POWER SYSTEMS
Ned Mohan
Oscar A. Schott Professor of Power Electronics and Systems Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN 55455 USA
Bus-1
200 km
Bus-3
P + jQ
Pm1
Pe1
150 km
150 km
Bus-2 Pe 2 Pm 2
Control Areas
One-line Diagram
Step up Transformer Generator Transmission line Feeder
13.8 kV
Load
(a)
( b)
CHAPTER 2
vab i
b +
va
vb
10
Phasors
Imaginary positive angles V = V 0 Real
I = I
11
Phasor Analysis
i( t ) I j L = j X L
Im
v( t ) = 2V cos( t )
L
V = V 0
jX c
jX L
R 1 j = j XC C
(b)
R
C
(a )
Z R
0
(c)
Re
Fig. 2-3 A circuit (a) in time-domain and (b) in phasor-domain; (c) impedance triangle.
12
13
14
Power Flow
+
Subcircuit 1
v (t )
Subcircuit 2
p (t ) = v (t ) i (t )
15
p (t )
average power
0 v (t ) (a ) i (t )
0 ( b) i (t )
16
P, Q and VA by Phasors
I
+
Subcircuit 1
Subcircuit 2
S = P + jQ
Im
(a)
V = V v
Im
S Q
Re
P (c)
Re
I = I i (b)
Fig. 2-8 (a) Circuit in phasor-domain; (b) phasor diagram; (c) power triangle.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 17
j13.963
PL + jQL
18
One-line Diagram
Step up Transformer Generator Transmission line Feeder
13.8 kV
Load
19
Three-Phase Voltages
van (t ) vbn (t ) vcn (t )
Vcn a bc positive sequence 120 120 Van 0
120
Vbn
( b)
3 (a )
20
Ia
V an +
ZL N c
Ic
Ib
V cn n V bn + +
In
c
ZL N b
Ic
(b)
Ib
(a)
21
Per-Phase Analysis
a + V an n
Ia
V cn
Ic
Ib (Hypothetical)
N
Ia
V an
V bn (a) (b) Fig. 2-13 Per-phase circuit and the corresponding phasor diagram.
22
Z self A Z self
a Z aA A
Z mutual
Z mutual B
Z self
Z mutual C
(Hypothetical)
( b)
23
Line-Line Voltages
Vcn Vca Vb Vab
30 o
Van
Vbn
Vbc
24
Wye-Delta Transformation
Ia
a
Ia
a Z Z Z b
Z c
I ab Z
I ca Z (a)
Ibc
(b)
25
+
Vs
jX
Vs +
VR
I
( b)
jXI
VR
(a )
26
Power-Angle Diagram
P / Pmax 1.0 0.5
180 90 Fig. 2-18 Power as a function of .
27
In terms of these base quantities, the per-unit quantities can be specified as actual value Per-UnitValue = base value
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006
(2-51)
28
Po
29
(a)
(c)
30
Example of a Toroid
i
rm
ID
ID
OD
OD
(a)
(b)
31
o m o
Hm
Hm
(a)
(b)
32
33
Inductance
i
Am
i
N A m
Hm
(m)
Bm N2 Am mAm
(Am)
(N)
N Lm =
(a)
(b)
34
Example of a Toroid
w r
35
Faradays Law
(t )
i (t ) + e (t )
36
(t )
37
Leakage Flux
m
i + e i + e
(a)
(b)
38
Ll
Ll
di dt
R + v(t ) Lm
Ll
+ e(t )
i (t ) + em (t )
em (t )
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2-29 Analysis including the leakage flux.
39
CHAPTER 3
40
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3-1 Production and consumption of energy in the United States in 2004 [1].
41
Fig. 3-2 Electric power generation by various fuel types in the U.S. in 2005 [1].
42
Penstock
Generator Turbine
43
Pump
Condenser
Heat out
44
Compressor Air in
Turbine Exhaust
45
(a )
( b)
Visit the following websites for Nuclear Power Plant Animations: PWR: http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-pwr.html BWR: http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-bwr.html
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 46
47
Coefficient of Performance
Fig. 3-8 c p as a function of [7]; these would vary based on the turbine design.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 48
Wind Turbine
Utility
49
AC
Wind Turbine
DC DC AC
Grid-side Converter
Generator-side Converter
50
51
Photovoltaics
52
Utility 1
53
Fuel Cells
Open 1.4 Circuit Voltage
1.2 -
E=
Activation Losses
- g
2F
- 1200
1-
0.8 -
Ohmic
- 800
Losses
- 600
0.6 -
0.4 -
- 400
0.2 -
- 200
0 -| 0
-0
500
1000
1500
2000
Fig. 3-14 Fuel cell v-i relationship and cell power [12].
Cell Power ( PC in mW )
- 1000
54
Greenhouse Effect
55
3
2
56
Fig. 3-17 Electric power industry fuel costs in the U.S. in 2005 [1].
57
CHAPTER 4
58
(b)
(c)
59
Fig. 4-1 500-kV transmission line (Source: University of Minnesota EMTP course).
Transposition
a
D2
D1 D3
b
c 1 cycle (a ) (b)
60
Distributed Parameters
line line
R L
C
neutral (zeroimpedance)
61
D (a )
surface
( b)
towards center
Fig. 4-4 (a) Cross-section of ACSR conductors, (b) skin-effect in a solid conductor.
62
a ia
r D (a )
b ib ia
a
r
b x dx
(b) a
b
D
ib
(c)
x
D
dx
63
64
qc C qa a
D (a ) hypothetical neutral C b ( b)
qb b a
65
L ( / km )
0.489 0.376 0.326 0.339
C ( / km )
3.373 4.518 5.220 4.988
66
67
Distributed-Parameter Representation
I S ( s) + VS ( s )
I x ( s) + Vx ( s )
R 1 sC
sL +
I R (s)
VR ( s )
68
+ Zc
IR
V R = V R 0
VS
VR
( b)
69
Typical Surge Impedances and SIL for various Voltage Transmission Lines
Table 4-2 Surge Impedance and Three-Phase Surge Impedance Loading [2, 6] Nominal Voltage 230 kV 345 kV 500 kV 765 kV
Z c ()
375 280 250 255
70
71
Long-Line Representation
I S ( s) + VS ( s )
Yshunt 2 Yshunt 2 Z series
I R (s) +
VR ( s )
72
Z series Yshunt 2
IR
IS
Rline j j 2 Cline
( b)
j Lline
IR
IS + VS
Rline
j Lline
IR
+
+ Yshunt 2
(a )
+
VS
VS
VR
2 Cline
+
VR
VR
(c )
73
Underground Cables
74
CHAPTER 5
75
Bus 2
PV Bus
76
Z12 = (5.55 + j56.4) = (0.0047 + j 0.0474) pu Z13 = (7.40 + j 75.2) = (0.0062 + j 0.0632) pu Z 23 = (5.55 + j56.4) = (0.0047 + j 0.0474) pu
77
Z13 Z12 Z 23
Bus 3
V3
I1 Bus 2 V2
I3
I2
Fig. 5-2 Example system of Fig. 5-1 for assembling Y-bus matrix.
78
Newton-Raphson Procedure
4 x2 4 2 x (2) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 x (1) 3.0 x (0) 3.5 4.0
0
2 4 6 8
10
12
V3 = 0.978-8.79 0 pu
( 5.0 + ( 2.68 +
j1.48) pu
j1.0 ) pu
P2 + jQ2 = ( 2.0
+ j 2.67) pu
80
CHAPTER 6
81
+ N1 e1
im Lm
(a)
(b)
82
Core in Transformers
Bm Bm Bsat
o m o
Hm
Hm
(a)
(b)
Flux Coupling
m
+ e1
+ N1 e1 N2
im
Lm
+ e2
e2
(a)
N1 N2
Ideal Transformer
(b)
84
i1 (t ) N1 N2
i1 (t ) + e1
i2 (t )
im Lm
i2 (t )
+
e2
i2 (t ) + e2
N1 N2
Ideal Transformer
(a)
(b)
85
Transformer Model
I1 + V1
R1
jX l1 + Rhe E1
' I2
jX l 2 + E2
R2
I2 + V2
im
jX m
N1
N2
Real Transformer
Ideal Transformer
Fig. 6-5 Transformer equivalent circuit including leakage impedances and core losses.
86
(a)
87
1: n +
Vs n p
Is Zs
+ Vs
Vp
ns
88
1: n ns
Is
+ Vs
(a)
Vp
Ip
1: n np ns
+ Vp
( b)
Z sp
Is
+ Vs
Fig. 6-8 Transferring leakage impedances across the ideal transformer of the model.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 89
+
V p (pu)
Z tr (pu)
+
Vs (pu)
90
(a )
(b)
91
Bus 3
500 / 345 kV
92
Auto-Transformer
n2 I1
+
V1
I2
+
V2
( I1 + I 2 )
+ V1
+ V2 I1
I2 +
(V1 + V2 )
n1
n2 (a)
n1
( b)
93
94
Vab Va
Vca Vc
Va
Vca Vc
Va b
Va
b b
Vb
(b) Vbc
Vb ( c ) Vbc
95
Three-Winding AutoTransformers
Z L () a
H
a
L
A T B
a
H
Z H ()
a
L A T C
n2 n1
n3 Z T ()
C c
(a )
b
( b) Fig. 6-15 Three-winding auto-transformer.
96
+
V1
YA = 1/ Z A
+
V2 t
+
V2
97
I2
+
V1
+
V2
+
V1
1 1 YA t 1 1 2 YA t t (b)
+ V2
1: t
(a )
Fig. 6-17 Transformer with an off-nominal turns-ratio or taps in per unit; t is real.
98
+
V1
+
V2
Z s = j 0.11 pu
I2 +
+
V1
Y1 = j 0.909 pu Y2 = j 0.826 pu
(b)
V2
1: t
(a )
99
CHAPTER 7
100
IGCT IGBT
Thyristor
IGCT (a)
IGBT
MOSFET
MOSFET
101
(a )
( b)
Figure 7-2 Power semiconductor devices: (a) ratings (source: Siemens), (b) various applications (source: ABB).
102
HVDC System
HVDC Line AC1 AC2
103
AC1
AC2
AC1
AC2
(a )
(b)
104
200MW 200MW
36MW
Fig. 7-5 HVDC projects, mostly current-link systems, in North America [source: ABB]
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 105
Thyristors
A A
(a) G (b)
P
N G
P
N
K K
107
vd 0 ( b)
Vd
0
iG 0
is
vs
t t
t = 0
Fig. 7-8 Thyristor circuit with a resistive load and a series inductance.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 108
van + n
ia Ls
van +
ia
1
3 5
P
+ 4 6
vbn vcn
+ + 4 6
vd
+
Id
N
vd
(a)
(b)
109
vb vP
vc
ia
120 o
60 o
ib vN (a) vd
2VLL 0
ic Vdo
0
t
(b) (c)
110
v Nn ia 0 4 1 4 3 6 ic 5 2 5 6 1
ib 0
111
vPn ia 1 4 ib 0 6 ic 4 1
5 2 2
112
Vd
Rectifier P = Vd I d = + Id Inverter P = Vd I d =
160
(a )
( b)
113
u ia 0 4 1 4 v Nn 1
I a1 I a1
(a ) (b)
115
CU One-line Diagram
116
12-Pulse Waveforms
ia (Y Y ) ia (Y )
(a )
( b)
Fig. 7-17 Six-pulse and 12-pulse current and voltage waveforms [2].
117
AC 1
vd 1
vd 2
+
AC 2
118
0
I d , ref
Id
119
120
AC1
P 1 , Q1
P2 , Q2
AC2
121
+ Vd
iL
vconv
L (a )
vbus
+
Vconv
+ jX L I L
+ Vbus
IL (c)
jX L I L
Vbus
( b)
Fig. 7-22 Block diagram of a voltage-link converter and the phasor diagram.
122
a b c
ida ia
Vd
+
vaN
1: d a
( b)
123
V a
Vd va ac-side 0.5Vd
vaN
vbN
vcN
c va
Vd 2
vb
Vd 2 N (a )
vc Vd 2
0
(a )
125
+ + Vd ida a + vaN N
ia + vaN
qa
ia
Vd
qa
qa
(b)
(a)
126
f1
fs
2 fs
3 fs
( b)
CHAPTER 8
128
House1
13.8 kV
120V
House2
Transformer
120V
House 3
129
Load (MW)
12
6 AM
12 NOON Time
6 PM
12
100%
(a)
(b)
130
(a )
131
a = P / V
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.05 0.5 0
132
Fig. 8-4 Voltage-link-system for modern and future power-electronics based loads.
133
Ia
I ra '
+
j Lls
j Llr ' I ma
j Lm
Va (at )
Ema
Rr '
syn slip
Fig. 8-5 Per-phase, steady state equivalent circuit of a three-phase induction motor.
134
Torque-Speed Characteristics
Tem
f5
f4
f3
f2
f1
Load Torque
slip syn
3
slip syn
1
135
Feedback controller
Vo*
136
137
138
+
vs
Power Electronic Interface
vinj
Load
140
141
STATCOM
jX Utility
STATCOM
142
Linear Load
is
+
Vs
vs
(b) (a) Is
143
is
is1
idistortion (= is is1 )
1 /
T1
0
( b)
144
I t
T1 is1
(b) 0 4I /
idistortion
I
(c) 0
t I
145
0.9 0.8
PF DPF 0.6
0.5 0.4 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0.7
%THD
146
147
Short-Circuit Current
Zs
+ +
Zs
I sc
Vs
Vs
(a)
(b)
Figure 8-18 (a) Utility (b) Short-Circuit Current. Figure 5-6 (a) UtilitySupply, supply; (b) short circuit current.
148
CHAPTER 9
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
150
Heat in
Boiler Pump
Turbine
Gen
H
Condenser
(a )
Heat out
(b)
Fig. 9-1 Synchronous generators driven by (a) steam turbines, and (b) hydraulic turbines.
151
(a)
(b)
152
S N
(a)
(b)
(c)
153
Sinusoidally-Distributed Windings
b axis
ib
2 / 3 2 / 3 2 / 3
3'
4'
ia
a axis
2'
1'
7
ia
ic
c axis
ia
6 5
2
4
3
(a)
(b)
ib
b'
a axis a 0 o a ' ia
ib
ia
ic
c
c'
ic c
(a) (b)
c axis 240 o
syn
S
a-axis
156
N a-axis
syn
S
ea
Fig. 9-7 Current direction and voltage polarities; the rotor position shown induces maximum ea .
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 157
N a-axis
G B f (at t = 0)
syn
Im
syn
S
eaf
N
Re
a-axis
Eaf
(a )
S
( b) (c)
Fig. 9-8 Induced emf eaf due to rotating rotor field with the rotor.
158
ib
2 / 3
Im
2 / 3 2 / 3
ia
e j0 a axis 900 Ea , AR
Re
Ia
a-axis
ic
c axis
G B AR (at t = 0)
4 3
(a )
(b )
(c)
159
Im
Eaf Ea , AR
Ea Ia
Re
jX m I a
Eaf
jX m I a
X As
Rs
Ea (b )
Va
(a)
160
+
Eaf = Eaf
jX T
+
V =V 0 o
generator mode 90 o
0
(a )
90 o
(b)
161
Pe
90 o (b)
162
90 o
jX s I a
Ia
Va
I aq
Ia
Va
I aq
Ia
Va
90 o
( b) (c)
(a )
163
Synchronous Condenser
Synchronous Condenser
164
Generator
output
ac regulator
165
166
(a )
( b)
Fig. 9-17 Armature (a) and field current (b), after a sudden short circuit [source: 4].
167
Im
' Eaf
'' Eaf
jX s I a
+
+ Eaf
jX s' I a
jX s'' I a
Ea
Re
jX s I a jX s' I a jX s'' I a
Ea
(a )
Ia
(b)
Fig. 9-18 Synchronous generator modeling for transient and sub-transient conditions.
168
CHAPTER 10
169
A Radial System
VS PS + jQS PR + jQR VR
PS + jQS
+
jX L
PR + jQR I +
VR
jX L
VS Load
(a) (b)
170
PS + jQS
jX L I
jX L +
+
VS
PR
QR
VR
/2
VR (a) (b) Fig. 10-2 Phasor diagram and the equivalent circuit with VS = VR = 1pu .
171
Vx x
(a)
VR
Vx
(b)
172
0.8
0.6
(a )
PR + jQR
0.4
0.2
0 0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
( b)
PR / SIL
Fig. 10-4 Voltage collapse in a radial system (example of 345-kV line, 200 km long).
173
174
jX Th I jX Th
(a) (b)
I
Fig. 10-6 Effect of leading and lagging currents due to the shunt compensating device.
175
Vbus
1 jC
IC
IC
(a )
0 ( b)
176
Vbus iL iL
0 (a ) ( b) (c )
IL
177
Vbus
Linear Range
C A B
Vbus
V2 V1 V2 V1
1 jC
IC
IL
capacitive
(a )
inductive
( b)
capacitive
inductive
(c)
178
STATCOM
I conv I conv + Vconv + Vd Vbus
+ +
jXI conv
+ Vconv
Vbus
jXI conv
(a )
( b)
179
capacitive
inductive I
conv
180
(a )
(b)
(c)
181
CHAPTER 11
182
E Pm Pe XL
(a )
+ V1
jX L / 2
+ VB 0 ( b)
183
Bus 1
XL
VB = VB 0
Pm during-fault 0
0 1
Pm
Pe
(b)
XL
(a )
184
0 .2
0 .4
0 .6
0 .8
1 .2
1 .4
185
Power-Angle Characteristics
Pe
Bus 1
XL
VB = VB 0
B Pe = Pm A
Pre-fault post-fault
Pm
Pe
(a )
XL
0
during fault
cA
(b)
max
186
post-fault
187
0 1
crit
max
188
Pre-fault
Pe = Pm 15
10 5 0 0
B A
during fault
post-fault
0 = 22.470
20
40
60
80 0 cA = 75
100
160
180
Fig. 11-7 Power angle curves and equal-area criterion in Example 11-2.
189
k and k
Pe , k
Fig. 11-8 Block diagram of transient stability program for an n-generator case.
190
191
1
0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6
2
0 . 8 1 1 .2 1 .4 1 .6
192
Fig. 11-11 Growing Power Oscillations: Western USA/Canada system, Aug 10, 1996 [4].
193
CHAPTER 12
194
Generator
output
ac regulator
195
(a )
( b)
Fig. 12-2 (a) The Interconnections in North America, (b) Control Areas [Source: 2]
196
Supplementary Control
1 R
f0
a f
b
slope = R
Turbine
Pm Pm
(a )
Pe
PLoad
(b)
Pm
Pm
197
Load Sharing
unit 2
f
G G1 unit1 1
unit 2
G2
Pm 2 unit 1
Pe 2
f0
a
c
e
G1
b d
G2
( Pm1 + Pm 2 ) G1
Pm 2
Pm1
Pm1
Pe1
(a )
PLoad
Pm1
(b)
Pm 2
Pm
198
P21
Area 2
199
+
+
Supplementary Controller k s
Governor
Fig. 12-6 Area Control Error (ACE) for Automatic Generation Control (AGC).
200
Bus-3
Pm1
Area 1 Pe1 P1 2
M
Area 2 Bus-2 Pe 2 Pm 2
Load
Fig. 12-7 Two control areas in the example power system with 3 buses.
201
Power Flow on Tie-Lines between Two Control Areas Following a Load Change
202
jX 1
jX 12
jX 2
+ E2 2
203
+
+
ACE1
Ps1
1 TG1s + 1
Pv1
1 TS 1s + 1
+
Pm1
syn
M 1s + D1 Area 1
s1 1 s
Governor
Steam Turbine
P12 = T12 ( 1 2 )
T12
1 ( 1 2 ) 2
1 s
+
B2
ACE 2
K2 1 s Ts 2 s + 1 Regulator
Ps 2
1 R2
1 TG 2 s + 1 Governor
Pv 2
1 TS 2 s + 1 Steam Turbine
Pm 2
PLoad 2
syn
M 2 s + D2
Area 2
s 2
1/ syn
Fig. 12-10 Two-area system with AGC. Source: adapted from [6].
204
Pm1
0.5
Pm 2
-0.5
P 12
-1 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Fig. 12-11 Simulink results of the two-area system with AGC in Example 12-3.
205
206
(a )
Pi [ MW ]
Pi [ MW ]
Fig. 12-13 (a) Fuel cost and (b) Marginal cost, as functions of the power output.
207
C2 ( P ) P
C3 ( P ) P
P 1
P2
P3
208
CHAPTER 13
209
a ia ib
ic
b c
Ia Ib
Ic
g ( b)
(a )
210
Symmetrical Components
Ia
Ic I c1 I c0 I
b0
I a1
I b2
Ia2
Ia0
Ib
Ic2
I b1 Fig. 13-2 Sequence components.
211
212
Z1
I a1 + Va1 = 0
+
Ea 1
(b)
213
Z1
+
Va1 Ia2
I a1
Ea1
a b c
Ia
Z2
+
Va 2
3Z f
Zf g (a ) ( b) Z0
Ia0 + Va 0
214
+
Ic Ib (a ) Ea1
Z1
+ Va1
Z2
+ Va 2
Z0
+ Va 0
( b)
215
+ Z f I a1
I a1 Ib Ic Ia2
a b c
g
+
Ea1
Z1
+ Va1
(b)
Z2
+ Va 2
(a )
216
217
Z0
Zn (a ) 3Z n ( b)
+
Va 0
218
Fig. 13-10 (a) One-line diagram of a simple power system and bus voltages.
219
+ V1 = 1.00 pu
j 0.10 pu I fault
j 0.10 pu
220
+ Va1
j 0.12 pu
+ j 0.10 pu +
V1 = 1.00 pu
Fig. 13-12 Sequence networks for calculating fault current due to SLG fault on bus-2.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 221
Pe 2 Pm 2
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Burden
(b) (a)
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(a)
(b)
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Differential Relays
CT CT CT
Relay
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229
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Zones of Protection
Zone 3: 1-1.5 sec Time Zone 2: 20-25 cycles Zone 1: instantaneous
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Relay
Relay
Relay
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Circuit Breakers
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R + vs ( t ) + v (t ) (a ) i (t )
1 .5
asymmetric symmetric
offset
0 .5 0 0 - 0 .5
-1
0 .05
0.1
0 .15
0 .2
(b)
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CHAPTER 14
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t1
t2
t[ s ]
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(a )
(b)
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Switching Surges
va vb L L
500 kV Line 100 miles
A B (open) C
vc
L (a ) ( b)
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Fig. 14-4 Frequency dependence of the transmission line parameters [Source: 2].
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Calculation of Switching Over-Voltages on Line 1-3 in the Example 3-Bus Power System
Bus-1 Bus-3
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0 1 .2 s
40 s
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