Respiration Chapter 4

4.1

Glycolysis
Glucose cannot be used as directly by cell as a source of energy so cells use ATP as their immediate source of energy. This conversion of glucose into ATP takes place during cellular respiration and there are 2 different forms of cellular respiration depending upon whether oxygen is available or not o Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and produces CO2, water and lots of ATP. o Anaerobic respiration (fermentation) takes place in the absence of oxygen and produces lactate or ethanol and CO2 but only a little ATP. Aerobic has 4 stages: 1) Glycolysis the splitting of the 6-carbon glucose molecule into 2 3-carbon molecule pyruvate molecules. 2) Link reaction the conversion of the 3-carbon pyruvate molecule into CO2 and a 2-carbon molecule called acetylcoenzyme A. 3) Krebs cycle the introduction of acetylcoenzyme A into a cycle of oxidationreduction reactions that yield some ATP and a large number of electrons. 4) Electron Transport Chain the use of the electrons produced in Krebs to synthesis ATP with water produced as a by-product. Glycolysis is the initial stage of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration It occurs in the cytoplasm of all living cells and is the process by which a hexose sugar, usually glucose, is split into two molecules of pyruvate Although there a number of smaller enzyme-controlled reactions in glycolysis, these can be grouped into 4 stages: 1) Activation of glucose by phosphorylation. Before it can be split into two, glucose must first be made more reactive by the addition of 2 phosphate molecules (phosphorylation). The phosphate molecules come from the hydrolysis of 2 ATP molecules to ADP. This provides the energy to activate glucose (lowers the activation energy) 2) Splitting of the phosphorylated glucose. Each glucose molecule is split into 2 3-carbon molecules known as triose phosphate 3) Oxidation of triose phosphate. Hydrogen is removed from each of the 2 triose phosphate molecules and transferred to a hydrogen-carrier molecule known as NAD to form reduced NAD 4) The production of ATP. Enzyme-controlled reactions convert each triose phosphate into another 3-carbon molecule called pyruvate. In the process, 2 molecules of ATP are regenerated from ATP

Energy Yields from Glycolysis The overall yield from one glucose molecule undergoing glycolysis is therefore o 2 molecules of ATP (4 are produced but 2 were used in the initial phosphorylation of glucose so the net increase is 2) o 2 molecules of NADH (these go on into ETC) o 2 molecule of pyruvate Glycolysis is a universal feature of every living organism, the enzymes are found in the cytoplasm of cells and so glycolysis does not need any organelle for it to take place. It doesnt need oxygen and so can take place when it is present or not, in the absence of oxygen the pyruvate can be converted into either lactate or ethanol and CO 2.

4.2 Link Reaction and Krebs cycle

The Link Reaction

Respiration Chapter 4
The pyruvate molecules produced in the cytoplasm during glycolysis are actively transported into the matrix of the mitochondria. Here pyruvate undergoes a series of reactions during which the following changes take place: o The pyruvate is oxidised by removing hydrogen. This hydrogen is accepted by NAD producing NADH, which is later used to produce ATP. o The 2-carbon molecule, called an acetyl group, that is thereby formed combines with a molecule called coenzyme A (CoA) to produce a compound called acetylcoenzyme A o A CO2 molecule is formed from each pyruvate The overall equation is: Pyruvate + NAD + CoA acetyl CoA + NADH + CO2

The Krebs cycle Is named after the British biochemist, Hans Krebs and involves a series of oxidation-reduction reactions that take place in the matrix of the mitochondria. It summarised as: o The 2-carbon acetylcoenzyme A from the link reaction combines with a 4-carbon molecule to form a 6-carbon molecule o This 6-carbon molecule loses CO2 and hydrogens to give a 4-carbon molecule and a single molecule of ATP produced as a result of substrate-level phosphorylation o The 4-carbon molecule can now combine with a new molecule of acetylcoenzyme A to begin the cycle again For each molecule of pyruvate, the link reaction and the Krebs cycle therefore produce: o Reduced coenzymes such as NAD and FAD. These have the potential to produce ATP molecules and are therefore the important products of Krebs cycle o 1 molecule of ATP o 3 molecules of CO2 As two pyruvate molecules are produced for each original glucose molecule, the yield from a single glucose molecule is double the above o 2 ATP o 6 CO2

Coenzymes Coenzymes are molecules that some enzymes require in order to function they play a major role in carrying hydrogen atoms from one molecule to another. Examples include: o NAD, which is important throughout respiration o FAD, which is important in the Krebs cycle

The Significance of the Krebs cycle The Krebs cycle performs an important role in the cells of organisms for 4 reasons: o It breaks down macromolecules into smaller ones; pyruvate is broken down into CO2. o It produces hydrogen atoms that are carried by NAD to the electron transport chain for oxidative phosphorylation. This leads to the production of ATP that provides metabolic energy for the cell. o It regenerates the 4-carbon molecule that combines with acetylcoenzyme A, which would otherwise accumulate.

4.3 Electron Transport Chain

Respiration Chapter 4
Hydrogen atoms from Krebs are taken into the ETC where the energy of the electrons within the hydrogen atoms is converted into ATP.

The Electron Transport Chain and Mitochondria Mitochondria rod shaped organelles with a double membrane (forming cristae with the inner membrane) and the matrix (made up of semi-rigid materials of protein, lipids and traces of DNA, found in eukaryotic cells). They are the site of the ETC and attached to the cristae are the enzymes and other proteins involved in the ETC and hence ATP synthesis.

The Electron Transport Chain and the Synthesis of ATP ATP is synthesised using the ETC as follows: o The hydrogen atoms produced during glycolysis and Krebs combine with the coenzymes NAD and FAD that are attached to the cristae. NADH and FADH donate electrons of the hydrogen atom they are carrying to the 1st molecule in the ETC. o This releases protons from the hydrogen atoms and these are actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The electrons, meanwhile, pass along a chain of electron transport carrier molecules in a series of oxidation-reduction reactions. The electrons lose energy as they pass down the chain and some is used to create a minimal amount of ATP. o The protons accumulate in the space between the 2 mitochondrial membranes before the concentration becomes too high and so diffuse back into the matrix through a protein channel which have ATP synthase attached. This allows ATP synthase to produce ATP. At the end of the chain the electrons combine with these protons and oxygen to form water. The importance of oxygen in respiration is to act as the final acceptor of the hydrogen atoms produced in glycolysis and Krebs. Without hydrogen ions being used up they would go back through the chain making respiration stop and this point is shown by the effect of cyanide on respiration (a poison that kills very quickly). It is lethal because its a non-competitive inhibitor of the final enzyme in the ETC. This enzyme catalyses the addition of the hydrogen ions and electrons to oxygen to form water.

4.4

Anaerobic Respiration
In the absence of oxygen, neither Krebs cycle nor the ETC can take place, leaving only the anaerobic process of glycolysis to continue, its products of pyruvate and hydrogen must be constantly removed. So, hydrogen must be released from NADH in order to regenerate NAD, without this, the small supply of NAD will be entirely converted into NADH and no NAD to take up the hydrogen newly produced from glycolysis. Glycolysis will then stop; the replenishment of NAD is achieved by the pyruvate molecule from glycolysis accepting the hydrogen from reduced NAD. In eukaryotic cells, only 2 types of anaerobic respiration occur with any regularity: o In plants and microorganisms = ethanol o In animals = lactate

Production of Ethanol in Plants and Some Microorganisms Anaerobic respiration leading to the production of ethanol occurs in organisms such as certain bacteria and fungi (plus some plants in waterlogged conditions).

Respiration Chapter 4
The pyruvate molecule formed at the end of glycolysis loses a molecule of C O2 and accepts hydrogen from NADH to produce ethanol. Pyruvate + Reduced NAD Ethanol + CO2 + NAD This form of anaerobic respiration in yeast has been exploited by humans for thousands of years in the brewing industry as ethanol is the important product. Yeast is grown in anaerobic conditions in which it ferments natural carbohydrates in plant products, such as grapes or barley seeds into ethanol.

Production of Lactate in Animals Anaerobic respiration leading to the production of lactate occurs in animals as a means of overcoming a temporary shortage of oxygen. But, lactate production occurs in muscles from strenuous exercise. In these conditions oxygen may be used up more rapidly than it can be supplied. But, muscles will continue to work despite the lack of oxygen like if the organism is fleeing from a predator. In the absence of oxygen, glycolysis would normally cease as NADH accumulates. If glycolysis is to continue and release some energy, the NADH must be removed. To achieve this, each pyruvate molecule produced takes up 2 hydrogen atoms from the NADH produced in glycolysis to form lactate as shown below: Pyruvate + NADH Lactate + NAD At some point the lactate produced needs to be oxidised back to pyruvate, this can then be either further oxidised to release energy or converted into glycogen. But, lactate will cause cramp and muscle fatigue if it is accumulated in the muscle tissue. Even though muscle has certain tolerance to lactate, it is important its removed by the blood.

Energy Yields from Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration Energy from cellular respiration is derived in 2 ways: o Substrate-level phosphorylation (glycolysis and the Krebs cycle). This is the direct linking of Pi to ADP to produce ATP, in a single reaction. o Oxidative phosphorylation (ETC). This is the indirect linking of Pi to ADP to produce ATP using hydrogen atoms from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle that are carried NAD and FAD. In anaerobic respiration, pyruvate is converted to either ethanol or lactate, so in anaerobic respiration neither Krebs nor ETC can take place. ATP can be produced by anaerobic respiration is therefore formed by glycolysis. This amount is very small when compared to the much greater quantity produced during aerobic respiration.