Kate Speakman

Things to remember:
Acids
HCl H2SO4 HNO3 H3PO4 H2CO3 HNO2 H2SO3 Hydrochloric Sulfuric Nitric Phosphoric Carbonic Nitrous Sulfurous

their salts
chloride sulfate nitrate phosphate carbonate nitrite sulfite

Polyatomic Ions
OHSO42NO3PO43CO32NH4+ Hydroxide
Sulfate

Nitrate Phosphate Carbonate Ammonium

Valencies
Along the groups of the Periodic Table 1+ 2+ 3+ 4 3- 2- 1- N Fixed valencies Zn2+ Ag+

Diatomic Molecules
The following elements exist as molecules made of the same element H2, N2, O2, Group 7 (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, At2)

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Kate Speakman

Chemistry Module 1 The Chemical Earth

1. The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures
ELEMENT: only one type of particle, pure substance that cannot be made simpler by chemical means COMPOUND: two or more types of particles chemically bonded, pure substance that can be made simpler by chemical means MIXTURE: two or more types of particles, impure substance that can be separated by physical means The regions of the Earth that contain examples of elements, compounds and mixtures: LITHOSPHERE Mixtures- coal, crude oil, natural gas, granite rock Compounds- minerals, soil HYDROSPHERE Mixture- ocean water, rivers, lakes Compounds- water, NaCl Elements- oxygen, nitrogen ATMOSPHERE Compounds- water vapour, methane, carbon dioxide Element- nitrogen, oxygen, argon BIOSPHERE Mixture- animal cell Compounds- water, CO2, proteins, carbohydrates Elements- oxygen, nitrogen

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Kate Speakman

Separation Techniques
Technique Sieving Evaporation Distillation Fractional distillation Filtration Separating Funnel Magnetic Separation Type of mixture Solids of different sizes Dissolved solid in liquid, solution Miscible liquids Miscible liquids Insoluble solid + liquid Immiscible liquids Solids Physical property used Particle size Boiling point Boiling point (big diff) Boiling point (small diff) Solubility + particle size Density Attraction to a magnet

Other techniques include floatation, crystallization and chromatography.

Gravimetric Analysis a way to describe the composition of a mixture that is

accomplished by specifying the mass of each component (analysis based on mass) Chemical reactions products analysis Pharmaceuticals Quality control Viability of mining Analysis of soil (eg for crops)
mass of the particular substance present Percentage composition = total mass of the sample mixture

IUPAC Names systematic way of naming carbon compounds

Series ALKANE ALKENE ALKYNE Name Ending -ANE -ENE -YNE General Formula CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n-2 Bonding in C series Single Bond C - C Double Bond C = C Triple Bond C C

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Kate Speakman

Writing chemical equations

Acid + base salt + water Acid + metal salt + hydrogen gas Acid + metal carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide gas Metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas

Be able to plan and perform an investigation to separate components of a naturally occurring or appropriate mixture
Eg. Sand and salt Add water as a solvent which dissolves salt. Filter off the solution to obtain sand crystals and salt solution. Evaporate to dryness the salt solution to obtain salt crystals.

Industrial Separation Processes

Example Separating sand and gravel Separating crude oil into various fragments Obtaining salt from sea water Removing solids from petrol Separating gold from sand Separation Method Sieving Fractional distillation Evaporation Filtration Sedimentation Property Enabling Separation Difference in particle size Difference in boiling points Difference in boiling points Difference in particle size Difference in density

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Kate Speakman

2. Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some are found uncombined
The more reactive an element, the less likely it is that it exists as an uncombined element Properties of metals
Solid at room temperature High boiling point Conducts electricity Malleable Ductile (drawn into a wire) Lustrous Conducts heat High density However, there are two exceptions: mercury is classified as a metal and carbon as a non-metal.

Uses of metals
COPPER: Its high electrical conductivity and ductility make it a suitable material for electrical wires. Its high malleability and thermal conductivity together with its low chemical reactivity make it ideal for hot water pipes LEAD: Its high malleability makes it useful for lead sheeting used as flashing on roofs. Its good electrical conductivity makes it useful as the electrodes in a car battery The Properties of non-metals are contradictory to the properties of metals.

Uses of non-metals
Compounds in fuels, fertilisers, building materials, drugs, paints, etc HELIUM: Low density makes it used for children balloons

Elements in the Periodic Table

Of the 92 naturally occurring elements, at room temperature (25C) Two are liquids: mercury and bromine Eleven are gases: oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, the six noble gases, fluorine and chlorine The rest are solids

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Kate Speakman

3. Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds because of interactions at the atomic level
Matter is made of particles that are continuously moving and interacting

Energy levels in atoms

Each electron in each energy level has a constant amount of energy. Each of these energy levels can accommodate only a certain maximum number of electrons; in general the nth energy level can accommodate 2n2 electrons. In atoms, the electrons tend to be in the lowest energy levels

Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom Mass number is the number of particles within the nucleus of an atom (the sum of the
protons and neutrons)

Cation is a positively charged ion, which has lost electrons (eg Mg2+) Anion is a negatively charged ion, which has gained electrons (eg N3-)
Metals lose electrons Non-metals gain electrons

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Kate Speakman

Lewis Dot Diagrams

These diagrams represent valence electrons only For atoms: Count number of valence electrons and add dots Na has 1 valence electron F has 7 valence electrons For ions: Na atoms lose 1 electron to become Na+ ions F atoms gain 1 electron to become F- ions For ionic compounds: Ionic compounds can be represented thus LiCl = MgCl2 = For covalent molecules: H2 has a single covalent bond F2 and all the Group 7 elements have single covalent bonds O2 has a double covalent bond N2 has a triple covalent bond Remember that the atoms want to have their valence shells completely filled

Formation of ionic compounds

Ionic compounds are composed of oppositely charged ions. Although ionic compounds are composed of charged particles, the overall charge is neutral. Rb Rb+ + eSe + 2e- Se2-

Molecules

Can move independently of each other (discrete) Molecules containing only one atom are defined as the Noble Gases

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Molecular compounds are composed of two or more atoms of different elements. These compounds are held together by shared electrons between pairs of atoms. This sharing is called covalent bonding

4. Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring sources

A Physical change is when no new substance is formed, eg boiling water A Chemical change is when one or more new substances are formed (also called a
chemical reaction) eg electrolysis of water Comparing boiling and electrolysis of water

Boiling converts liquid water to gaseous water, easy to reverse

Electrolysis produces two new substances, difficult to reverse

Decomposition Reactions
Light: Silver salt(s) silver(s) + non-metal
2AgCl(s) 2Ag(s) + Cl2(g)
Silvers

Heat (thermal decomposition): Metal carbonate(s) metal oxide(s) + CO2(g)

CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)
Carbonates and hydroxides

Metal hydroxide(s) metal oxide(s) + H2O(l)

Ca(OH)2(s) CaO(s) +H2O(l)

Electrolysis: Binary compound(l) 2 elements

Any 2 elements chemically combined

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Kate Speakman
2H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g)

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Kate Speakman

The amount of energy needed to break and make bonds between atoms in compounds

The amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of the strength of the attraction, or bond, between them When separating atoms in a compound, we are actually overcoming the strong chemical bonds holding the atoms together in the compound

Investigations

Breaking a bond requires energy Making a bond releases energy

Decomposition of carbonate by heat CuCO3(s) Heat the copper carbonate and let the gas produced be immersed in limewater. If the limewater turns milky, then CO2 is present.

Light-induced decomposition of a silver salt AgCl(s) Spray a piece of filter paper with AgNO3(aq) and NaCl(aq) which will form AgCl(s) on the paper. Place a non-transparent object on the filter paper and leave in light. Observe. In exposure of light, silver salts turn first purple and then black. NB: silver salts are used in photography due to their sensitivity to light Electrical decomposition (electrolysis) of water H2O(l)

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Kate Speakman We use a voltmeter to investigate the electrolysis of water. The volume of H2(g) is twice the volume of the O2(g) produced. The H2(g) is identified using the pop test, and the O2(g) is tested using the glowing splint test

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Kate Speakman

5. The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their bonding and structure
Physical properties are properties that relate to physical changes, such as melting and
boiling points, appearance, density, electrical conductivity and hardness

Chemical properties are properties that relate to chemical reactions that substances
undergo, such as ease of decomposition by heat, effect of light, and reactivity with other substances

Molecular solids Covalent molecular

Discrete particles which can move independently of other particles Low

Lattice Solids Metallic

3D lattice of cations surrounded by a sea of delocalised valence electrons High

Ionic
3D lattice of ions (alternating anions and cations) High As solid: no, As aqueous soln: yes (Ions are mobile and ca move in electrical field)

Covalent network
3D lattice of atoms (except
graphite which is layers of 2D lattices)

Structure

Melting and boiling points

Very high

Conduct electricity?

No

Yes (mobile electrons can move in electrical field)

No

Water solubility Hardness and/or workability Bonding (forces holding particles together in the solid)

Variable Soft

no Variable hardness; malleable and ductile Delocalised electrons (metallic bonding) Hard and brittle

No (bonds are too strong) Hard and brittle

Intermolecular (strong covalent bonds)

Strong electrostatic

Covalent bonding throughout the crystal

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Kate Speakman

Common elements that exist as

Covalent molecules: H2O and Br2 (liquids) CO2, O2, N2 (gases) and I2 (solid) Covalent lattices: Carbon (diamond and graphite being allotropes of C), SiO2(sand or quartz)

Empirical Formula is the lowest ratio formula. It does not tell you the number of
atoms present For example, NaCl means that for every 1 Na there is 1 Cl (not the exact amount of each element) The empirical formula is used for ionic compounds because the size of the lattice is unknown therefore a ratio must be used Another example is glucose C6H12O6 is its molecular formula, whereas its empirical formula (lowest ratio) is CH2O

Properties of compounds vs. properties of the elements within the compound

Using the example of Magnesium and Oxygen Mg = metallic and shiny O2 = a colourless and odourless gas MgO = white solid, brittle and ashy Therefore, the properties of the compound are DIFFERENT to the properties of each of the elements that make up the compound

Models
Advantages Can observe structure (bond lengths, bond angles) Represent something you cant see 3-D representation Simplify things to give an understanding Help to appreciate combining abilities of atoms Disadvantages

Incorrect scale Bond lengths and angles are averages only Give an inaccurate view of particles (eg solid atom)

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