Breathing
Air moves into and out of the lungs via the process of breathing. The chest cavity expands as the diaphragm contracts
(moves downward), air is drawn in, or inhaled, into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, the chest cavity decreases
in volume, causing air to be exhaled, or released from the body.
During the process of breathing, air moves through the structures of the respiratory system in the following order:
A. Nasal cavities
Air passes through two nostrils into the nasal cavities. The nasal cavities are guarded by hairs. Their inner surface is
lined with mucus-secreting cells, ciliated cells, blood capillaries and olfactory cells
Their walls are supported by C-shaped rings of cartilage, which prevents them from collapsing during
inspiration and swallowing.
Their inner lining is made up of smooth muscle, lined with ciliated epithelium, which possesses goblet cells.
Goblet cells produce mucus that traps dust and germs. The cilia beat to move the mucus upwards to the
pharynx where it is swallowed or coughed out.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.2 (a) Transverse section of trachea seen with light microscope (b) diagram showing section of trachea
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.3 (a) Section of trachea showing cilia covered with pollen grains and dust breathed in (b) diagram
showing cilia and goblet cells
6.2 Gaseous exchange
The sites of gaseous exchange in mammals are the alveoli, minute air-sacs some 100-300 m in diameter and situated
in the lungs. The lungs are paired organs found in the thorax.
Alveoli
The two lungs of man are made of 700 million alveoli which provide very large surface area (80-90 m2) for gas
exchange to occur. The alveoli with the following features form an ideal respiratory surface.
How the structure of the alveoli is related to its function
The 300 million alveoli in each lung of a human have a total surface area of around 70m 2. Their structure is shown
below. Each alveolus is lined mostly with squamous epithelial cells only 0.1-0.5m thick. Each alveolus has a diameter
of between 100 m and 300 m. Around each alveolus is a network of pulmonary capillaries, so narrow (7-10 m) that
red blood cells are flattened against the thin capillary walls in order to squeeze through. These capillaries have walls
comprising only a single layer of endothelial cells.
1. the red blood cells are slowed as they pass through the pulmonary capillaries, allowing more time for diffusion
2. the distance between alveolar air and red blood cells is reduced as the red blood cells are flattened against the
capillary walls
3. the walls of both alveoli and the capillaries are very thin and therefore the distance over which diffusion takes
place is very short
4. each alveolus is 0.1 to 0.2 mm in diameter - This small size maximizes surface area and allows for faster
exchange of gases.
5. A film of lipoprotein covers the alveoli. This lowers surface tension and prevents the alveoli from collapsing.
6. the alveoli and blood capillaries have a very large total surface area of 70 m 2. This is about half the area of a
tennis court.
7. breathing movements constantly ventilate the lungs, and the action of the heart constantly circulates blood
around the alveoli. Together, these ensure that the steep concentration gradient of the gases to be exchanged
is maintained
3. The carbon dioxide concentration in the deoxygenated blood is higher than that in the alveolus. Therefore
carbon dioxide diffuses from the lung capillaries into the alveolus and transported away.
4. After gaseous exchange the blood becomes oxygenated and has more oxygen and less carbon dioxide. It flows
out of the lungs by way of the pulmonary veins to the heart.
Inspiration
Expiration
1.
Diaphragm
2.
Contract
Relax
3.
Relax
Contract
4.
Ribs
5.
Volume of thorax
Increases
Decreases
6.
Decreases
Increases
7.
Movement of air
8.
Shape of lungs
Inflated
Deflated
balloon (lungs) through the glass tube (trachea) and the side tubes (bronchi) to balance the pressure. The balloons are
inflated.
Expiration
When the rubber sheet is pushed back to the original position, the volume inside the bell jar decreases that will increase
the pressure there. The increased pressure allows the inflated balloons to return to its original shape under its elasticity.
Thus air inside the balloons is forced out though the Y-tube.
Comparison of the composition of inhaled and exhaled air
The table below shows the composition of inhaled and exhaled air
Composition of gases/ %
Inhaled air
Exhaled air
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
79.01
20.96
0.03
79.5
16.4
4.1
Water vapour
Temperature
Variable
Variable
Fully saturated
Same as body
Reasons for the differences in gas composition between inhaled and exhaled air
After gaseous exchange has taken place in the lungs, the composition of gases in the exhaled air changes.
1. There is less oxygen because some of it diffuses from the alveoli into the deoxygenated blood.
2. There is more carbon dioxide because those produced by cellular respiration diffuses from deoxygenated blood
into the alveoli.
3. There is no change in the nitrogen concentration because it is neither used nor produced by body tissues.
4. There is more water vapour because the inhaled air is moistened by the mucus secreted by the nasal cavities,
trachea and the moist alveolar air.
5. The temperature is higher because the inhaled air is warmed by the heat released from the blood capillaries
underlying the nasal cavities and covering the alveoli.
2 boiling tubes
delivery tubes to fit the apparatus below
50 cm3 of lime water or bicarbonate indicator
Fig. 6.9 Apparatus used to compare amount of carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air.
Procedure
1. Check that the apparatus is assembled correctly.
2. Add same volume of lime water or bicarbonate indicator to both boiling tubes, and insert the tip each long
delivery tube at about the same level in the liquid.
3. Securely insert the bungs in the both tubes.
4. Breathe in very gently.
5. Without removing your mouth from the apparatus, breathe out gently.
6. Continue to breathe in and out without removing the tube from the mouth. This should ensure that the same
amount of air passes through both tubes.
Results
The hydrogen bicarbonate indicator remains orange (limewater clear) in tube Y while the bicarbonate indicator in tube X
turns yellow (limewater cloudy/milky).
Interpretation
The carbon dioxide concentration in inhaled air is less thus it could not change the colour of the indicator while in tube X
exhaled contains a higher percentage of carbon dioxide which cause the colour change in the indicator.
Conclusion
Exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide then inhaled air.
The organs and structures involved in gaseous exchange in humans are the pair of lungs and the air
passages that lead to them.
Air passes through the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and eventually to the
alveoli.
Gas exchange occurs between the capillary network surrounding the alveoli and the air in the alveolar cavity.
Common respiratory disease include common cold, bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer, asthma,
pneumonia and tuberculosis.
The leading causes of respiratory disease are : a persons genetic background, lifestyle and exposure to
environmental factors.
Concept map
Air
nostril
inspiration
nasal cavity
pharynx
trachea
Breathing
bronchus
bronchioles
expiration
lungs
alveoli
Gas exchange
Air
sample
A
B
C
D
Percentage
of oxygen
21
16
4
20
Percentage Percentage
of carbon humidity
dioxide
0.04
4.04
0.40
4.00
20
100
80
60
A
B
C
Decreased
Decreased
Increased
Decreased
Increased
Decreased
Increased
Increased
Expired air %
20
0.04
79.96
16
X
Y
Chance of lung
infection
A
B
0.04
4
83.96
80
C
D
20
83.96
64
0.04
Structured questions
8 What happens to the diaphragm when breathing in?
A
B
C
D
Muscle action
Shape becomes
Contraction
Relaxation
Contraction
relaxation
Domed
Domed
Flattened
Flattened
Question 1
Fig. 1.1 shows an alveolus in which gaseous exchange
takes place.
Decreases
Decreases
Increases
Increases
diaphragm
Lowered
Raised
Lowered
Raised
Rises
Pulled down
Rises
Pulled down
Fig. 1.1
(a) (i) Define the term diffusion.
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
(ii) State what causes oxygen to diffuse into the blood
from the alveoli.
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
Question 2
(a) The air which is inhaled is different from that which
is exhaled. Complete the following sentences about
these differences.
(i) Inhaled air has more than
A
B
C
exhaled air.
bronchus
bronchiole
larynx
trachea
W
X
Y
X
Z
W
Z
Y
X
Y
W
Z
..
C......................................................................................
test
..
result
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
(c) Other structures, not shown in the model, are also
involved in ventilation. Explain how they help in this
process.
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
(d) Explain how a short period of exercise can affect
breathing rate.
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
A......................................................................................
B......................................................................................
Question 4
.........................................................................................
2.......................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
(d) Describe the mechanism of inspiration.
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
........................................................................................
(c) (i) Explain why the air exhaled from the lungs differs
1.......................................................................................
2.......................................................................................
Question 5
.........................................................................................
structures.
(iii) Name the blood vessel that takes blood to the lungs
from the heart.
.........................................................................................
(c) Describe and explain how a carbon dioxide
molecule passes from the blood into the lungs and how
it is then breathed out.
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
Question 6
The diagram shows part of the human respiratory
system.
Blood leaving
lungs
lungs
Oxygen
10.6
19.0
Carbon
dioxide
58.0
50.0
(i) How many cm3 of oxygen per 100 cm3 of blood are
collected in the lungs?
.........................................................................................
C.
D.
The diagram shows some cells from the respiratory
system.
Healthy cells
(ii) What effect do the changes which occur during
expiration have on the volume and pressure in the
lungs?
.........................................................................................
Cells from a smoker
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
function.
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
(iv) Describe one difference between the healthy cells
and those of the smoker.
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
Question 7
7 (a) (i) Define the term organ.
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
(ii) Name two organs found in the respiratory tract.
1.......................................................................................
2.......................................................................................
(b) Fig. 7.1 shows some cells lining parts of the
respiratory tract.
.........................................................................................
3.......................................................................................
.........................................................................................
Question 10
(a) Explain how the following are involved in the
process of breathing.
(i) the diaphragm
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
(ii) intercostal muscles
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
Question 9
Gaseous exchange takes place while air flows in and
out of the lungs.
(a) State three ways in which inspired air is different
from expired air.
1.......................................................................................
.........................................................................................
2.......................................................................................
7.0 RESPIRATION
Contents
7.1 The need for energy
7.2 Aerobic respiration
7.3 Anaerobic respiration
Learning outcomes
Students should be able to:
(a) State the need for energy in humans.
(b) Define respiration.
(c) Define aerobic respiration.
(d) State the equation (in word) for aerobic respiration.
(e) Define anaerobic respiration.
(f) State the equation (in word) for anaerobic respiration in humans and in yeast.
(g) Describe the effect of lactic acid production in muscles during exercise.
(h) Demonstrate an experiment to find out whether carbon dioxide is given off during respiration.
7.1 The need for energy
Respiration is the oxidation of food substances (mainly glucose) with the release of energy in living cells. It is necessary
to supply organisms with energy, which help them to maintain themselves, move, excrete, grow and reproduce. The
main source of energy for organisms is the radiant energy from sunlight. During photosynthesis, green plants transform
this energy into chemical energy, which is stored in the organic foods (products of photosynthesis). This stored chemical
energy is obtained by organisms (animals) by feeding on green plants or on other animals.
Since the energy is locked up in the organic food molecules, an organism will have to oxidise them. This process of
oxidation which occurs within every living cells of animals (aw well as plants) is called respiration.
7.1.1 Uses of energy in humans
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. Active transport (absorption of glucose and amino acids by the villi in the small intestine is by active transport.
(So does absorption of mineral salts by the root hair cells)
7. Transmission of nerve impulses
8. Keeping warm (homeostasis)
Muscle
contraction
Respiratory
movements
Protein
synthesis
Need for
energy in
humans
Heartbeat
Active
transport
Nerve
impulse
transmission
Keep warm
Cell dision
and Growth
Less energy is released because the alcohol molecule is relatively large and still contains a considerable amount of
chemical energy. The small amount of energy released is only enough for the yeast to survive.
(Note: the carbon dioxide produced as the waste products actually helps in raising the bread dough thus making the
bread fluffy. It is also used in the production of wine by the fermentation of grape juice)
7.3.2 Anaerobic respiration in human muscles
Normally muscle cells respire aerobically (using oxygen gas). But in certain circumstances, where oxygen is not
available for a very short period of time, these cells need to respire anaerobically (without oxygen gas). This usually
occurs during a vigorous or strenuous exercise such as sprinting in a 100 m race.
Despite the increased breathing rate and heart beat, oxygen cannot be transported to the muscles fast enough
to be used for respiration
Under this circumstance, the muscle cells then respire anaerobically to continue producing energy (though only
a small amount is produced)
In the absence of oxygen in the muscle cells, the glucose is converted to lactic acid together with a
comparatively small amount of energy
Glucose l
1. During the exercise period the muscles are said to incur an oxygen debt (more oxygen is used up than can be
supplied by the blood)
2. This "debt" is "paid" by fast and deep breathing in the recovery period after the exercise
3. During the recovery period, 1/6 of the lactic acid produced during the exercise is oxidised aerobically into
carbon dioxide and water to produce enough energy to convert 5/6 of the lactic acid back into glucose
4. The glucose formed this way is then used in the normal aerobic respiration to release a large amount of energy
Note: Sometimes, individual experiences muscle cramp. This is due to an accumulation of lactic acid in their muscles. If
the level of lactic acid exceeds the individual tolerance level (depending on how fit the individual is), muscles stop
contracting and cramp occurs). Muscle fatigue is also the result of the accumulation of lactic acid.
This type of anaerobic respiration also takes place in bacteria. The lactic acid produced by these bacteria is used in the
production of yoghurt and cheese.
7.3.3 Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
1. Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen whereas anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of
oxygen.
2. Aerobic respiration releases a large amount of energy (efficient in terms of energy yield) whereas anaerobic
respiration only releases a small amount of energy (less efficient in terms of energy yield)
3. Aerobic respiration always produces carbon dioxide and water as the waste products whereas anaerobic
respiration produces lactic acid (as in the case of anaerobic respiration in muscle cells) and ethanol and carbon
dioxide (as in the case of anaerobic respiration in yeast)
Experiment to find out whether carbon dioxide is given off during respiration
Requirements
Three boiling tubes
Fig. 7.4 Apparatus used to show release of carbon dioxide during respiration
Observation
(a) What is the colour of lime water in
(i) flask 1?
.
(ii) flask 2?
.
Interpretation
(b) Suggest an explanation for the results obtained.
.......................................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................................................................
Chapter summary
Organisms require energy to fuel various processes which take place in the body such muscle contraction, cell
division and growth, protein synthesis, nerve impulse transmission, keeping warm among others.
Aerobic respiration is the release of a relatively large amount of energy in the presence of oxygen.
Energy is stored in the form of ATP.
Anaerobic respiration is the release of a relatively small amount of energy in the absence of oxygen.
Anaerobic respiration in humans releases lactic acid.
The accumulation of lactic acid results in oxygen debt and muscle fatigue.
Anaerobic respiration in yeasts produces alcohol and carbon dioxide. It is also known as fermentation used in
the production of wine (brewing) and making of bread.
Concept map
Respiration
Presence of oxygen
Absence of oxygen
Aerobic
respiration
Anaerobic
respiration
produces
Yeast
produces
Large amount
of energy
Water vapour
Human
produces
Carbon dioxide
Small amount
of energy
Used for
Muscle contraction
Lactic
acid
causes
Alcohol
Muscle
fatigue
What is substance Z?
A alcohol
B carbon dioxide
C glucose
D oxygen
one day?
Balloon P
Balloon Q
Inflated
Inflated
B
C
D
Inflated
No change
No change
No change
Inflated
No change
animals
yeast
Alcohol
Alcohol and
carbon dioxide
Alcohol and
carbon dioxide
Alcohol
Lactic acid
Alcohol and
carbon dioxide
Lactic acid
New compound
Carbon dioxide
Ethanol
Carbon dioxide
Lactic acid
Oxygen
Ethanol
oxygen
Lactic acid
Structured questions
yeast?
A glucose + oxygen water + carbon dioxide
B glucose + oxygen alcohol + water
Question 1
Athletes often have a sports drink when they are
A
B
C
D
energy
oxygen
Carbon
dioxide
exercising.
(a) The drink contains water and sugar.
Explain how each substance is used in the athletes
body.
(i) water
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
(ii) sugar
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
Question 2
(a) (i) In the box, state the word equation for aerobic
respiration.
Table 2.1
Question 4
Aerobic respiration in
humans
Anaerobic respiration
in humans
.
.
..
.
.
.
2 .
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.. .
Question 3
An active yeast culture is placed in a test-tube. This
test-tube is connected by a delivery tube to a second
test-tube containing hydrogen carbonate indicator
shown in Fig. 3.1.
Hydrogen
carbonate
indicator
changes
colour
Fig. 3.1
At the start of the experiment the indicator is red in
colour. After 15 minutes the indicator becomes yellow.
(a) Explain the reason for this colour change.
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
........................................................................................
........................................................................................
Question 5
Insert correct words in the empty spaces to outline the
uses for energy in the human body.
1. .. division and growth.
2. Synthesis of . fats and
vitamins.
5. .
the
intestine.
6. .
transport
in
contractions
e.g.
called ............................
Question 8
Complete the following equation which summarises
aerobic and anaerobic respirations of glucose:
(i) Glucose + .. .
water + large amount of energy
(ii) Glucose .. + small amount of
energy (in human)
(iii) Glucose . +
oxygen.
c. Heart beats .so that
more oxygen can be brought to the muscles.
d. Muscle cells carry out .
respiration.
e. Lactic acid slowly builds up in the
f.
Ans.
during oxidation.
Question 7
Select the most appropriate word from the list below to
complete the following paragraph.
cells, food, carbon dioxide, muscles, aerobic,
oxygen, water, vitamin, protein, energy, anaerobic.
Ans.
Ans.
Ans.
Question 10
(a) What chemical is normally used to test for the
presence of carbon dioxide?