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W hy e arthquak e s happe n? Pe rform ance of low-rise be aring-wall house s in e arthquak e s R e fe re nce s

Why earthquakes happen?

Plate tectonics
A shak ing of the ground cause d by sudde n m ove m e nts in the e arth's crust is te rm e d as an e arthquak e . The crust is the oute rm ost laye r of the e arth and is com pose d from brittle solid rock form ations. The crust vary in thick ne ss and can be only 5 to 10 k m at the m id oce an ridge s and as m uch as a 100 k m unde r the Him alayas. Lithosphe re is calle d the solid part of the e arth, including the crust and the uppe rm ost m antle . The m antle be ing the portion of the e arth unde rne ath the crust. The lithosphe re is about 100 k m thick , although its thick ne ss is age de pe nde nt i.e . olde r lithosphe re is thick e r. Asthe nosphe re is calle d the ductile part of the e arth just be low the lithosphe re , including the lowe r m antle . The asthe nosphe re is about 180 k m thick and is re lative ly soft. According to the com m only acce pte d plate te ctonics the ory, the e arth's lithosphe re is m ade up of 21 te ctonic solid plate s(Figure 1), of various are a, that are constantly m oving. The plate s m ove as rigid bodie s on top of the asthe nosphe re , causing the ir e dge s to e ithe r slide past e ach othe r, slide unde r e ach othe r, push into e ach othe r or pull apart.

Figure 1- Te ctonic plate s on the e arth's surface (Im age courte sy of U. S. Ge ological Surve y)

The cause for the plate m otions is be lie ve d to be the e ne rgy ge ne rate d from te m pe rature and pre ssure diffe re nce s be twe e n the surface and the core of the e arth. It should be note d howe ve r, that the proce ss of plate m otions or cre e p is rathe r slow. For instance the rate of spre ading along the m id Atlantic ridge (i.e . be twe e n North and South Am e rican plate s and Eurasian and African plate s re spe ctive ly) is e stim ate d to be about 2.5 cm pe r ye ar. The re fore the plate s be com e gradually into contact causing gradual incre ase in de form ation. Thus the de form e d rock form ations slowly accum ulate stre sse s which afte r ce rtain tim e can approach the stre ngth of the m ate rial. A fault (Figure 2) is a fracture along which the rock form ations of crust on e ithe r side have m ove d re lative to one anothe r paralle l to the fracture . The sudde n fracture of rock cre ate s an im pact and that cause s body wave s in the crust to propagate and the e arth's surface be gin to vibrate . The location in the crust whe re a se ism ic rupture be gins is calle d a focus. The e pice nte r of an e arthquak e is the point on the e arth's surface ve rtically above the focus (Figure 2). Earthquak e s can also happe n as a re sult of volcanic e ruptions and hum an activitie s such as e x plosions as we ll as large e x cavations in m ine s.

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Figure 2- A fault slip causing an e arthquak e (Im age courte sy of Kian H. C hong, Univ. of C alifornia, Davis)

Most of the e arthquak e s occur at the plate s boundarie s. Howe ve r the re are isolate d e ve nts of e arthquak e s within the m iddle of the te ctonic plate s- such as e arthquak e s in the m iddle of the Indian pe ninsula. De pe nding on the m otions at the inte rface , the plate s boundarie s are classifie d as follows (Figure 3): transform boundarie s, dive rge nt boundarie s, conve rge nt boundarie s, and plate boundary zone s.

Figure 3- The m ain type s of te ctonic plate boundarie s (Im age courte sy of U. S. Ge ological Surve y, This dynam ic Earth, by R obe rt Tilling and Jacque lyne Kious)

Transform boundarie s are the one s whe re m ove m e nt is paralle l to the fault line . An e x am ple of such boundary is the San Andre as fault in C alifrornia. Dive rge nt boundarie s occur whe n two plate s in contact are m oving apart and ne w crust is be ing cre ate d by hot m agm a pushing up from the m antle (se e Figure 3). The m id Atlantic ridge is an e x am ple of dive rge nt plate s. C onve rge nt boundarie s occur whe n two plate s are m oving towards e ach othe r and collide . The re are se ve ral type s of conve rge nt boundarie s and the y are picture d be low. O n Figure 4 is picture d conve rge nce be twe e n an oce anic plate and a large ly contine ntal plate . An e x am ple of such conve rge nce can be found off the Pe ru-C hile coast in South Am e rica. The oce anic Nazca plate is pushing into the South Am e rican plate and as a re sult the oce anic te ctonic plate is be ing force d unde r the contine ntal plate . Many of the e arth's active volcanoe s are also locate d at oce anic-contine ntal conve rge nce boundarie s.

Figure 4 (Im age courte sy of U. S. Ge ological Surve y, This dynam ic Earth, by R obe rt Tilling and Jacque lyne Kious)

O n Figure 5 is picture d conve rge nce be twe e n two oce anic plate s. W he n oce anic te ctonic plate s collide one of the plate s is usually subducte d unde r the othe r. The proce ss of subduction re sults in the form ation of islands in the oce an. Such islands are typically groupe d in arcs, calle d island arcs.

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Figure 5 (Im age courte sy of U. S. Ge ological Surve y, This dynam ic Earth, by R obe rt Tilling and Jacque lyne Kious)

O n Figure 6 is displaye d collision be twe e n two contine ntal plate s. The e arth's crust as e x plaine d e arlie r is m uch thick e r unde r the contine nts. It also is constitute d of lighte r rock s and the re fore subduction doe sn't occur at le ast initially. The re fore the rock m ate rial te nds to pile up or spre ad side ways. In such a way are form e d the Him alayas and the Tibe tan plate au be twe e n 40 and 50 m illion ye ars ago.

Figure 6 (Im age courte sy of U. S. Ge ological Surve y, This dynam ic Earth, by R obe rt Tilling and Jacque lyne Kious)

India was a large island about 225 m illion ye ars ago, situate d not far from Australia. R e se arch scie ntists have e stim ate d that som e 80 m illion ye ars ago India was locate d about 6400 k m south of Asia and m oving northwards by 9m e ve ry 100 ye ars. India re ache d and collide with the contine nt of Asia about 50 m illion ye ars ago. It is calculate d that the Him alayas m ountains continue to rise with a rate of 1 cm pe r ye ar. This could sum up to 10 k m in one m illion ye ars.

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Figure 7- R e construction of m ove m e nt of the Indian plate and its collision with Eurasian plate (Im age courte sy of U. S. Ge ological Surve y, This dynam ic Earth, by R obe rt Tilling and Jacque lyne Kious)

Plate boundary zone s re fe r to zone s whe re the boundary be twe e n the te ctonic plate s is not we ll de fine d. Such zone is the Me dite rrane an re gion which form s part of the boundary be twe e n the African and Eurasian plate s.

Types of seismic waves

The slipping of rock s along a fault cre ate s se ism ic body wave s in the crust. The re are two type s of body wave s: P-wave s and S-wave s. P-wave s are calle d also longitudinal wave s be cause the y propagate in longitudinal-forward way com pre ssing m ate rial along circular surface s. The ve locity of P-wave s is faste r than the othe r se ism ic wave s. The y can also propagate in air and othe r fluids as P-wave s are e sse ntially sound wave s. O n Figure 8 is illustrate d P-wave propagation causing vibration in the sam e dire ction. The se wave s can also be re fe rre d to as prim ary or com pre ssive wave s.

Figure 8 P-wave s (Im age courte sy of Europe an C e ntre for Ge o dynam ics and Se ism ology)

S-wave s are transve rse wave s causing vibration at right angle s to the dire ction that the wave is trave lling. The se wave s can also be re fe rre d to as se condary or she ar wave s. S-wave s can not propagate in fluids lik e air be cause fluids do not posse ss a she ar stre ngth. De pe nding on the m ate rial prope rtie s of the crust S-wave s trave l at about half the spe e d of Pwave s. O n Figure 9 is illustrate d S-wave propagation causing vibration in a transve rse dire ction.

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Figure 9 S-wave s (Im age courte sy of Europe an C e ntre for Ge o dynam ics and Se ism ology)

The body wave s ge ne rate d in the focus in the e arth's crust trave l through various laye rs of rock and soil as the y re fle ct and re fract during propagation. W he n the se wave s re ach the e arth's surface the y propagate in the form of surface wave s. The re are two type s of surface wave : R ayle igh wave s and Love wave s. R ale igh wave s vibrate in a plane pe rpe ndicular to the e arth's surface (Figure 10). The Love wave s cause s vibrations in a plane paralle l to the e arth's surface and pe rpe ndicular to the dire ction of wave propagation (Figure 11). Surface wave s re quire tim e and distance to am plify. The ir vibrations are sm all ne ar the e pice ntre of an e arthquak e , while furthe r the y can am plify or atte nuate .

Fig 10 R ayle igh wave s (Im age courte sy of Europe an C e ntre for Ge o dynam ics and Se ism ology)

Figure 11 Love wave s (Im age courte sy of Europe an C e ntre for Ge o dynam ics and Se ism ology)

The difference between magnitude and intensity of an earthquake

The im pact of an e arthquak e on built e nvironm e nt is close ly re late d to the am ount of e ne rgy re le ase d in the focus. The m e asure of re le ase d e ne rgy is the m agnitude M, which was first de fine d by R ichte r in 1935, and is the re fore calle d R ichte r's m agnitude . According to R ichte r, the m agnitude of an e arthquak e M is give n by a logarithm of the m ax im um displace m e nt am plitude A (in m m ), re corde d by a standardise d instrum e nt, locate d at e x actly 100 k m from the e pice ntre . He nce the m agnitude , M m e asure s the absolute "size " of the e arthquak e , irre spe ctive of location. The lightbulb analogy m ay be use d: For a lightbulb, m agnitude corre sponds to the wattage , which indicate s the absolute size in te rm s of the powe r it consum e s. Inte nsity corre sponds to the appare nt brightne ss of the bulb to a vie we r, which varie s with location. The e ffe cts of e arthquak e s on the built e nvironm e nt are m e asure d by m e ans of various inte nsity scale s. A 12-grade m odifie d Me rcalli (MM) scale and MSK-76 inte nsity scale are use d pre dom inantly in the US and Europe re spe ctive ly. A ne w 12-grade Europe an m acrose ism ic scale (EMS), which is a m odification of the MSK scale , has be e n re ce ntly de ve lope d.

Performance of low-rise bearing-wall houses in earthquakes

T o beginning of doc ument

Introduction
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Introduction
The inform ation in this se ction cove rs the re sponse of low-rise house s to e arthquak e shak ing. The conte nt will be m ost he lpful for house s of m asonry typology, built of diffe re nt type s of m asonry units, lik e stone , adobe (m udbrick ) and fire d brick s. Masonry wall house s have be e n constructe d since ancie nt tim e s and are still ve ry popular for re side ntial purpose s. Howe ve r plain i.e . unre inforce d m asonry house s are inhe re ntly brittle and e asily dam age d in e arthquak e s. The re fore unde rstanding of the ir structural pe rform ance is vital to im prove the ir re sistance in e arthquak e s.

Mechanisms of horizontal resistance for masonry wall low-rise houses

Due to the acce le ration of the e arthquak e m otion structure re sting on ground e x pe rie nce s not only shak ing but also se ism ic load. The se ism ic load, also calle d ine rtia load, acting on the structure is proportional to the m ass of the structure and the ground acce le ration. House s built from m asonry are we ll suite d for gravity loads. Howe ve r due to the low-te nsile stre ngth and brittle prope rtie s of m asonry, such house s can suffe r dam age in e arthquak e s. Traditionally the e arthquak e re sistant form of m asonry was base d on the construction of thick , m assive walls that re lie d on the ir se lf we ight to re sist the horizontal loads. Som e tim e s walls we re pilaste re d to im prove the ir stability against face horizontal loads. The be haviour of a wall whe n subje ct to face loads is illustrate d on Figure 12. From analysing the e quilibrium of the wall can be shown that the re sistance to face load- H is proportionate to the gravity- G and wall thick ne ss- t and inve rse ly proportionate to the he ight-h of the wall. The re fore doubling the wall thick ne ss- t would allow the re sistance of 4 tim e s bigge r face load H. Howe ve r in the e ve nt of an e arthquak e the ine rtia face load-H will double due to the incre ase d we ight of wall and will le sse n the e ffe ct of incre ase d wall thick ne ss. It should be note d that construction of thick walls as an e arthquak e re sistant fe ature is not de sirable and can be ve ry dange rous due to the incre ase d am ount of rubble in the e ve nt of a strong e arthquak e .

Figure 12- Stability of walls against face loads

During an e arthquak e the base of the house can vibrate in both dire ctions horizontally i.e . North-South and East-W e st as we ll as ve rtically. Howe ve r for sak e of sim plicity in this te x t is assum e d that the e arthquak e acts only in one dire ction East-W e st. The horizontal ine rtia loads are cre ate d whe re the we ight of the house is conce ntrate d. The se are floor and roof but thick walls can also attract big se ism ic loads. In orde r to re sist the e arthquak e the se ine rtia loads have to re ach the foundations. without causing dam age to the structure . Masonry walls are the m ain load re sisting e le m e nts from the house structure . Since walls are usually constructe d in two orthogonal dire ctions in plan, som e of the walls are paralle l to the e arthquak e while the othe r are crossing the e arthquak e dire ction. O nly the walls that are paralle l to the e arthquak e can re sist the loads. This wall orie ntation is re fe rre d to as in-plane walls. The cross walls are re fe rre d to as out-of-plane walls. For be st e arthquak e re sistance is ne ce ssary that all walls in the house pe rform toge the r as a box . This is re fe rre d to as box action- se e Figure 13.

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Earthquakes and low-rise buildings Figure 13- R e sisting e arthquak e loads through box action

O n the figure above case (a) fe ature s a structure that pe rform as a whole unit i.e . lik e a box . C ase (b) shows a dam age d structure , lack ing box action be cause wall inte grity is not be ing e nforce d. The re sistance of the house subje ct to an e arthquak e is de fine d by the inte r-conne ctivity be twe e n structural com pone nts as we ll as the individual com pone nt's stre ngth, stiffne ss and ductility. Good conne ction be twe e n diffe re nt m e m be rs cre ate s continuous load path for the ine rtia loads. Such load path is calle d com ple te load path. O n Figure 13, case (a) com ple te load path is achie ve d by: Providing wall to wall conne ction through good quality bond at corne rs and construction of horizontal roof band (bond be am ) Providing walls to foundations conne ction through construction of plinth band (bond be am at plinth le ve l) Provide conne ction be twe e n walls and roof band Individual m e m be rs of the house structure should also posse ss the ne ce ssary stre ngth, stiffne ss and ductility. Ductility is a m e chanical prope rty of the m asonry wall and will be discusse d late r in the te x t. O n Figure 13, case (a) im prove d re sistance is achie ve d by: Good quality m asonry to im prove com pre ssive stre ngth of walls Good quality m asonry to im prove she ar stre ngth of walls Good quality m ate rial and re inforce m e nt (whe n using R C ) for the horizontal bands to im prove the ir be nding and te nsile stre ngth Im portant role in the m e chanism of late ral (horizontal) load re sistance plays the construction of stiff in its plane roof/ floor. Stiff roof/ floor would allow distribution of ine rtia load in proportion to the wall stiffne ss. Stiff roof/ floor provide s diaphragm action. In case of fle x ible roof/ floor the ine rtia load will be distribute d on tributary are a basis for e ach wall, which m ay pote ntially le ad to wall failure due to unfavourable load distribution be twe e n walls. O n Figure 14 be low, is illustrate d the im portance of diaphragm action. For this purpose is use d a sim ple m ode l of square be aring-wall m asonry house . In case (a) the roof is fle x ible and the ine rtia force s from its we ight will be distribute d to all four walls (on tributary are a basis). As a conse que nce the we ak out-of-plane walls will be loade d with the sam e am ount as the strong in-plane walls. In case (b) the roof is stiff and provide s a diaphragm action. The re fore the ine rtia load from the roof will be distribute d pre dom inantly to the strong in-plane walls. Ple ase note that som e load will be also distribute d to the out-of-plane walls. The figure s shown on the sk e tch be low are for illustrative purpose s. The out-of-plane walls have som e stiffne ss and the re fore would attract a sm all portion of the ine rtia load.

Figure 14- Diaphragm action

Earthquake resistant plan and layout for masonry wall low-rise houses
As was discusse d e arlie r, plain i.e . unre inforce d m asonry walls are vulne rable unde r horizontal loads. Ex pe rie nce from past e arthquak e s as we ll as re se arch have e stablishe d that if ce rtain principle s are followe d re garding ge ne ral planning and layout, m asonry pe rform ance can be gre atly im prove d. Sim ple plan configuration R e gular distribution of structural walls in both dire ctions Avoid non paralle l syste m s Avoid re -e ntrant corne rs and re ce sse s Ve rtical irre gularitie s Irre gular m ass distribution in plan and e le vation www.staff.city.ac.uk/earthquakes/Earthquakes/Earthquakes.htm#Second link

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Earthquakes and low-rise buildings Irre gular m ass distribution in plan and e le vation

Figure 15- Ex am ple s of dange rous configurations in e le vation

O n Figure 15, case (a) is shown an e le vation of a house with we ight irre gularity and Se tback s which in the e ve nt of an e arthquak e m ay le ad to local or total failure . O n Figure 15, case (b) is shown an e le vation of a house with irre gular dim e nsion from store y to store y, discontinue d structural m e m be rs, W e ak and/or fle x ible store y as we ll as we ight irre gularity. Such irre gularitie s m ay also le ad to local or com ple te collapse . O n Figure 15, case (c) is shown an e le vation of a house with we ight irre gularity in plan that can cause twisting of the structure adding m ore load to the late ral force re sisting walls.

Classification and analysis of earthquake damage

Masonry wall house s lik e e ve ry othe r structure are built from diffe re nt m e m be rs (lik e foundations, walls, bond be am s, roof ). The se com pone nts m ay be asse m ble d in diffe re nt ways which can gre atly affe ct the pe rform ance of the structure . Unde r e arthquak e m otion, in the case of ve ry stiff e le m e nts asse m ble d toge the r with rigid conne ctions the structure will re spond uniform ly as a whole . Howe ve r in re al structure s the com pone nts are e lastic and the conne ctions are se m i-rigid. The re fore , the e lastic stiffne ss, stre ngth, failure m ode and ductility of e ach com pone nt de te rm ine s its pe rform ance which in turn de te rm ine s the house 's pe rform ance as a whole . During a strong e arthquak e the various e le m e nts te nd to e x hibit the ir own dynam ic vibrations. In case of incom patible vibrations be twe e n m e m be rs (in-plane wall and a cross wall for instance ) m e m be rs can se parate from e ach othe r towards ultim ate state . The re fore the e valuation of e arthquak e dam age should focus on the com pone nt be haviour to unde rstand the dam age m e chanism . C onse que ntly crack s and othe r signs of dam age , m ust be analyse d base d on the com pone nt be haviour. For e x am ple for a com pone nt with te nsion she ar be haviour crack size is critical. For a com pone nt dom inate d from be nding and e x hibiting "be nding" crack s the size of the crack is not as critical. Most dam age patte rns in m asonry wall low-rise house s can fit in the following groups: Se paration of walls at corne rs and T inte rse ctions Diagonal crack s starting at wall ope nings O ut-of-plane partial or com ple te collapse of walls Diagonal and X type of crack s C rack ing be twe e n walls and roof/floor Diagonal crack s be twe e n wall ope nings The be haviour of the load-be aring m asonry walls whe n re sisting late ral loads is gre atly influe nce d from the ve rtical loads. This is due to the fact that the she ar re sistance of walls incre ase s substantially whe n ve rtical loads incre ase . In the case of single store y house s with light roof (for e x am ple tim be r construction) the she ar stre ngth of the walls is not use d but rathe r the walls (or its com pone nts) rotate and rock . Apart from the low ve rtical load a re ason for that is the window and/or door ope nings in the wall. The ope nings in the walls partition the wall com pone nt in ve rtical com pone nts calle d pie rs and horizontal one s calle d sprande ls. O n Figure 16 be llow are shown com m on crack patte rns at ope nings in in-plane walls whe n ve rtical loads are low. The patte rn de pe nds on the ratio be twe e n the width of the adjoining wall com pone nts form ing L shape around ope ning.

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Figure 16- C rack patte rns at wall ope ning whe n ve rtical loads are low

Figure 17- C rack patte rns in in-plane walls whe n re sisting e arthquak e loads

O n Figure 17, case (a) above are shown com m on crack patte rns in in-plane walls whe n ve rtical loads are low, which is ofte n the case in one strore y house s with light roofs. O n Figure 17, case (b) above are shown com m on crack patte rns in in-plane walls for two store y house . In this case the ve rtical loads are significant in the first store y walls the re fore the pie rs in this wall e x hibit she ar X crack s which show that the com pone nt faile d in she ar. O n the se cond store y of this e x am ple house , is assum e d that the ve rtical loads are low (light roof), and the re fore X shape she ar crack ing did not occur.

Ductile or brittle performance

The ine rtia loads that the structure of the house re sist m ay re ach the stre ngth capacity of the com pone nts causing displace m e nt in the structure . W he n the stre ngth of com pone nts is re ache d the y m ay crack and fail without be ing able to carry m ore load or dissipate e ne rgy. W he n this happe ns the structure is te rm e d to have a brittle be haviour. Brittle structure s are not suitable for e arthquak e re sistance . W he n the stre ngth of com pone nts is re ache d and the y m ay crack , but are able to carry m ore load and e ffe ctive ly dissipate e arthquak e e ne rgy this is te rm e d as ductile be haviour. Ductile be haviour is ne ce ssary for www.staff.city.ac.uk/earthquakes/Earthquakes/Earthquakes.htm#Second link

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Earthquakes and low-rise buildings load and e ffe ctive ly dissipate e arthquak e e ne rgy this is te rm e d as ductile be haviour. Ductile be haviour is ne ce ssary for structure s to re sist e arthquak e s. Figure 18, case (a) displays the e arthquak e re sponse of a we ll constructe d wall of ade quate stre ngth and ductility. The ductility allows for dissipation of e arthquak e e ne rgy and re duction of ine rtia loads. The ade quate stre ngth distribution allows for be nding of the wall and avoids stre ss conce ntration. Such wall survive s the e arthquak e without e x ce ssive dam age or failure . Figure 18, case (b) displays the e arthquak e re sponse of a of inade quate stre ngth and lack ing ductility. The inade quate stre ngth distribution pre ve nts be nding of the wall and cre ate s stre ss conce ntration. The lack of ductility doe sn't allow dissipation of e arthquak e e ne rgy and re duction of ine rtia loads. As a re sult the wall fails.

Figure 18- Ductile and unductile re sponse

Efficie nt way to provide ade quate stre ngth and ductility of the m asonry walls is through re inforce m e nt. For the she ar re sistance of m asonry walls is im portant both horizontal, calle d be d-joint re inforce m e nt as we ll as ve rtical re inforce m e nt. O n Figure 19 (a) is shown the re sponse of unre inforce d m asonry wall whe re the structure is be ing dam age d due to its inade quate stre ngth as we ll as ductility. O n Figure 19 (b) is shown the re sponse of re inforce d m asonry wall whe re both horizontal be d-joint re inforce m e nt and ve rtical re inforce m e nt is use d for wall construction. The ve rtical re inforce m e nt should be anchore d in the horizontal bands, lik e the roof be am and the plinth be am . The re sult is a structure of ade quate stre ngth as we ll as ductility to re sist the e arthquak e loads.

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Figure 19- Im proving pe rform ance of walls through re inforcing

References
T o beginning of doc ument

1) Introducing and De m onstrating Earthquak e Engine e ring R e se arch in Schools, Earthquak e Engine e ring R e se arch C e ntre , Unive rsity of Bristol, IDEER S 2) This dynam ic Earth : The story of plate te ctonics, R obe rt Tilling and Jacque lyne Kious, USGS, This dynam ic Earth 3) USGS Earthquak e hazards program glossary, http://e arthquak e .usgs.gov 4) David Fane lla and Jave e d Munshi, De sign of low-rise concre te buildings for e arthquak e force s, Portland C e m e nt Association,1998 5) Arya, A., Guide line s for Earthquak e R e sistant Non-Engine e re d C onstruction publishe d by the Inte rnational Association for Earthquak e Engine e ring(IAEE), 1986 Tok yo, Japan 6) Murty, C ., IITK-BMTPC Earthquak e Tips Se rie s, The National Inform ation C e nte r of Earthquak e Engine e ring (NIC EE) at Indian Institute of Te chnology Kanpur (IIT Kanpur), 2004, EQ Tips 7) D'Ayala, D., Se ism ic vulne rability and stre ngthe ning of historic building, in Lalitpur, Ne pal, Unive rsity of Bath, England 8) National Earthquak e Inform ation C e nte r, U.S. Ge ological Surve y, http://ne ic.usgs.gov 9) Arya, A., R e ce nt de ve lopm e nts towards e arthquak e risk re duction in India, Spe cial e dition- Se ism ology 2000 10) Arya, A., Guide line s- Im roving e arthquak e re sistance of housing, Building Mate rials & Te chnology Prom otion C ouncil (BMTPC ), Ministry of Urban De ve lopm e nt and Pove rty Alle viation, India

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