Page 1 of 14

Disinfection
There are a variety of techniques to disinfect fluids and surfaces. Lenntech can supply several disinfection techniques with the emphasis on environmental friendly solutions. The techniques are:

Ozone Ultra-Violet (UV) Chlorine dioxide

Other solutions are:

Chlorine Hypochlorite

Every technique has its specific advantages and its own application area. In the table below some of the advantages and disadvantages are shown:
Technology Environmentally friendly Byproducts Effectivity Investment Operational costs +/++ + + + ++ + ++ ++ Fluids Surfaces

Ozone UV Chlorine dioxide Chlorine gas Hypochlorite

+ ++ +/---

+ ++ +/---

++ + ++ -

++ + ++ +/+/-

++ ++ ----

In the table below a few applications can be found: Technology Ozone disinfection UV Chlorine dioxide Applications Pharmaceutical industry, drinking water, process water, ultra pure water, surface disinfection Process water, drinking water, ozone breakdown, ultra pure water,surface disinfection Drinking water, disinfection of piping

Disinfectants Sodium hypochlorite

Sodium hypochlorite Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is a compound that can be effectively used for water purification. It is used on a large scale for surface purification, bleaching, odor removal and water disinfection. When was sodium hypochlorite discovered? Sodium hypochlorite has a long history. Around 1785 the Frenchman Berthollet developed liquid bleaching agents based on sodium hypochlorite. The Javel company introduced this product and called it 'liqueur de Javel'. At first, it was used to bleach cotton. Because of its specific characteristics it soon became a popular compound. Hypochlorite can remove stains from clothes at room temperature. In France, sodium hypochlorite is still known as 'eau de Javel'. What are the characteristics of sodium hypochlorite?
220613 / mmbrelvi

Page 2 of 14

Sodium hypochlorite is a clear, slightly yellowish solution with a characteristic odor. Sodium hypochlorite has a relative density of is 1,1 (5,5% watery solution). As a bleaching agent for domestic use it usually contains 5% sodium hypochlorite (with a pH of around 11, it is irritating). If it is more concentrated, it contains a concentration 10-15% sodium hypochlorite (with a pH of around 13, it burns and is corrosive). Sodium hypochlorite is unstable. Chlorine evaporates at a rate of 0,75 gram active chlorine per day from the solution. Then heated sodium hypochlorite disintegrates. This also happens when sodium hypochlorite comes in contact with acids, sunlight, certain metals and poisonous and corrosive gasses, including chlorine gas. Sodium hypochlorite is a strong oxidator and reacts with flammable compounds and reductors. Sodium hypochlorite solution is a weak base that is inflammable. These characteristics must be kept in mind during transport, storage and use of sodium hypochlorite. What happens to the pH value when sodium hypochlorite is added to water? Due to the presence of caustic soda in sodium hypo chlorite, the pH of the water is increased. When sodium hypo chlorite dissolves in water, two substances form, which play a role in for oxidation and disinfection. These are hypochlorous acid(HOCl) and the less active hypochlorite ion (OCl -). The pH of the water determines how much hypochlorous acid is formed. While sodium hypochlorite is used, hydrochloric acid (HCl) is used to lower the pH. Sulfuric acid (H 2SO4) can be used as an alternative for acetic acid. Less harmful gasses are produced when sulfuric acid is used. Sulfuric acid is a strong acid that strongly reacts with bases and that is very corrosive. How can sodium hypochlorite be produced? Sodium hypochlorite can be produced in two ways: - By dissolving salt in softened water, which results in a concentrated brine solution. The solution is electrolyzed and forms a sodium hypochlorite solution in water. This solution contains 150 g active chlorine (Cl 2) per liter. During this reaction the explosive hydrogen gas is also formed. - By adding chlorine gas (Cl2) to caustic soda (NaOH). When this is done, sodium hypochlorite, water (H 2O) and salt (NaCl) are produced according to the following reaction: Cl2 + 2NaOH + NaOCl + NaCl + H2O What are the applications of sodium hypochlorite? Sodium hypochlorite is used on a large scale. For example in agriculture, chemical industries, paint- and lime industries, food industries, glass industries, paper industries, pharmaceutical industries, synthetics industries and waste disposal industries. In the textile industry sodium hypochlorite is used to bleach textile. It is sometimes added to industrial waste water. This is done to reduce odors. Hypochlorite neutralizes sulphur hydrogen gas (SH) and ammonia (NH 3). It is also used to detoxify cyanide baths in metal industries. Hypochlorite can be used to prevent algae and shellfish growth in cooling towers. In water treatment, hypochlorite is used to disinfect water. In households, hypochlorite is used frequently for the purification and disinfection of the house. How does sodium hypochlorite disinfection work? By adding hypochlorite to water, hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is formed: NaOCl + H2O HOCl + NaOHHypochlorous acid is divided into hydrochloric acid (HCl) and oxygen (O). The oxygen atom is a very strong oxidator. Sodium hypochlorite is effective against bacteria, viruses and fungi. Sodium hypochlorite disinfects the same way aschlorine does. How is sodium hypochlorite applied in swimming pools? Sodium hypochlorite is applied in swimming pools for water disinfection and oxidation. It has the advantage that microorganisms cannot build up any resistance to it. Sodium hypochlorite is effective against Legionella bacteria and bio film, in which Legionella bacteria can multiply. Hypochlorous acid is produced by the reaction of sodium hydroxide with chlorine gas. In water, the so-called 'active chlorine' is formed. There are various ways to use sodium hypochlorite. For on-site salt electrolysis, a solution of salt (NaCl) in water is applied.Sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-) ions are produced. 4NaCl- 4Na+ + 4ClBy leading the salty solution over an electrolysis cell, the following reactions take place at the electrodes:
220613 / mmbrelvi

Page 3 of 14

2Cl- Cl2 + 2e- 2H2O + 2e- H2 + 20H2H20 O2 + 4H++ 4eSubsequently, chlorine and hydroxide react to form hypochlorite: OH- + Cl2 HOCl + ClThe advantage of the salt electrolysis system is that no transport or storage of sodium hypochlorite is required. When sodium hypochlorite is stored for a long time, it becomes inactive. Another advantage of the on site process is that chlorine lowers the pH and no other acid is required to lower pH. The hydrogen gas that is produced is explosive and as a result ventilation is required for expolsion prevention. This system is slow and a buffer of extra hypochlorous acid needs to be used. The maintenance and purchase of the electrolysis system is much more expensive than sodium hypochlorite. When sodium hypochlorite is used, acetic or sulphuric acid are added to the water. An overdose can produce poisonous gasses. If the dosage is too low, the pH becomes to high and can irritate the eyes. Because sodium hypochlorite is used both to oxidize pollutions (urine, sweat, cosmetics) and to remove pathogenic microorganisms, the required concentration of sodium hypochlorite depends on the concentrations of these pollutions. Especially the amount of organic pollution determines the required concentration. If the water is filtered before sodium hypochlorite is applied, less sodium hypochlorite is needed. What are the health effects of sodium hypochlorite? Exposure There is no threshold value for to sodium hypochlorite exposure. Various health effects occur after exposure to sodium hypochlorite. People are exposed to sodium hypochlorite by inhalation of aerosols. This causes coughing and a sore throat. After swallowing sodium hypochlorite the effects are stomach ache, a burning sensation, coughing, diarrhea, a sore throat and vomiting. Sodium hypochlorite on skin or eyes causes redness and pain. After prolonged exposure, the skin can become sensitive. Sodium hypochlorite is poisonous for water organisms. It is mutagenic and very toxic when it comes in contact with ammonium salts. Sodium hypochlorite in swimming pools The concentration of sodium hypochlorite that is found in swimming pools is generally not harmful to people. When there is too much chlorine in the water, this burns the body tissues, which causes damage to air tracts, the stomach and the intestines, the eyes and the skin. When sodium hypochlorite is used in swimming pools, it sometimes causes red eyes and it gives off a typical chlorine odor. When there is a lot of ureum (a mixture of urine and sweat) present, hypochlorous acid and ureum react to form chloramines. These chloramines irritate mucous membranes and cause the so-called ' chlorine smell'. In most swimming pools, these problems are prevented by water purification and ventilation. Eyes irritation disappears after a while. What are the advantages and disadvantages of sodium hypochlorite use? Advantages Sodium hypochlorite as a disinfectant has the following advantages: It can easily and be stored and transported when it is produced on-site. Dosage is simple. Transport and storage of sodium hypochlorite are safe. Sodium hypochlorite is as effective as chlorine gas for disinfection. Sodium hypochlorite produces residual disinfectant. Disadvantages Sodium hypochlorite is a dangerous and corrosive substance. While working with sodium hypochlorite, safety measures have to be taken to protect workers and the environment. Sodium hypochlorite should not come in contact with air, because that will cause it to disintegrate. Both sodium hypochlorite and chlorine do not deactivate Giardia Lambia and Cryptosporidium. What is the legislation for sodium hypochlorite? The regulation for sodium hypochlorite is the same as the regulation considering chlorine.

Discharge demands

220613 / mmbrelvi

Page 4 of 14

When cooling tower water is tapped from a river or lake, and must be discharged into the same water body after it has been used, it must meet certain discharge demands. Additionally, the water temperature may not be too high, because warm water has a low oxygen content, which promotes algal growth. This can cause fish mortality and a decrease in water biodiversity. United States Discharge demands for cooling tower water in the USA are mentioned in the Clean Water Act (CWA) and are established by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Introduction water disinfection

Water disinfection Water purification has largely developed in the past century. Drinking water disinfection has decreased the number of outbreaks of waterborne diseases, such as cholera and typhoid (figure 1).

Figure 1: decrease in the number of deaths as a result of typhoid in the USA (1900-1920), compared to the number of people that use treated water In developing countries there is usually not enough clean drinking water or sewerage. In these countries waterborne diseases cause many people to be ill or to die, mainly fragile groups such as young children, elderly people and people with a weakened immune system (AIDS patients and organ transplant receivers). The larger part of pathogenic microorganisms is removed by means of water treatment techniques, such as coagulation, flocculation, settling and filtration. To increase drinking water safety disinfection is applied as a final treatement step. There are several different disinfectants, which either kill or deactivate pathogenic microorganisms. Examples of disinfectants are chlorine containing substances, peroxide, bromine, silver-copper, ozone and UV. All disinfectants have benefits and drawbacks and can be used for water disinfection depending on the circumstances. Besides drinking water disinfection, disinfection may also be applied in swimming pools and cooling towers. Water disinfection is a very important factor for these applications. Swimming pools contain a large variety of contamination, which originates largely from swimmers. The contamination contains microorganisms, among other things. To prevent contagion of swimmers by pathogenic microorganisms, swimming water must be disinfected. Swimming pool water is often circulated. Before the water is returned to the swimming pool it is purified. The purification includes disinfection. Cooling towers are used to cool down process water. After that the water can be reused. Within cooling towers circumstances are ideal for growth and multiplication of microorganisms. Biofilm development is a mayor problem in cooling towers, because this promotes corrosion and blocks the system.
220613 / mmbrelvi

Page 5 of 14

Another problem in cooling towers, as well as ventilation systems, is the development of legionella bacteria. These bacteria spread through aerosols and can cause legionnaires disease. This is a very serious disease that resembles pneumonia. Many countries now have legal standards, determining that the development of legionella bacteria in cooling towers should be prevented by the disinfection of cooling water. In the early seventies it was discovered that disinfection byproducts can form during water disinfection by means of chemical disinfectants. When this was discovered research started on the development and health effects of these byproducts. Today there are legal standards indicating maximum levels of disinfection byproducts in drinking water. Methods to lower the concentration of disinfection byproducts in drinking water have also been researched.

Necessity of water treatment

Composition of water When we open the tap, clean tasty water flows out. Water undergoes several purification steps before it flows from taps.

Water that is used for drinking water production contains water molecules and a large variety of other substances. One of the properties of water is that it easily dissolves other susbtances. Water that falls to earth during rain showers dissolves substances, particles and gasses such as oxygen, which can be found in air. Contaminants that are present in air also dissolve in rain water. When surface water flows on earth it also dissolves several different substances, such as sand particles, organic matter, microorganismss and minerals. Water that settles into the ground and becomes groundwater often contains large amounts of dissolved minerals, as a result of contact with soils and rocks. Human activities, such as agriculture and industrial waste and sewer water discharge cause a number of pollutants to enter the water.

Self-cleansing capacity of water Water has the capacity to cleanse itself. Contaminants are removed from water during biological processes. When water settles onto the ground, groundlayers will cause filtration to occur. Contaminants are broken down, or will stay behind in the ground layer. The self-cleansing capacity of water is not strong enough to produce clean drinking water. This is a consequence of the quantity and variety of industrial and agricultural contaminants that have entered surface and groundwater for many decades. In the 1970s it was discovered that industrial discharges and waste water discharges were the cause of water contamination. Immediately after this discovery measures were taken to prevent water pollution. Waste water must meet legal standard before it can be discharged. To meet the standards water is purified before it is discharged. Despite of these measures water often still needs treatment before it is suitable for use as drinking water. During water purification waste water is treated to become drinking water which meets legal standards in the physical, bacteriological and chemical area. The water may not contain an odour or flavour, and it should be bright and chemically stable (non-corrosive). The kind of treatment water needs, strongly depends upon the composition and quality of the water. Water treatment contains two process steps: physical removal of solid particles, mainly minerals and organic matter and chemical disinfection; killing or deactivating microorganismss in water.

History of drinking water treatment

History of drinking water treatment Humans have been storing and distributing water for centuries. Before, when people lived as hunters/ collectors, river water
220613 / mmbrelvi

Page 6 of 14

was applied for drinking water purposes. When people permanently stayed in one place for a long period of time, this was usually near a river or lake. When there were no rivers or lakes in an area, people used groundwater for drinking water purposes. This was pumped up through wells. When the human population started growing extensively, the water supply was no longer sufficient. Drinking water needed to be extracted from a different source. About 7000 years ago, Jericho (Isral, figure 1) stored water in wells that were used as sources. People also started to develop drinking water transport systems. The transport took place through simple channels, dug in the sand or in rocks. Later on one also started using hollow tubes. Egypt used hollow palm trees and China and Japan used bamboo strunks. Eventually one started using clay, wood and even metal. In Perzia people searched for underground rivers and lakes. The water went through holes in rocks into the wells on the plains. Around 3000 B.C., the city of Mohenjo-Daro (Pakistan) used a very extensive water supply. In this city there were public bathing facilities with water boiler installations and bathrooms. In ancient Greece spring water, well water, and rainwater were used very early on. Because of a fast increase in urban population, Greece was forced to store water in wells and transport it to the people through a distribution network. The water that was used was carried away through sewers, along with the rainwater. When valleys were reached, the water was lead through hills under pressure. The Greek where among the first to gain an interest in water quality. They used aeration basins for water purification.

Figure 1: bathing residence in Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan The Romans were the greatest architects and constuctors of water distribution networks in history. They used river, spring or groundwater for provisioning. The Romans built dams in rivers, causing lakes to form. The lake water was aerated and than supplied. Mountain water was the most popular type of water, because of its quality. For water transport the aquaducts where built. Through these aquaducts water was transported for tens of miles. Plumming in the city was made of concrete, rock, bronze, silver, wood or lead. Water winnings were protected from foreign pollutants.

Figure 2: a Roman aquaduct After the fall of the Roman empire, the aquaducts were no longer used. From 500 to 1500 A.D. there was little development in the water treatment area. In the Middle Ages countless cities were manifested. In these cities wooden plumming was used. The water was extracted from rivers or wells, or from outside the city. Soon, circumstances became highly unhygenic, because waste and excrements were discharged into the water. People that drank this water fell ill and often died. To solve the problem people started drinking water from outside the city, where rivers where unpolluted. This water was carried to the city by so-called water-bearers. The first drinking water supply that supplied an entire city was built in Paisley, Scotland in 1804 by John Gibb, in order to
220613 / mmbrelvi

Page 7 of 14

supply his bleachery and the entire city with water. Within three years, filtered water was transported to Glasgow. In 1806 Paris operated a large water treatment plant. The water settled for 12 hours, before it was filtered. Filters consisted of sand and charcoal and where replaced every six hours. In 1827, the Englishman James Simpson built a sand filter for drinking water purification. Today, we still call this the number one tribute to public health.

What is water disinfection?

Water disinfection What is water disinfection?

Water disinfection means the removal, deactivation or killing of pathogenic microorganisms. Microorganisms are destroyed or deactivat water, drinking water usage will cause people to fall ill. Sterilization is a process related to disinfection. However, during the sterilization process all present microorganisms are killed, both ha

Media Disinfection can be attained by means of physical or chemical disinfectants. The agents also remove organic contaminants from water, Disinfectants must also have a residual effect, which means that they remain active in the water after disinfection. A disinfectant shoul recontaminated. For chemical disinfection of water the following disinfectants can be used: - Chlorine (Cl2) - Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) - Hypo chlorite (OCl-) - Ozone (O3) - Halogens: bromine (Br2), iodene (I) - Bromine chloride (BrCl) - Metals: copper (Cu2+), silver (Ag+) - Kaliumpermanganate (KMnO4) - Fenols - Alcohols - Soaps and detergents - Kwartair ammonium salts - Hydrogen peroxide - Several acids and bases For physical disinfection of water the following disinfectants can be used: - Ultraviolet light (UV) - Electronic radiation - Gamma rays - Sounds - Heat How does disinfection work?

Chemical inactivation of microbiological contamination in natural or untreated water is usually one of the final steps to reduce pathogen disinfection, filtration) cause (drinking) water to be safe after production. As an extra measure many countries apply a second disinfect contamination in the water distribution system. Usually one uses a different kind of disinfectant from the one earlier in the process, dur during distribution. Bacteria can remain in the water after the first disinfection step or can end up in the water during backflushing of c Disinfection mechanism

Disinfection commonly takes place because of cell wall corrosion in the cells of microorganisms, or changes in cell permeability, protop microorganisms to no longer be able to multiply. This will cause the microorganisms to die out. Oxidizing disinfectants also demolish or

Necessity of drinking water disinfection

The larger part of pathogenic microorganisms is removed from water during the primairy water purification steps. However,
220613 / mmbrelvi

Page 8 of 14

water disinfection is still necessary in order to prevent drinking water from being harmful to our health. Microorganisms Microorganisms can be found commonly in nature. Invisible to bare eyes, microorganisms are present in soils, air, food and water. Before humans are born, we are free from microorganisms. Through consumption of food and air we are exposed to microorganisms soon after we are born. The microorganisms will remain present on and in our bodies. Most microorganisms are harmless and will contribute to a number of vital processes in the human body, such as the metabolism. But there are also microorganisms which can cause disease or which are harmful to people with low resistance to disease. Pathogenic microorganisms in the water have a number of specific properties which distinguish them from chemical contaminants. They are living organisms. They are not dissolved in water, but they will coagulte or attach to colloids and solids in water. Types of pathogenic microorganisms Pathogenic microorganisms in drinking water can be divided up into three types: bacteria, viruses and parasitic protozoa. Bacteria and viruses can excist in both surface water and groundwater, whereass parasitic protozoa can be found mainly in surface water. Bacteria Bacteria are single-cell organisms, shaped like a sphere, spiral or rod. They can excist as individual bacteria or in bacterial chains, bundles or pairs. Bacteria are the most abundant lifeform on earth. They are between 0,4 and 14 m in length and about 0,2 to 12 m in width. Consequentially they can only be viewed under a microscope. Bacteria feed on fluid nutrients. They can reproduce by means of DNA replication, causing a bacteria to split into two independent cells. In ideal circumstances this process taken about 15 to 30 minutes. Some types of bacteria can form spores. These spores contain a protective layer which is heat resistant and can protect bacteria from a lack of moist and food. Bacteria play a role in various processes. Some bacteria breack down organic matter and play an important ecological role, other assist in the human metabolism. Viruses Viruses are organisms which can cause infections and which only reproduce in living host cells. When viruses excist outside host cells, they are inactive. Viruses contain a protective shell. They are shaped like a spear, sphere or wire and they are so small (between 0,02 and 0,09 m) that they can slip through filters which capture bacteria. Contrary to bacteria and parasitic protozoa, viruses contain only one type of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA). They cannot reproduce, but instead take over the metabolism of the host cell and make sure the DNA is copied in the host cell, causing new viruses to develop. Contrary to bacteria, viruses are not naturally present in the human body. When people are infected with a virus it usually leaves the body through secretion. When secreation takes place water can be contaminated with viruses. When the water is not thoroughly disinfected, other people can be infected with viruses.

Figure 1: three different types of viruses Parasitic protozoa Parasitic protozoa are single-cell organisms. They have a very complex metabolism and feed on solid nutrients, algae and bacteria which are present in multiple-cell organisms, such as humans and animals. Multiplication take place through splitting of the cells. Various types of parasitic protozoa are spread in sleeping, protected form as a cyste or oocyste. Oocysts of Cryptosporidium and cysts of Giardia can be found in waters throughout the world as a consequence of fecal pollution. As cysts the pathogens are resistant to chlorine disinfection. Parasitic protozoa can be removed by means of filtration or chlorine dioxideapplication. The odds of infection The odds of infection depend upon the type of pathogen, the way in which it is transferred, the infective dose and persistence of the microorganism, and the resistance of the person that is infected. The infective dose means the number of microorganisms that need to enter te body before the disease occurs. This dose is
220613 / mmbrelvi

Page 9 of 14

very low for viruses and parasitic protozoa. The persistence of a microorganism depends upon the viable time of the microorganism, when it is not present in a human host. Bacteria are commonly the least persistent microorganisms, and protozoic cysts are the most persistent ones. Young children, elderly people and sick people have a lower resistance to disease and are therefor more fragile. When a person is infected the pathogens multiply within the host, causing the risk of illness to rise. Not every person that is infected with a pathogen falls ill. People that do become ill will spread a disease easily, mainly through secretion. Secretion and sewer water When water flows through a certain area, it collects all kinds of substances and gives these off in other areas. Microorganisms also enter the water. The larger part of microorganisms which cause waterborne diseases originate from human or animal feaces.

Figure 2: E. Coli bacteria One drop of feaces contains millions of microorganisms. In the faeces of cattle there can be millions of E. Coli bacteria ( figure 2), Giardia cysts (figure 3) and Cryptosprodium spores (figure 4). In chicken faeces pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella and Campylobacter can be present. When fertilizers are applied to land, rain can cause bacteria to rinse out te surface water or groundwater, causing the microorganisms to contaminate water.

Figure 3: Cryptosporidium spores Figure 4: Giardia cysts Sewer or waste water cannot be discharged into the environment untreated. The larger part of purified waste water ends up in rivers, lakes and oceans. Sometimes heavy rainfall can cause sewer systems to flood, causing untreated water to end up in surface water or groundwater. Not every country purifies water before it enters surface or groundwater. Mainly developing countries lack sanitary facilities. The water can contaminate water that is used for drinking water purposes, causing the risk of infection with diseases carried by waterbone microorganisms to become very high. this is a particular risk when drinking water is not treated at all. When septic tanks are used for waste water treatment, pathogenic microorganisms can contaminate surface water and groundwater sources. Not all pathogenic microorganisms in water originate from faeces. Legionella (figure 5) can be found commonly in water and easily multiplies in the water distribution system. There are also other pathogenic microorganisms that can be found commonly in surface water.

Figure 5: Legionella bacteria

History of water disinfection

220613 / mmbrelvi

Page 10 of 14

History of drinking water disinfection The link between water quality and health has been known since the early ages. Clear water was considered clean water. Swamp areas were associated with fever. Disinfection has been applied for centuries. Two basic rules dating back to 2000 B.C. state that water must be exposed to sunlight and filtered with charcoal and that impure water must be purified by boiling the water and than dipping a piece of copper in the water seven times, before filtering the water. Descriptions of ancient civilisations were found about boiling water and water storage in silver jugs. To realize water purification copper, silver and electrolysis were applied. Disinfection has been applied for several decades. However, the mechanism has been known for only one hundred years. In 1680 Anthony van Leeuwenhoek developed the microscope. His discovery of microorganisms was considered a curiosity. It took scientists another two hundred years before they started using the microscope to distinguish microorganisms and other pathogens. The first multiple filter was developed in 1685 by the Italian physician Lu Antonio Porzo. The filter consisted of a settling unit and a sandfiltration unit. In 1746 the French scientist Joseph Amy received the first patent for a filter design, which was applied in households by 1750. The filters consisted of wool, sponges and charcoal.

Figure 1: John Snow Figure 2: contaminated water pump spreads cholera For the past centuries humans have suffered from diseases such as cholera and the plague. The origin of these diseases was misinterpreted. It was said that the diseases were a devine punishment or were caused by impure air or the alignment of the planets. In 1854 a cholera epidemic caused many deaths in the city of Londen. John Snow, an English doctor ( figure 1), discovered that the cholera epidemic was caused by a contaminated water pump ( figure 2). He prevented a spread of the epidemic by closing down the contaminated water pump. After that scientists have performed bacteriological studies to research the development, existence and identification of microorganisms and the removal of microorganisms from drinking water. In the nineteenth century the effect of disinfectants, such as chlorine, was discovered. Since 1900 disinfectants are largely applied by drinking water companies to prevent the distribution of diseases and to improve water quality.

Waterborne diseases
Contagion by pathogenic microorganisms Infectious diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria, viruses and protozoan parasites are among the most common and widespread health risk of drinking water. People are introduced to these microorganisms through contaminated drinking water, water drops, aerosols and washing or bathing. Some waterborne pathogenic microorganisms spread by water can cause severe, life-threatening diseases. Examples aretyphoid fever, cholera and Hepatitis A or E. Other microorganisms induce less dangerous diseases. Often, diarrhoea is the main symptom (figure 1). People with low resistance, mainly elderly people and young children, are vulnerable to these diseases as well.

220613 / mmbrelvi

Page 11 of 14

Figure 1. Diarrhoea is an important symptom of many waterborne diseases. No acces to clean drinking water Worlwide, 1,2 billion people do not have access to clean and safe drinking water, and 2,4 billion people lack sanitation. Every year, 5 million people die of waterborne diseases. Developed countries Most waterborne diseases occur worldwide. In developed (western) countries, contagion is prevented by drinking water purification and by hygienic measurements. But even in developed countries, people can fall ill from waterborne diseases. This is caused by using insufficiently disinfected water, by implementing non-hygienic food preparation and by insufficient personal hygiene. Developing countries In developing countries, waterborne diseases are a major problem which contributes to the vicious circle that people are in. In many developing countries, there is a lack of medicine to treat ill people. Vaccination is usually very scarce as well. Many people weaken because of waterborne disease and, as a result, are more susceptive to other infections. Their physical capacity decreases and they cannot work and provide their families with money and food. A lack of sufficient nutritional food weakens people, especially children, even further. They become even more susceptible to diseases. Children run behind at school, because they cannot be educated when they are ill. Waterborne diseases frustrate the economic development of many people. The appearance of HIV in developing countries makes more people susceptive to infectious diseases. During wars and natural disasters (floods) many people are infected with waterborne diseases. Diseases are easily spread because water treatment and sewage no longer function or are lacking completely. To improve the economical progress of developing countries, water contamination and spread of infectious diseases must be handled. This is achieved through (drinking) water treatment, sewage, waste and sewage water treatment and education on personal and food hygiene. Occurence of waterborne diseases It is im possible to represent the number of waterborne microbiological infections (figure 2). This has several causes. Diseases are misdiagnosed or not reported. Sometimes it is difficult to demonstrate the source of a water related disease. Both swimming in contaminated water and the microbiological or chemical quality of drinking water can cause illness.

220613 / mmbrelvi

Page 12 of 14

Figure 2: the number of waterborne diseases in the United States from 1971 to 1992 Disinfection remains important Groundwater usually has a good microbiological quality, because it is prefiltered through various ground layers. Those ground layers function as a natural filter; microorganisms and other particles are removed when the water seeps down. Afterwards, the water still needs treatment, because not all pollutions can be removed biologically. Groundwater can be contaminated by sewage water or waste water pollutions. Even when water treatment is applied, one has to watch out for outbreaks of waterborne diseases. Water that is used for drinking water purposes can be prepared from surface water, groundwater or recycled water. This water can be contaminated by pathogenic microorganisms and other pollutants. Sufficient disinfection is needed to prevent diseases. New waterborne diseases Infection routes change throughout the years. In the last twenty years a number of pathogenic diseases have appeared, even in developed countries, that cannot be prevented by traditional water treatment. For example: in 1993 in Milwaukee, USA, 400.000 people fell ill from using drinking water that was contaminated by Cryptosporidium cysts. In the year 2000, 2.300 people fell ill in Walkerton, Canada, because of E. coli O157:H7. Other pathogenic microorganisms that can be found in drinking water are caliciviruses, Heliobacter bacteria, Mycobacteria and Giardia Lambia. In the future more pathogenic microorganisms will emerge and spread through water, because of agricultural magnification, increased population growth, increased migration and climate change. Pathogenic microorganisms can also emerge because they built up resistance to disinfectants.

Factors that influence water disinfection

CT: This stands for the contact time between disinfectant and microorganism and the concentration of disinfectant. CT is used to calculate how much disinfectant is required to adequately disinfect water. C refers to the final residual concentration of a particular chemical disinfectant in mg/L. T refers to the minimum contact time (minutes) of material that is disinfected with the disinfectant. Therefore, the units of CT are expressed in mg-min/L. CT = disinfectant concentration x contact time = C mg/L x T minutes When a particular disinfectant is added to water, it does not only react with pathogenic microorganisms, but also with other impurities, such as soluble metals, particles of organic matter and other microorganisms. The utilization of a disinfectant for reactions with these substances make up the disinfection demand of the water. The disinfection demand must first be satisfied, before a residual disinfectant concentration can be established. The disinfectant concentration that has to be added to water is made up by the sum of the disinfection demand and the residual disinfectant concentration. Once there is a residual disinfectant concentration, this residual concentration has to be maintained during the required contact time to kill pathogenic microorganisms. To adequately disinfect the water it is therefore required to supply the water with a higher disinfectant concentration than the concentration required to kill pathogenic
220613 / mmbrelvi

Page 13 of 14

microorganisms. Usually a dose of 12-20 mg/L chlorine is required to result in a free chlorine residual concentration of 6-8 mg/L. The time required to deactivate a particular microorganism decreases when the applied disinfectant concentration (mg/L) is increased. Laboratory tests are conducted, to find out which contact time is most effective. The CT is commonly used to determine the affectivity of a particular disinfectant against a certain microorganism under specified conditions. There is a difference between the relative affectivity of chemical disinfectants against different microorganisms. Often a certain level is added to the CT, for example 99%. This means that 99% of the microorganisms are deactivated by the disinfectant. CT can be used to compare the affectivity of various disinfectants against microorganisms (table 1). According to table 1, ozone is the most effective disinfectant; the CT value of ozone is very low. Chloramines are least effective en cannot be used against Giardia Lambia. Chlorine is effective against E. coli bacteria and Polio virus. The CT value of chlorine used against Giardia Lambia is a lot higher than that of chlorine used against E. Coli bacteria and Polio virus. Table 1. Comparison of CT values for the 99% inactivaton of microorganisms at 5 C Free chlorine (pH 6-7) 0,034 - 0,05 1,1 - 2,5 47 - 150 Chloramines (pH 8-9) 95 - 180 770 - 3740 Chlorine dioxide (pH 6-7) 0,4 - 0,75 0,2 - 6,7 Ozone (pH 6-7) 0,02 0,1 - 0,2 0,5 - 0,6

Organism E. coli bacteria Polio virus Giardia lambia cyst

The type of microorganism Disinfectants can effectively kill pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and parasites). Some microorganisms can be resistant. E. coli bacteria, for example, are more resistant to disinfectants than other bacteria and are therefore used as indicator organisms. Several viruses are even more resistant than E. coli. The absence of E. coli bacteria does not mean that the water is safe. Protozoan parasites like Cryptosporidium and Giardia are very resistant to chlorine. The age of the microorganism The affectivity of a particular disinfectant also depends upon the age of the microorganism. Young bacteria are easier to kill than older bacteria. When bacteria grow older, they develop a polysaccharide shell over their cell wall, which makes them more resistant to disinfectants. When 2,0 mg/L chlorine is used, the required contact time to deactivate bacteria that are 10 days old is 30 minutes. For bacteria of the same species and of the age of 1 day 1 minute, contact time is sufficient. Bacterial spores can be very resistant. Most disinfectants are not effective against bacterial spores. Water that requires treatment The nature of the water that requires treatment has its influence on the disinfection. Materials in the water, for example iron, manganese, hydrogen sulphide and nitrates often react with disinfectants, which disturbs disinfection. Turbidity of the water also reduces the affectivity of disinfection. Microorganisms are protected against disinfection by turbidity. Temperature The temperature also influences the affectivity of disinfection. Increasing temperatures usually increases the speed of reactions and of disinfection. Increasing temperatures can also decrease disinfection, because the disinfectant falls apart or is volatized.

Conditions for water disinfection

Conditions for water disinfection Drinking water disinfection is linked to other water purification steps. A proper disinfection can only take place when water is already purified to a certain extent. The circumstances will than be suitable for disinfection, because the larger part of pathogenic microorganisms present in the water will be removed during primairy water purification steps. Dissolved and floating particles must be removed from water, because these may react with disinfectants to disinfection byproducts and because they are a substrate for microorganisms. Moreover, microorganisms are harder to remove from water when adsorption to floating particles in water takes place. The concentrations of floating particles in water must be low when disinfection is apllied, preferably below 1 mg/L. Chemical substances that are present in water through human or
220613 / mmbrelvi

Page 14 of 14

natural causes may also influence disinfection. The substances react with disinfectants to disinfection byproducts. This causes the concentration of disinfectants needed to properly remove microorganisms to be much higher. It is also harder to maintain a residual concentration. Adequate waste water treatment can make the disinfection of drinking water more efficient. This is often neglected. When waste water treatment is insufficient, water that is polluted with all kinds of pathogenic microorganisms and chemical pollutants will end up in the environment. This negatively influences the environment, mainly surface water quality. Surface water is used for the production of drinking water. To enhance waste water quality, waste water is purified. The purification process includes a disinfection step.

Surface water can be used to produce drinking water http://www.lenntech.com/index.htm

220613 / mmbrelvi