NUTRITION [ Chapter 10] Further questions 1 Some plants use insects and fungi to obtain nutrients.

Carnivorous plants trap insects to supplement their mineral nutrition, in particular, nitrogen. This is especially important for plants that are growing in nutrient-deficient soils. Although these plants are autotrophic, special digestive enzymes released from cells in the leaf enable the plant to digest an insects body (once it becomes trapped) and then absorb the products. The symbiotic association of plants with mycorrhizal fungi results in additional mineral nutrients and water being made available from the soil. The mycorrhizal fungus grows out into the soil, absorbs ions and transports them back into the tissues of the plant host. The plant can also benefit from the hormones produced by the fungus: these hormones stimulate changes in root growth. 2a A possible cause of iron deficiency in plants growing along the sand dunes might be due to the alkaline or high pH of the subsoil. The pH of the soil affects the ability of plants to take up ions. A high pH may result in these particular plants experiencing difficulty in taking up iron from the subsoil, assuming that iron is present in the soil. 2b An azalea would be more likely to suffer lime chlorosis than a clematis, as azaleas grow best in acidic soil, while clematis plants grow well in soils that are alkaline. 3B 4a A glucose molecule in a plant may be: utilised in cellular respiration in the cells of the plant as an energy source converted to other carbohydrates and stored in modified leaves, stems and roots, in the form of starch or sucrose, if it is surplus to the plants requirements converted to cellulose and used to form cell walls at any time in the life of the plant. 4b A glucose molecule absorbed by the intestine of a mammal may be: utilised in cellular respiration in any number of cells present in the body after being transported via the bloodstream converted to glycogen and stored in the liver and muscle cells, or converted to fat and stored in fat cells, if it is surplus to the animals requirements. 5 Causes: deficiency of vitamin B12, unusual with a normal diet, possible in strict vegans, as B12 is found only in foods of animal origin. Symptoms: tiredness, dizziness, red and irritated tongue, reduced sense of taste and touch. Treatment and outlook: prevention by B12 supplements if on a strict vegan diet; treatment by regular (3-monthly) B12 injections; positive outlook if treatment and/or balanced diet maintained. 6 Cooking makes the digestion of potatoes easier because the high temperature softens the potato by denaturing the proteins present in the cell membranes. As the cell membranes rupture, water moves into the cells causing them to swell if the cell wall remains intact. The starch granules concentrated in potato cells also swell and burst, releasing their contents. The high temperature also makes it easier for the complex carbohydrates to be broken down into smaller molecules, which can then be digested by enzymes such as amylase. The end products are glucose molecules, which are readily absorbed from the small intestine. 7 By extruding its stomach and releasing digestive enzymes directly onto the coral, the starfish breaks down the hard coral skeleton and is able to absorb the digested material directly into the wall of its stomach. No mechanical digestion is required. 8C

9a Antibiotics disturb the normal function of the digestive system because they kill many of the bacteria that are normally present in the gut. 9b Bacteria that normally live in the colon are vital for normal health and can be a good source of vitamins such as K and B12. Antibiotics that kill these bacteria may then cause a vitamin deficiency as the body loses these important sources of vitamins. 9c Antibiotics taken before meals can be absorbed more readily through the cells in the stomach as the stomach is empty. The components of a meal (including vitamins and minerals) can bind to the antibiotic thus preventing its efficient absorption. Some antibiotics need to be taken with food or water to reduce the possible risk of gut irritation. The presence of food also enables some antibiotics to be absorbed more readily in the small intestine. 10a Sugars can be transported across the intestine by diffusion along the concentration gradient. However, this process is not sufficient to meet nutritional needs, as it is too slow. Most of the sugar molecules are transported by active transport, which requires an input of energy. 10b Cyanide prevents the release of energy in cells, thus preventing active transport from occurring in the intestinal tissue. Therefore, both the C5 and C6 sugars must be transported across the poisoned intestine by diffusion. This is confirmed by the results, which show the presence of these sugars in the poisoned intestine. The larger C6 molecules are normally also transported by active transport, as shown by the higher values obtained for these sugars in the normal intestine compared with the poisoned intestine. In particular, galactose and glucose are markedly reduced in the poisoned intestine, indicating their heavier reliance on active transport under normal circumstances. 10c The larger C6 molecules appear to be more dependent upon active transport for movement across the intestinal wall. The smaller molecules will diffuse more readily through the intestinal wall. 11 The skull of the kangaroo is like that of a cow. It has incisor teeth for biting and cutting. There are no canine teeth and the molars have sharp grinding surfaces. The cow is a herbivore so it could be inferred that the kangaroo is also a herbivore. The incisors would be used for cutting the grass. There is no need for canine teeth since their function is to hold down prey. The grinding surfaces of the molars would shred the grasses. The Tasmanian devil has a much stronger jaw than the kangaroo. It also has large canine teeth. This would suggest that it is a carnivore used to catching and holding live prey. The molar teeth are more pointed suited to cutting though meat rather than grinding hard grasses. 12a Sugar is a carbohydrate. 12b One gram of sugar releases 17 kJ of energy. It is the main source of energy for cellular respiration. 12c The graph indicates that generally where there is a high sugar intake in a country, then there is also a higher incidence of coronary heart disease as shown by data obtained for USA, Canada and Britain. However, the data obtained for France, Italy and Japan indicate that there are other factors in these countries that override the effect of a high sugar intake. (Note, there is insufficient information in the question to draw any accurate conclusions.) 12d Sugar consumption may not necessarily be linked directly to heart disease although it might be one of several contributing factors. The data obtained for France show that, although this country had a moderately high intake of sugar, the relative rate of deaths from coronary heart disease was low. 13a In anorexia nervosa, the body reserves would be used up in the following order:

1. carbohydrate stores in the liver and muscle 2. stored fats broken down and converted to glucose 3. breakdown of protein from muscle tissue. 13b A sufferer of anorexia nervosa may experience fatigue and metabolic dysfunction even before much weight has been lost. This is due to the development of nutrient and vitamin deficiency, as well as a reduction in the availability of energy-rich glucose molecules required by the body for normal functioning. A lack of glucose will directly result in a slow rate of cellular respiration, which in turn results in less energy being made available for cell functions; hence, fatigue occurs. A lack of essential amino acids in the diet may also cause dysfunction. 14 For Can combine protein sources to acquire all essential amino acids Most vitamins and minerals found in fresh fruit and vegetables Vegetarian can be defined as excluding meat and products obtained by killing animals, so eggs and dairy produce can be used as sources of histidine and vitamin B12 Lactose supplements could assist in absorption of calcium Vitamin C assists in absorption of iron from non-haem sources, so eating fruit or taking vitamin C supplements along with iron supplements could prevent anaemia Against Combining protein sources requires educating the individual concerned Some essential nutrients such as histidine (in infants) and vitamin B12 are found almost exclusively in food from animal sources. Absorption of calcium requires lactose, so vegans could suffer from calcium deficiency even if taking supplements Absorption of iron is more efficient from haem-sourced iron (from meat), so vegetarians could become anaemic even if taking iron supplements