Notes:
1
Fatigue for Engineers
Prepared by
A. F. Grandt, J r.
Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Purdue University
W. Lafayette, IN 47907
J une 1999
2
Objective
Overview nature/consequences of the
fatigue failure mechanism
Determine number of cycles required to
develop a fatigue crack
propagate a fatigue crack
Discuss implications of fatigue on
design and maintenance operations
Notes:
Notes:
3
Structural Failure Modes
Excessive Deformation
Elastic
Plastic
Buckling
Fracture
Creep
Corrosion
Fatigue
F
o
r
c
e
Displacement
Yield
Permanent
displacement
displacement
Force
4
Fatigue Failure Mechanism
Caused by repeated (cyclic) loading
Involves crack formation, growth, and final
fracture
Fatigue life depends on initial quality, load, . . .
S
t
r
e
s
s
Time
Crack Nucleation
Fracture
Crack Growth
Elapsed Cycles N
C
r
a
c
k
L
e
n
g
t
h
(
a
)
a
Crack
Notes:
Notes:
5
Paper Clip Experiment
Bend wire repeatedly until fracture
Note:
life (number of applied load cycles)
depends on:
applied stress amplitude
component quality (notches, scratches, etc.)
heat emitted >> plastic deformation
6
Characteristics of Fatigue
Brittle fracture surface appearance
Cracks often form at free surface
Macro/micro beach marks/ striations
0.3 in
Beach marks
20 m
Striations
Notes:
Notes:
7
Fatigue is problem for many
types of structures
8
Exercise
Describe fatigue failures from your
personal experience
What was cause of fatigue failure?
What was nature of cyclic load?
Was initial quality an issue?
How was failure detected?
How was problem solved?
Notes:
Notes:
9
Exercise
Estimate the fatigue lifetime needed for:
Automobile axle
Railroad rail
Commercial aircraft components
landing gear
lower wing skin
Highway drawbridge mechanism
Space shuttle solid propellant rocket motor
cases
10
Exercise
Give an example of a High Cycle
Fatigue (HCF) application.
What is the required lifetime?
What are consequences of failure?
Given an example of a Low Cycle
Fatigue (LCF) application.
What is the required lifetime?
What are consequences of failure?
Notes:
Notes:
11
Fatigue Crack Formation
12
Crack Formation
Fracture
Crack Growth
Elapsed Cycles N
C
r
a
c
k
L
e
n
g
t
h
(
a
)
Fatigue Crack Formation
Objective
Characterize resistance to fatigue crack formation
Predict number of cycles to initiate small* fatigue crack
in component
*crack size ~ 0.03 inch
= committee crack
Approach
Stress-life concepts
(S-N curves)
Strain-life concepts
Notes:
Notes:
13
Stress-life (S-N) Approach
Concept: Stress range controls fatigue life
S
S
Log cycles N
S/2
Note:
Life increases as load amplitude decreases
Considerable scatter in data
Run-outs suggest infinite life possible
Life N usually total cycles to failure
S
time
S
14
Model Stress-life (S-N) Curve
S
e
= endurance limit
for steels
S
e
~ 0.5 ultimate stress S
ult
S
e
~ 100 ksi if S
ult
200 ksi
Log reversals 2N
L
o
g
S
/
2
S
e
S/2 =
f
(2N)
b
f
= fatigue strength coefficient
b = fatigue strength exponent
typically -0.12 < b < -0.05
Note: Measure life in terms of reversals 2N
(1 cycle = 2 reversals)
Notes:
Notes:
15
S-N Curve: Mean Stress
Mean stress effects life
stress ratio R = S
mi n
/ S
max
S
mean
= 0.5(S
mi n
+ S
max
)
S
a
= 0.5(S
max
- S
mi n
) = S/2
Mean stress models
S
a
/S
e
+ S
m
/S
ult
= 1
S/2 = (
f
- S
mean
)
(2N)
b
Mean Stress
S
t
r
e
s
s
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
N = 10
6
N = 10
3
Haigh constant life diagram
S
time
S
min
S
max
S = 2S
a
16
S-N Curve: Other Factors
S-N curves are very sensitive to
surface finish, coatings, notches
prior loading, residual stresses
specimen size effects, etc.
Many empirical knock-down factors
S-N approach best suited for HCF (High
Cycle Fatigue) applications
limited by local plastic deformation
strain-life approach better for LCF (Low
Cycle Fatigue)
Notes:
Notes:
17
Strain-life ( - N) Approach
Concept: Strain range controls life
Experiment
Control
Measure
Reversals (2N
f
)
to failure (1 cycle
= 2 reversals)
Stable stress range
needed to maintain
Note: stable usually occurs
by mid-life (2N
f
/2)
time
time
18
Cyclic Stress-Strain Curve
Relate stable cyclic stress and strain ranges
t i me
t i me
Hystersis loop
/2
/2
/2 = /2E + (/2K
)1/n
Cyclic stress-strain curve
E = elastic modulus
K = cyclic strength coefficient
n = strain hardening exponent
Notes:
Notes:
19
Plastic Strain-Life Curve
Relate plastic strain amplitude
p
/2
with reversals to failure 2N
f
Compute
p
/2 = /2 - /2E = total - elastic strain amplitudes
L
o
g
p
/
2
Log 2N
f
p
/2 =
f
(2N
f
)
c
f
= fatigue ductility coefficient
c = fatigue ductility exponent
typically -0.7 < c < -0.5
20
Total Strain-Life Curve
Plot total strain amplitudes versus life 2N
f
total
/2 = /2 = 0.5
elastic
+0.5
plastic
=
/2E + 0.5
plastic
/2 = {(
f
- S
mean
)/E}
(2N)
b
+
f
(2N
f
)
c
p
/2 =
f
(2N
f
)
c
/2E = {(
f
- S
mean
)/E}
(2N
f
)b
Log 2N
f
L
o
g
s
t
r
a
i
n
a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
2N
t
= transition life
Notes:
Notes:
21
Total Strain-Life
Note:
Plastic strain dominates for LCF
Elastic strain dominates for HCF
Transition life 2N
t
separates LCF/HCF
p
=
f
(2N
f
)
c
/2 = {(
f - Smean )/E} (2N)
b
+
f (2Nf )
c
Log 2N
f
L
o
g
s
t
r
a
i
n
a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
/2E = {(
f
- S
mean
)/E} (2N
f
)
b
2N
t
= transition life
LCF
HCF
22
Variable Amplitude Loading
Load amplitude varies in many applications
Use of constant amplitude S - N or - N
data requires damage model
Miners rule*
(N
i
/N
f
) = 1
N
i
= number of applied cycles of stress amplitude S
ai
N
f
= fatigue life for S
ai
cycling only
*Use with caution!
S
time
N
i
2S
ai
Notes:
Notes:
23
Example Problem
Assume:
f
t
t
Mean stress
Notes:
Notes:
27
Neubers Rule
K
f
= fatigue notch concentration factor
(s,e) = nominal stress/strain ranges
(away from notch)
(,) = notch stress/strain ranges
Neubers rule relates notch and
nominal stress/strain behavior
Solve with:
K
f
2
se =
/2 = /2E + (/2K
)1/n
/2 = {(
f
- S
mean
)}(2N
f
)
b
+
f
(2N
f
)
c
(, )
(s,e)
28
Summary Initiation Methods
Total strain-life approach combines:
original S-N curve (best suited for HCF) and
plastic strain-life method developed for LCF
problems
S-N and strain-life often viewed as crack
initiation approaches
actually deal with life to form small crack
crack size implicit in specimen/test procedure
typically assume committee crack ~ 0.03 in.
Notes:
Notes:
29
Initiation Summary Cont
Notches increase local stress/strain and
often are source for crack formation
complex problem leads to local plasticity
characterize by fatigue notch concentration
factor K
f,
, Neubers rule
Load interaction effects result in local
mean stress
can increase/decrease life
invalidate Miners rule
30
Fatigue Crack Growth
Notes:
Notes:
31
Crack Growth Approach
Assumes entire life
fatigue crack growth
ignores initiation
assumes component
cracked before cycling begins
Used with damage tolerant design
protects from pre-existent (or service) damage
based on linear elastic fracture mechanics
Elapsed Cycles N
Crack Growth
C
r
a
c
k
L
e
n
g
t
h
(
a
)
Fracture
Initial crack
32
Damage Tolerance
The ability of a structure to resist prior
damage for a specified period of time
Initial damage
material
manufacturing
service induced
size based on
inspection capability,
experience, . . .
time
C
r
a
c
k
s
i
z
e
Desired Life
Notes:
Notes:
33
Fatigue Crack Growth
Objective
Characterize material resistance to fatigue crack growth
Predict catastrophic fracture and subcritical crack
growth
Approach
Assume crack growth
controlled by stress
intensity factor K
fracture
growth rate da/dN
Elapsed Cycles N
Crack Growth
C
r
a
c
k
L
e
n
g
t
h
(
a
)
Fracture
Initial crack
34
Stress Intensity Factor K
I
K
I
is key linear elastic fracture mechanics
parameter that relates:
applied stress:
crack length: a
component geometry: (a)
((a) is dimensionless)
a
Crack
= 1.12
a K
I
Note units: stress-length
1/2
Notes:
Notes:
35
Stress Intensity Factors
2a
W
K a Sec
a
W
_
,
1
]
1
1
2
Remote Stress
2
0 95
a
W
.
W
a
h
a
W
_
,
0 6 .
a
W
_
,
h
W
_
,
10 .
K a
a
W
a
W
_
,
_
,
+
112 0 231 10.55 . .
a
W
a
W
a
W
_
,
_
,
+
_
,
21 73 30 39
2 3 4
. .
For and
Many K
I
solutions
available
36
Crack tip Stress Fields
( )
'
'
y x z
z
yz xz
I
xy
I
y
I
x
r
K
r
K
r
K
strain plane
0 stress plane
0
2
3
cos
2
cos
2
sin
2
2
3
sin
2
sin 1
2
cos
2
2
3
sin
2
sin 1
2
cos
2
Theory of elasticity gives elastic stresses near crack tip in
terms of stress intensity factor K
I
All crack configurations have same singular stress field at tip
(are similar results for other modes of loading, i.e., modes II and III)
Crack
x
y
xy
x
Notes:
Notes:
37
K
c
Fracture Criterion
Fracture occurs when
K > constant = K
c
K
c
= material property
= fracture toughness
Criterion relates:
crack size: a
stress:
geometry: (a)
material: K
c
Plasticity limits small
crack applications
2a
ult
F
r
a
c
t
u
r
e
S
t
r
e
s
s
Crack Size a
( ) K a a c
38
Fracture Toughness K
c
Typical K
c
values (thick plate)
Note K
c
depends on:
specimen thickness -- K
c
decreases as
thickness increases until reaching minimum -
K
Ic
= plane strain toughness
crack direction (material anisotropy)
M aterial
( thickplate)
2024-T351
Aluminum
7075-T651
A luminum
T i-6Al-4V
Titanium
300M steel
( 235ksiyield)
18Nickel
(200ksiyield)
Kc
( ksi- in1/2)
31 26 112 47 100
Notes:
Notes:
39
Fracture Example
Member A fractures when
crack length a = 2.0 inch
and remote stress = 5 ksi
What stress will fracture
member B (assume same
material)?
2.0 in
4.0 in
5 ksi
5 ksi
A
5 in
8 in
?
?
B
40
Fracture Example Solution
Edge crack
K = (a)
1/2
(a) = K
c
at fracture
a/w = 2/4 = 5 a = 2 = 2.83
K
c
= 35.5 ksi-in
1/2
= constant
Center Crack
K = ( a)
1/2
(a) (a) = [Sec ( a/W)]
1/2
a = 2.5 W = 8 = 1.34
K = K
c
at fracture = 35.5
2.0 in
4.0 in
5 ksi
5 ksi
5 in
8 in
?
?
a
W
a
W
_
,
_
,
+ 1 12 0 231 10. 55 . .
a
W
a
W
a
W
_
,
_
,
+
_
,
21 73 30 39
2 3 4
. .
f
= 9.5 ksi
Notes:
Notes:
41
Fatigue Crack Growth
Goal: show cyclic stress intensity factor K
controls crack growth rate da/dN
P = constant
time
P
2a
P
Crack Face Load
2a
Remote Load
= constant
time
Same material
Different loadings
42
Measure Crack Growth
2a
Remote Load
2a
P
Crack Face Load
da
dN
C
r
a
c
k
L
e
n
g
t
h
(
a
)
Number of Cycles (N)
K
P
Ba
K
a
C
r
a
c
k
L
e
n
g
t
h
(
a
)
Number of Cycles (N)
da
dN
a*
Notes:
Notes:
43
Correlate Rate da/dN vs K
C
r
a
c
k
L
e
n
g
t
h
(
a
)
Number of Cycles (N)
da
dN
2a
2a
C
r
a
c
k
L
e
n
g
t
h
(
a
)
Number of Cycles (N)
da
dN
a*
K
th
K
c
Log K
L
o
g
d
a
/
d
N
K a
K
P
B a
44
da/dN Vs K
K
th
K
c
Log K
L
o
g
d
a
/
d
N
Note:
K correlates fatigue
crack growth rate da/dN
K accounts for crack
geometry
No crack growth for
da/dN < K
t h
Fractures when K
max
in the K range K
c
da/dN - K curve is
material property
Notes:
Notes:
45
Sample Crack Growth Data
da/dN - K data for
7075-T6 aluminum
Note effect of stress
ratio R = min/max
stress (da/dN as R)
Reference: Military
Handbook-5
Other handbook data
are available
46
Model da/dN - K Curve
Fit test data with numerical
models such as:
K
th
K
c
Log K
L
o
g
d
a
/
d
N
da
dN
F K ( )
da
dN
C K
m
da
dN
C K
R K K
m
c
( ) 1
Here C, m, K
c
are
empirical constants
R = min/max stress
(are many other models)
Paris
Forman
Notes:
Notes:
47
Compute Fatigue Life N
f
a
o
, a
f
= initial, final crack sizes
F(K) = function of:
cyclic stress: , R, . . .
crack geometry: (a)
crack length: a
material
N
da
F K
f
a
a
o
f
( )
da
dN
F K ( )
time
2a
48
Example Life Calculation
a
Crack
= constant
time
112 .
N
f
( ) ( )
[ ]
N
C m
a a
f m f
m
o
m
1
112 1 5
1 5 1 5
. .
. .
K a 112 .
da
dN
C K
m
a) N
f
= 12,234 cycles (a
i
= 0.5)
b) N
f
= 63,747 cycles (a
i
= 0.1)
Note: big influence of initial crack length!
50
Fatigue Crack Retardation
Time
A
p
p
l
i
e
d
S
t
r
e
s
s
(
)
Overload
Without Overload
With Overload
Retardation
C
r
a
c
k
L
e
n
g
t
h
(
a
)
Elapsed Cycle (N)
Note load interaction effect
Tensile overload can retard crack growth (increase life)
Life increase due to crack tip plasticity
Depends on magnitude/sequence of overload, material,
Are empirical retardation models
Notes:
Notes:
52
Crack Growth Summary
Fracture mechanics approach assumes
entire fatigue life is crack growth
Stress intensity factor K controls fracture
and growth rate da/dN
K = [a]
1/2
(a)
Fracture: K = K
c
Fatigue: da/dN = F(K)
Integrate da/dN for life
Are load interaction and other effects (see
references)
51
Cycle-by-Cycle Calculation
Compute cycle-by-cycle growth in crack length a
a
current
= a
prior
+ da/dN
current
da/dN
current
= F(K
current
) * Retardation term
Sum for all cycles in spectrum
Powerful technique for computer programming
n
n+1
A
p
p
l
i
e
d
S
t
r
e
s
s
(
)
Time (t)
Variable amplitude
loading prevents
simple life integration
Notes:
Notes:
53
Fatigue Design/Repair
Concepts
54
Design Philosophies
Fatigue Design Criteria
Infinite Life
Safe-Life
Damage Tolerant
Fail-safe
Slow crack growth
Retirement-for-cause
a
Crack
S
t
r
e
s
s
Time
Crack Formation
Fracture
Crack Growth
Elapsed Cycles N
Pre-Crack C
r
a
c
k
L
e
n
g
t
h
(
a
)
Notes:
Notes:
55
Infinite Life Criterion
Design Goal: prevent fatigue damage from ever
developing (i.e. infinite life)
Usually based on endurance limit
Could also employ threshold K concepts
Leads to small design stresses/heavy members
Limited to simple components/loading
Often impractical/not achievable in practice
Weight critical structure
Complex loads
56
Safe-Life Criterion
Design goal : component is to remain crack free for
finite service life
Assumes initial crack-free structure
Establish mean life by test/analysis
Safety factors account for scatter
predicted mean
Desired life = mean/S.F.
Design Life
F
a
i
l
u
r
e
O
c
c
u
r
r
e
n
c
e
1 3 2 4
Problems:
large safety factor
no protection from
initial damage
Notes:
Notes:
57
Fail-Safe Criterion
Design goal: contain single component failure
without losing entire structure
Assumes crack is present
Provide alternate load paths, redundant structure, crack
stoppers, etc.
Requires detection of 1st failure
Time
C
r
a
c
k
s
i
z
e
1st member
2nd member
Crack arrest
58
Slow Crack Growth Criterion
Design goal : prevent initial crack from growing to
fracture during life of structure
Pre-existent crack size specified by inspection
limits, experience
Crack growth life
> service life x S.F.
Based on fatigue
crack growth
resistance
Emphasizes nondestructive inspection
C
r
a
c
k
s
i
z
e
Desired Life
time
Fracture
Notes:
Notes:
59
Retirement-for-Cause
Failure size
C
r
a
c
k
L
e
n
g
t
h
Time
inspect/repair
Design goal: Use periodic inspection/repair
to achieve desired fatigue lives
Limited by repeated maintenance economics
60
Life Extension Concepts
Shot peen
Hole coldwork
Interference fasteners
Overstress, etc.
Introduce Beneficial
Residual Stresses
Metal
Composite
Mechanical Fasten
Bond
Doublers
HCF damping materials
Reduce Stress
via Reinforcement
Weight limits
Flight restrictions
etc.
Reduce Operating
Loads
No Cracks Found
(assume small cracks)
Metal
Composite Mechanical Fasten
Bond
Patches
Replace component
Stop drill cracks
Welding
Repair Cracked
Structure
Cracks Found
Component
Inspection
Notes:
Notes:
61
Summary
Fatigue is complex problem that
involves many disciplines
Fatigue affects design and operation of
many types of structures
Fatigue may be treated by several
methods/philosophies
Assume component cracked
Assume component uncracked
Probabilistic methods
62
Notes:
Notes: