CHAPTER 3: Bacteria: THE UNICELLULAR PROKARYOTES (ARCHAEA & EUBACTERIA) 1. Characteristics bacteria are cellular organisms.

. Bacteria are unicellular and typically very small (diameter of 0.5 to 1.0mm). Assigned the bacteria into 2 domains: Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. Bacteria are prokaryotes, and their cell structure is different from the cells of other living organisms do not have nuclei, mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticula, Golgi complex or lysosomes. The cytoplasm of the bacterial cell contains DNA, ribosomes, storage granules and perhaps enzymes. Eukaryotic Have nuclear envelope Have two to hundredth thousand chromosomes per cell; DNA is double stranded Have membrane bound organelles (plastids, mitochondria) Has 80s ribosome Have asexual reproduction by mitosis Have sexual reproduction by fusion Prokaryotic Lack of nuclear envelope Have a single, close loop double stranded DNA and usually with 40 plasmids Lack of membrane bound organelles Have 70s ribosome Have asexual reproduction by fission Sexual reproduction unknown referred to as Gram-positive, whereas those that do not retain the stain when rinsed with alcohol are Gram-negative. In a Gram-positive cell wall, a thick layer of peptidoglycan molecules is held together by amino acids. In Gram-negative cell wall, a thin peptidoglycan layer is covered by a thick outer membrane.

3. Bacterial shapes Shape is an important criterion in identifying bacterial species. Common shapes of bacterial cells are: I. coccus (spherical) II. bacillus (rod-shaped) III. spiral (helical). Variety of bacteria coccus shape are: - single: cocci - group in two: diplococci - long chains: streptococci - irregular clumps: staphylococci Rod-shaped bacteria (bacilli) may occur as single rods or as long chain of rods. helical bacteria, a variety of shapes also occur such as: - very short helix: vibrio - longer helix, rigid: spirillum - longer helix, flexible: spirochete Other characteristics: Some bacteria have pili, protein organelles that extend out from the cells and help bacteria to adhere to one another or to certain other surface. Most bacteria move by means of rotating flagella. Flagella consists of basal body, hook and filament. The genetic material of bacteria consists of a circular DNA molecule, and most bacteria also have one or more plasmids, smaller circular fragments of DNA. Prokaryotic flagellum. The motor of the prokaryotic flagellum is the basal apparatus, a system of rings embedded in the cell wall and plasma membrane (TEM). ATPdriven pumps transport

2. Bacterial cell wall Prokaryotic cells have cell wall surrounding the plasma membrane. Among the function of cell wall are: - provides rigid framework. - maintains its shape. - keep it from bursting under hypotonic condition The eubacterial cell wall consists of peptidoglycan, a complex polymer. The cell wall structure varies among species. Some species produce a capsule that surrounds the cell wall. Bacteria that absorb and retain crystal violet stain in the laboratory are

CHAPTER 3: Bacteria: THE UNICELLULAR PROKARYOTES (ARCHAEA & EUBACTERIA) protons out of the cell, and the diffusion of protons back into the cell powers the basal apparatus, which turns a curved hook. The hook is attached to a filament composed of chains of flagellin, a globular protein. 4. REPRODUCTION Bacteria reproduce asexually by: 1) Binary fission: One cell divides into two similar cells. First the DNA replicate and then a transverse wall is formed. 2) Budding: A cell develops a bulge, or bud, that enlarge, matures and separates from the mother cell. 3) Fragmentation: Walls develop within the cell, which then separates into several new cells. 5. EXCHANGE OF GENETIC MATERIAL Genetic material is sometimes exchanged between individuals through 3 different mechanisms: 1) Transformation: Fragment of DNA released by a cell are taken in by another bacterial cell. 2) Transduction: A phage carries bacterial genes from one bacterial cell into another. 3) Conjugation: Two cells of different mating type come together, and genetic material is transferred to one into another. Conjugation involves contact between the two cells. 6. FORMATION OF ENDOSPORES When environment is unfavorable, bacteria become dormant. Some bacterial cells lose water, shrink, and remain inactive until condition is favorable. Other bacteria will form endospores within the cell. The cell wall lyses, releasing the endospores. (Why its not reproduction?). Endospore can survive in very dry, hot, or frozen environment, or when food is scarce. When environment is suitable, endospore germinates, forming an active bacterial cell. An endospore of Bacillus anthracis Bacillus anthracis, the bacterium that causes the deadly disease anthrax, produces endospores (TEM). An endospores thick, protective coat helps it survive in the soil for years.

7. METABOLIC DIVERSITY Most bacteria are heterotrophs (obtain organic compounds from other organisms). The majority of heterothropic bacteria are free-living saprotrophs (get nourishment from dead organic matter). Some are parasitic (obtain nourishment from living organisms). There are also autotrophic bacteria (able to manufacture their own organic molecule). Photoautotroph obtain their energy from light while chemoautotroph obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic chemicals. Whether they are heterotrophic or autotrophic, most bacterial cell are aerobes (requiring oxygen for cellular respiration). Some bacteria are facultative anaerobes (can use oxygen for cellular respiration if it is available but also can carry on metabolism anaerobically when necessary). Other bacteria are obligate anaerobes (can carry out metabolism only anaerobically. Present of even low concentrations could be fatal to them). 8. THE ARCHAEANS Carl Woese hypothesized that ancient prokaryotes split into two lineages early in the history of life, based on his SSU rRNA study.

CHAPTER 3: Bacteria: THE UNICELLULAR PROKARYOTES (ARCHAEA & EUBACTERIA) Based on his work, microbiologist now classify the modern descendants of these two ancient lines into two domains: Archaea and Eubacteria. The cell walls of Archaea do not have peptidoglycan, and their translational mechanisms more closely resembles eukaryotic than prokaryotic. Members of Archaea includes methanogens, extreme halophiles and extreme thermophiles survive in environments thought to be similar to conditions on early Earth. 1)The methanogens are anaerobes which inhabit oxygen-free in sewage, swamp and humans/animals digestive tracts. 2)Extreme halophiles are heterotrophs, live in saturated brine solutions e.g. salt ponds. 3)Extreme thermophiles grow in hot (45-110C), sometimes acidic environments. 9. IMPORTANCES OF BACTERIA Ecological importances: -Bacterial photosynthesis generate oxygen. - Essential as decomposers and in recycling nutrients e.g. nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, etc. - Rhizobial bacteria transform atmospheric nitrogen to forms that can be used by plants. Harm or benefit hosts: -Produce endotoxin/exotoxin that cause diseases - Produce vitamins which can be absorbed and utilized by the hosts. Commercial processes: -Making food and beverages production of cheese, soy sauce, beer, etc. Produce antibiotics - actinomycetes and Bacillus Production of biomolecules - factories to produce vaccines, insulin, etc. Bioremediation - Break down the toxins at contaminated site.