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(1) Cloud Seeding

(2) Acid Rain

(3) Clean Coal Technology

Cloud Seeding
Cloud seeding, a form of weather modification, is the attempt to change the amount or type of precipitation that falls from clouds, by dispersing substances into the air that serve as cloud condensation or ice nuclei, which alter the microphysical processes within the cloud.

- Intent is to increase precipitation (rain or snow).

- Chemicals used for cloud seeding include Silver Iodide and dry ice (frozen CO2).

- Seeding of clouds requires that they contain supercooled liquid water (liquid water colder than zero degrees Celsius).
- Introduction of AgI, which has a crystalline structure similar to that of ice, will induce freezing nucleation.

There are three cloud seeding methods: hygroscopic, static, and dynamic.

Hygroscopic method disperses salts through flares or explosives in the lower portions of clouds. The salts grow in size as water joins with them. Eg. NaOH, KOH, ZnCl2, CaCl2, NaCl etc Static cloud seeding involves spreading a chemical like silver iodide into clouds. The silver iodide provides a crystal around which moisture can condense. The moisture is already present in the clouds, but silver iodide essentially makes rain clouds more effective at dispensing their water.

Dynamic cloud seeding aims to boost vertical air currents, which encourages more water to pass through the clouds, translating into more rain.

Static Cloud Seeding

Crystal Structure of Silver Iodide

Structure of Ice Crystal

Weather Modification Method

- Chinese scientists use rocket launchers and shoot silver iodide pellets into wisps of passing cloud. - Predicted 20% increase in rain fall.

Launching system of rainfall-enhancement and hail-suppression rocket (Source: Nature) - When the rocket is launched, rocket activates the spraying of the seeding material along the rockets trajectory.

- Once the cloud seeding is completed, the parachute will be opened, allowing the rocket to land slowly and safely.

Acid Rain
Acid rain describes any form of precipitation with high levels of nitric and sulfuric acids. It can also occur in the form of snow or fog. When humans burn fossil fuels, SO2 and NOx are released into the atmosphere. NOx = NO + NO2

SO2 and NOx become sulfuric and nitric acids when they enter the atmosphere and react with water vapor.

Emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water vapor in the atmosphere to create sulfuric and nitric acids.

Acid deposition weakens trees and pollutes surface waters The pH scale is a measure of acidity and alkalinity. Acid rain has a pH of 5.6 or less.

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Clean Coal Technology

Coal which is primarily used for electricity generation is the second largest contributor of CO2, a greenhouse gas contributing to global warming, and sulfur dioxide responsible for causing acid rains.

Clean coal technology aims to reduce the environmental impact of coal energy generation by making the coal burn clean.

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Traditional Thermal Power Plant

Only 40% energy efficient

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Burning coal, such as for power generation, gives rise to a variety of wastes. - including that of global warming due to CO2 releases to the atmosphere.

Clean Coal Methods:

Coal cleaning by 'washing' reduces emissions of ash and SO2 when the coal is burned. Gasification avoids burning coal altogether. Steam and hot pressurized air or oxygen combined with coal in a reaction that forces carbon molecules apart. The resulting syngas, a mixture of CO and H2, is then cleaned and burned in a gas turbine to make electricity. Low-NOx burners allow coal-fired plants to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions by up to 40%.

Sequestration refers to disposal of liquid carbon dioxide, once captured, into deep geological strata.

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Photochemical Smog
Noxious mixture of highly reactive and oxidizing air pollutants including: Troposphere Ozone Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) Volatile organic compounds (VOC) Peroxyacetyl Nitrates (PAN)

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Generation Mechanism:
Three ingredients required: Ultraviolet Light Hydrocarbons Nitrogen oxides HC NO UV Light O3 PANs Other Oxidants

Photochemical Reaction

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Schematic Diagram of Photochemical Smog Formation

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Formation of NOx, and O3 At the high temperatures of the car's combustion chamber: N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)

Some of the nitric oxide reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide:

2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)

When the nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentration is well above clean air levels and there is plenty of sunlight, then

NO2(g) + hv NO(g) + O
This oxygen atom (O) can react with oxygen molecules (O2) in the air to form ozone: O + O2 O 3

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Peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) Production

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), oxygen (O2) and hydrocarbons (unburnt petrol) react in the presence of sunlight to produce peroxyacetylnitrate:

NO2(g) + O2(g) + HC + hv CH3CO-OO-NO2(g)

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Effects on human health:

Ozone
Cause acute respiratory problems Aggravate asthma Cause temporary decreases in lung function Impair the body's immune system

Peroxyacetylnitrate (PANs)
Respiratory and eye irritants Mutagenic- causing skin cancer

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

Global warming - Methane Carcinogenic - Benzene Form Ozone