Neutrons can only interact with atomic nuclei. Neutron Elastic Scattering
Occurs when a neutron strikes a nucleus and transfers kinetic energy, creating a charged recoil nucleus. Conserves two-body kinetic energy. Only fast neutrons (>1keV) striking light nuclei (H to C) can transfer enough energy to cause a significant recoil.

Neutron Inelastic Scattering

Occurs when a neutron strikes a nucleus and causes excitation in the nucleus. Nuclear de-excitation releases a ray. Does not conserve kinetic energy. Only neutrons above a nuclide-dependent threshold energy can cause reactions.

Neutron Interactions
Neutron Absorption (Capture + Fission)
Capture occurs when a neutron strikes a nucleus and is absorbed, increasing the mass number of the isotope by 1. Addition of the extra neutron leaves the neutron in an excited state, with too much energy. Nuclear de-excitation releases rays. Certain combinations of neutrons and protons are fundamentally unstable. Isotopes with these combinations undergo further stabilization by emitting a particle: - decay, + decay, decay, proton emission, neutron emission, internal conversion, electron capture This process is Radioactive Decay

Neutron Interactions
Pre-Collision Elastic Collision

Inelastic Collision

proton neutron electron ray

Image Source: See Note 2

Neutron Capture

- neutron becomes a proton Z=+1

Image Source Notes

1. 2

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Nucleus_drawing.png

Creative Commons:

Reprinted with permission from David Greisheimer, University of Pittsburgh. 3. Public domain: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Diagram_human_cell_nucleus_no_text.png