UNIT 1 Computer-aided design

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) Computer-aided design (CAD) involves creating computer models defined by geometrical parameters. These models typically appear on a computer monitor as a three-dimensional representation of a part or a system of parts, which can be readily altered by changing relevant parameters. CAD systems enable designers to view objects under a wide variety of representations and to test these objects by simulating real-world conditions. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) uses geometrical design data to control automated machinery. CAM systems are associated with computer numerical control (CNC) or direct numerical control (DNC) systems. These systems differ from older forms of numerical control (NC) in that geometrical data are encoded mechanically. Since both CAD and CAM use computer-based methods for encoding geometrical data, it is possible for the processes of design and manufacture to be highly integrated. Computer-aided design and manufacturing systems are commonly referred to as CAD/CAM. THE ORIGINS OF CAD/CAM CAD had its origins in three separate sources, which also serve to highlight the basic operations that CAD systems provide. The first source of CAD resulted from attempts to automate the drafting process. These developments were pioneered by the General Motors Research Laboratories in the early 1960s. One of the important time-saving advantages of computer modeling over traditional drafting methods is that the former can be quickly corrected or manipulated by changing a model's parameters. The second source of CAD was in the testing of designs by simulation. The use of computer modeling to test products was pioneered by high-tech industries like aerospace and semiconductors. The third source of CAD development resulted from efforts to facilitate the flow from the design process to the manufacturing process using numerical control (NC) technologies, which enjoyed widespread use in many applications by the mid-1960s. It was this source that resulted in the linkage between CAD and CAM. One of the most important trends in CAD/CAM technologies is the ever-tighter integration between the design and manufacturing stages of CAD/CAM-based production processes. The development of CAD and CAM and particularly the linkage between the two overcame traditional NC shortcomings in expense, ease of use, and speed by enabling the design and manufacture of a part to be undertaken using the same system of encoding geometrical data. This innovation greatly shortened the period between design and manufacture and greatly expanded the scope of production processes for which automated machinery could be economically used. Just as important, CAD/CAM gave the designer much more direct control over the production process, creating the possibility of completely integrated design and manufacturing processes. The rapid growth in the use of CAD/CAM technologies after the early 1970s was made possible by the development of mass-produced silicon chips and the microprocessor, resulting in more readily affordable computers. As the price of computers continued to decline and their processing power improved, the use of CAD/CAM broadened from large firms using large-scale mass production techniques to firms of all sizes. The scope of operations to which CAD/CAM was applied broadened as well. In addition to partsshaping by traditional machine tool processes such as stamping, drilling, milling, and grinding, CAD/CAM has come to be used by firms involved in producing consumer electronics, electronic components, molded plastics, and a host of other products. Computers are also used to control a number of manufacturing

processes (such as chemical processing) that are not strictly defined as CAM because the control data are not based on geometrical parameters. Using CAD, it is possible to simulate in three dimensions the movement of a part through a production process. This process can simulate feed rates, angles and speeds of machine tools, the position of partholding clamps, as well as range and other constraints limiting the operations of a machine. The continuing development of the simulation of various manufacturing processes is one of the key means by which CAD and CAM systems are becoming increasingly integrated. CAD/CAM systems also facilitate communication among those involved in design, manufacturing, and other processes. This is of particular importance when one firm contracts another to either design or produce a component. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES Modeling with CAD systems offers a number of advantages over traditional drafting methods that use rulers, squares, and compasses. For example, designs can be altered without erasing and redrawing. CAD systems also offer "zoom" features analogous to a camera lens, whereby a designer can magnify certain elements of a model to facilitate inspection. Computer models are typically three dimensional and can be rotated on any axis, much as one could rotate an actual three dimensional model in one's hand, enabling the designer to gain a fuller sense of the object. CAD systems also lend themselves to modeling cutaway drawings, in which the internal shape of a part is revealed, and to illustrating the spatial relationships among a system of parts. To understand CAD it is also useful to understand what CAD cannot do. CAD systems have no means of comprehending real-world concepts, such as the nature of the object being designed or the function that object will serve. CAD systems function by their capacity to codify geometrical concepts. Thus the design process using CAD involves transferring a designer's idea into a formal geometrical model. Efforts to develop computer-based "artificial intelligence" (AI) have not yet succeeded in penetrating beyond the mechanicalrepresented by geometrical (rule-based) modeling. Other limitations to CAD are being addressed by research and development in the field of expert systems. This field is derived from research done in AI. One example of an expert system involves incorporating information about the nature of materials their weight, tensile strength, flexibility, and so on into CAD software. By including this and other information, the CAD system could then "know" what an expert engineer knows when that engineer creates a design. The system could then mimic the engineer's thought pattern and actually "create" more of the design. Expert systems might involve the implementation of more abstract principles, such as the nature of gravity and friction, or the function and relation of commonly used parts, such as levers or nuts and bolts. Expert systems might also come to change the way data are stored and retrieved in CAD/CAM systems, supplanting the hierarchical system with one that offers greater flexibility. Such futuristic concepts, however, are all highly dependent on our abilities to analyze human decision processes and to translate these into mechanical equivalents if possible. One of the key areas of development in CAD technologies is the simulation of performance. Among the most common types of simulation are testing for response to stress and modeling the process by which a part might be manufactured or the dynamic relationships among a system of parts. In stress tests, model surfaces are shown by a grid or mesh, that distort as the part comes under simulated physical or thermal stress. Dynamics tests function as a complement or substitute for building working prototypes. The ease with which a part's specifications can be changed facilitates the development of optimal dynamic efficiencies, both as regards the functioning of a system of parts and the manufacture of any given part. Simulation is also used in electronic design automation, in which simulated flow of current through a circuit enables the rapid testing of various component configurations. The processes of design and manufacture are, in some sense, conceptually separable. Yet the design process must be undertaken with an understanding of the nature of the production process. It is

necessary, for example, for a designer to know the properties of the materials with which the part might be built, the various techniques by which the part might be shaped, and the scale of production that is economically viable. The conceptual overlap between design and manufacture is suggestive of the potential benefits of CAD and CAM and the reason they are generally considered together as a system. Recent technical developments have fundamentally impacted the utility of CAD/CAM systems. For example, the ever-increasing processing power of personal computers has given them viability as a vehicle for CAD/CAM application. Another important trend is toward the establishment of a single CADCAM standard, so that different data packages can be exchanged without manufacturing and delivery delays, unnecessary design revisions, and other problems that continue to bedevil some CAD-CAM initiatives. Finally, CAD-CAM software continues to evolve in such realms as visual representation and integration of modeling and testing applications.

Computer-aided design (CAD) Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing. CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations. Computer-aided design is used in many fields. Its use in electronic design is known as Electronic Design Automation, or EDA. In mechanical design, it is also known as computer-aided drafting (CAD) or computer-aided design and drafting (CADD), which describes the process of creating a technical drawing with the use of computer software. CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector based graphics to depict the objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphics showing the overall appearance of designed objects. However, it involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information, such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific conventions. CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) space. CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design, prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals, often called DCC Digital content creation. The modern ubiquity and power of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques unheard of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational geometry, computer graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete differential geometry. The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is occasionally called computer-aided geometric design (CAGD). While the goal of automated CAD systems is to increase efficiency, they are not necessarily the best way to allow newcomers to understand the geometrical principles of Solid Modeling. For this, scripting languages such as PLaSM (Programming Language of Solid Modeling) are more suitable. Over View Beginning in the 1980s computer-aided design programs reduced the need of draftsmen significantly, especially in small to mid-sized companies. Their affordability and ability to run on personal computers also allowed engineers to do their own drafting and analytic work, eliminating the need for entire departments. In today's world, many students in universities do not learn manual drafting techniques because they are not required to do so. The days of hand drawing for final drawings are virtually over. Universities no longer require the use of protractors and compasses to create drawings, instead there are several classes that focus on the use of CAD software. Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D vector-based drafting systems to 3D solid and surface modelers. Modern CAD packages can also frequently allow rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired angle, even from the inside looking

out. Some CAD software is capable of dynamic mathematical modeling, in which case it may be marketed as CADD. CAD is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all types of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial structures (hospitals and factories).
[8]

CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components. It can also be used to design objects. Furthermore many CAD applications now offer advanced rendering and animation capabilities so engineers can better visualize their product designs.4D BIM is a type of virtual construction engineering simulation incorporating time or schedule related information for project management. CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-aided technologies, with benefits such as lower product development costs and a greatly shortened design cycle. CAD enables designers to layout and develop work on screen, print it out and save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings. Uses Computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and is used in many ways depending on the profession of the user and the type of software in question. CAD is one part of the whole Digital Product Development (DPD) activity within the Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) processes, and as such is used together with other tools, which are either integrated modules or stand-alone products, such as: Computer-aided engineering (CAE) and Finite element analysis (FEA) Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) including instructions to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines Photo realistic rendering Document management and revision control using Product Data Management (PDM).

CAD is also used for the accurate creation of photo simulations that are often required in the preparation of Environmental Impact Reports, in which computer-aided designs of intended buildings are superimposed into photographs of existing environments to represent what that locale will be like were the proposed facilities allowed to be built. Potential blockage of view corridors and shadow studies are also frequently analyzed through the use of CAD. CAD has been proven to be useful to engineers as well. Using four properties which are history, features, parameterization, and high level constraints. The construction history can be used to look back into the model's personal features and work on the single area rather than the whole model. Parameters and constraints can be used to determine the size, shape, and other properties of the different modeling elements. The features in the CAD system can be used for the variety of tools for measurement such as tensile strength, yield strength, electrical or electro-magnetic properties. Also its stress, strain, timing or how the element gets affected in certain temperatures, etc. Fundamentals of CAD

CAD Definition: Computer Aided Design (CAD) is assistance of computer in engineering processes such as creation, optimization, analysis and modifications. CAD involves creating computer models defined by geometrical parameters which can be readily altered by changing relevant parameters. CAD systems enable designers to view objects under a wide variety of representations and to test these objects by simulating real-world conditions. It is an integration of Mechanical and Computer technology to aid in the design process like Modeling, Assembly, Drafting, Die Design, Tool Design, Sheet metal, analysis of products. It is both a visual and fast process which is used by Engineers in the Mechanical, Automobile, Production, Plastic, Aeronautics field to design and develop the entire product on the computer before realy producing it. CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and 2D drawings of physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components. The designed product on the computer can be tested, modified and finalize for real production. The design process: The main tasks of computer application in manufacturing systems are: 1. How computers are used in the generation and management of design information describing products? 2. How computers are used in the management of information about the manufacturing system, which makes the products? The process of designing something is characterized as an interactive procedure, which consists of six identifiable steps or phases: 1. Recognition of need. 2. Definition of problem. 3. Synthesis. 4. Analysis and optimization. 5. Evaluation. 6. Presentation. Main Application of CAD Solid Modeling This process is used to create solid components of desired shape by joining and cutting different solid volumes. The final solid volume created is called solid model. it is replica of actual productand we can see, rotate, the model like a real product. This process is used in automobile, plastic, aluminium, home appliances and engine design field. Surface Modeling This process is used to create surfaces of desired shape by using special operations. We can trim, stitch; join different surfaces to create a final shape model. The final shape is called surface model. This process is used for body design, shape design in automobile, aerospace, ship design fields. Assembly This process is used to assemble the models created in solid/ surface modeling to create the final assembly. This is used to see the actual fitment of all models and see the actual working of assembly. This process is used to assemble the models in automobile, plastic, aluminium, home appliances and engine design field. Drafting Detailing This process is used to create the 2D drawings of componets. This can be used for 3D to 2D conversion and 2D to 2D conversion. it is used to create drawings of the models in automobile, plastic, aluminium, home appliances, engine design field.

Core Cavity Generation This process is used to create the Core/Cavity/Sliders for the product designed in solid/ surface modeling. It is used to create dies for plastic, aluminium, sheetmetal, forging etc. componets. Software helps the engineer to give allowances, selecting parting lines and mould boxes according to the standards. Tool Design This process is used to create different parts and components used in a tool for production of Plastic, Aluminium etc. components. Along with Core and Cavity this tool consist of injection mechanism, ejection mechanism, cooling system, guiding system etc. Data Migration This technique is used to transfer CAD data (3D Model) from one Software to other Software by direct interface or by intermediate files like IGES, STEP, VDA, Parasloid Files. On the same model we can do different operations from different softwares like CATIA, Pro/E, NX, Solid Edge, Solid Works etc. It gives the designer freedom to think beyond the capabilities of softwares. Computer-aided process planning (CAPP)

Process Planning

Process Planning In manufacturing, the goal is to produce components that meet the design specifications. The design specification ensures the functionality aspect. Next step to follow is to assemble these components into final product. Process planning acts as a bridge between design and manufacturing by translating design specification into manufacturing process detail. Hence, in general, process planning is a production organization activity that transforms a product design into a set of instruction (sequence, machine tool setup etc.) to manufacture machined part economically and competitively. The information provided in design includes dimensional specification (geometric shape and its feature) and technical specification (tolerance, surface finish etc.) Now-a-days, process planning is applied to many manufacturing industries like metal cutting, sheet metal forming, composite and ceramic fabrication and other manufacturing processes. Figure 9.1 represents the various steps involved in developing a process plan. Various steps in Process planning The analysis of finished part requirement is the first step in process planning. Initially the features of parts are analyzed. Examples of geometric feature include plane, cylinder, cone step, edge and include fillet. These common features can be modified by the addition of slots, pockets, grooves, holes and others. The second step is the selection of raw work piece shape, size (dimensions and weight), material and other attributes are determined. Weight and material of the raw part are determined by the functional requirement of plan. The next logical step in process planning is to determine the appropriate types of processing operations and their sequences to transform the features, dimensions and tolerances of a part from the raw to the finished state. There may be many ways to produce a design sometimes constraints are also considered like some feature be machined before or after other. Furthermore, the types of machine, available tools as well as batch size influence the process sequence. There are basically two approaches to process planning which are as follows: 1. Manual experience-based process planning, and 2. Computer-aided process planning method. Manual Experience-based Process Planning The steps mentioned in the previous section are essentially same for manual process planning. Following difficulties are associated with manual experienced based process planning method : It is time consuming and over a period of time, plan developed are not consistent. Feasibility of process planning is dependent on many upstream factors (design and availability of machine tools). Downstream manufacturing activities such as scheduling and machine tool allocation are also influenced by such process plan. Therefore, in order to generate a proper process plan, the process planner must have sufficient knowledge and experience. Hence, it is very difficult to develop the skill of the successful process planner and also a time consuming issue. Computer-Aided Process Planning Computer-aided process planning (CAPP) helps determine the processing steps required to make a part after CAP has been used to define what is to be made. CAPP programs develop a process plan or route sheet by following either a variant or a generative approach. The variant approach uses a file of standard process plans to retrieve the best plan in the file after reviewing the design. The plan can then be revised manually if it is not totally appropriate. The generative approach to CAPP starts with the product design specifications and can generate a detailed process plan complete with machine settings. CAPP systems

use design algorithms, a file of machine characteristics, and decision logic to build the plans. Expert systems are based on decision rules and have been used in some generative CAPP systems. CAPP has recently emerged as the most critical link to integrated CAD/CAM system into interorganizational flow. Main focus is to optimize the system performance in a global context. The essentiality of computer can easily be understood by taking an example, e.g. if we change the design, we must be able to fall back on a module of CAPP to generate cost estimates for these design changes. Similarly for the case of the breakdown of machines on shop floor. In this case, alternative process plan must be in hand so that the most economical solution for the situation can be adopted. Figure 9.2 is one such representation, where setting of multitude of interaction among various functions of an organization and dynamic changes that takes place in these sub functional areas have been shown. Hence, the use of computer in process planning is essential.

Computer Aided Process Planning

Computer-aided process planning (CAPP) is the use of computer technology to aid in the process planning of a part or product, in manufacturing. CAPP is the link between CAD and CAM in that it provides for the planning of the process to be used in producing a designed part. Process planning is concerned with determining the sequence of individual manufacturing operations needed to produce a given part or product. The resulting operation sequence is documented on a form typically referred to as a route sheet containing a listing of the production operations and associated machine tools for a work part or assembly. Process planning in manufacturing also refers to the planning of use of blanks, spare parts, packaging material, user instructions (manuals) etc. The term "Computer-Aided Production Planning" is used in different context on different parts of the production process; to some extent CAPP overlaps with the term "PIC" (Production and Inventory Control). Process planning translates design information into the process steps and instructions to efficiently and effectively manufacture products. As the design process is supported by many computer-aided tools, computer-aided process planning (CAPP) has evolved to simplify and improve process planning and achieve more effective use of manufacturing resources. Process planning is of two types as- 1. generative type computer aided process planning. 2. variant type process planning. Process planning encompasses the activities and functions to prepare a detailed set of plans and instructions to produce a part. The planning begins with engineering drawings, specifications, parts or material lists and a forecast of demand. The results of the planning are: Routings which specify operations, operation sequences, work centers, standards, tooling and fixtures. This routing becomes a major input to the manufacturing resource planning system to define operations for production activity control purposes and define required resources for capacity requirements planning purposes. Process plans which typically provide more detailed, step-by-step work instructions including dimensions related to individual operations, machining parameters, set-up instructions, and quality assurance checkpoints. Fabrication and assembly drawings to support manufacture (as opposed to engineering drawings to define the part).

Kenneth Crow stated that "Manual process planning is based on a manufacturing engineer's experience and knowledge of production facilities, equipment, their capabilities, processes, and tooling. Process planning is very time-consuming and the results vary based on the person doing the planning". According to Engelke, the need for CAPP is greater with an increased number of different types of parts being manufactured, and with a more complex manufacturing process. Computer-aided process planning initially evolved as a means to electronically store a process plan once it was created, retrieve it, modify it for a new part and print the plan. Other capabilities were table-driven cost and standard estimating systems, for sales representatives to create customer quotations and estimate delivery time. The Planning Function There are several process planning functions which can be implemented by computer systems. Process planning is conemed with determining the sequence of individual manufacturing operations needed to produce a given part or product. The resulting operation sequence is documented on a form typically referred to as a route sheet. The route sheet is a listing of the production operations and associated machine tools for a work part or assembly. Closely related to process planning are the functions of determining appropriate cutting conditions for the machining operations and setting the time standards for the operations. All three functions planning the

process, determining the cutting conditions, and setting the time standards have traditionally been carried out as tasks with a very high manual and clerical content. They are also typically routine tasks in which similar or even identical decisions are repeated over and over. Today, these kinds of decisions are being made with the aid of computers. In the first four sections of this chapter we consider the process planning function and how computers can be used to perform this function. Traditional process planning Process planning is accomplished by releasing the part print to the production shop with the instructions make to drawing. Most firms provide a more detailed list of steps describing each operation and identifying each work center. In any case, it is traditionally the task of the manufacturing engineers or industrial engineers in an organization to write these process plans for new part designs to be produced by the shop. The process planning procedure is very much dependent on the experience and judgment of the planner. It is the manufacturing engineers responsibility to determine an optimal routing for each new part design. However, individual engineers each have their own opinions about what constitutes the best routing. Accordingly, there are differences among the operation sequences developed by various planners. Automated process planning Because of the problems encountered with manual process planning, attempts have been made in recent years to capture the logic, judgment, and experience required for this important function and incorporates them into computer programs. Based on the characteristics of a given part, the program automatically generates the manufacturing operation sequence. A computer-aided process planning (CAPP) system offers the potential for reducing the routine clerical work of manufacturing engineers. At the same time, it provides the opportunity to generate production routings which are rational, consistent, and perhaps even optimal. Two alternative approaches to computer-aided process planning have been developed. These are: 1. Retrieval-type CAPP systems (also called variant systems) 2. Generative CAPP systems Retrieval-Type Process Planning Systems Retrieval-type CAPP systems use parts classification and coding and group technology as a foundation. In this approach, the parts produced in the plant are grouped into part families, distinguished according to their manufacturing characteristics. For each part family, a standard process plan is established. The standard process plan is stored in computer files and then retrieved for new work parts which belong to that family. Some form of parts classification and coding system is required to organize the computer files and to permit efficient retrieval of the appropriate process plan for a new work part. For some new parts, editing of the existing process plan may be required. This is done when the manufacturing requirements of the new part are slightly different from the standard. The machine routing may be the same for the new part, but the specific operations required at each machine may be different. The complete process plan must document the operations as well as the sequence of machines through which the part must be routed. Because of the alterations that are made in the retrieved process plan, these CAPP systems are sometimes also called by the name variant system. The user would initiate the procedure by entering the part code number at a computer terminal. The CAPP program then searches the part family matrix file to determine if a match exists. If the file contains an identical code number, the standard machine routing and operation sequence are retrieved from the respective computer files for display to the user. The standard process plan is examined by the user to permit any necessary editing of the plan to make it compatible with the new part design. After editing, the process plan formatter prepares the paper document in the proper form. Generative Process Planning Systems Generative process planning involves the use of the computer to create an individual process plan from scratch, automatically and without human assistance. The computer would employ a set of algorithms to

progress through the various technical and logical decisions toward a final plan for manufacturing. Inputs to the system would include a comprehensive description of the work part. This may involve the use of some form of part code number to summarize the work part data, but it does not involve the retrieval of existing standard plans. Instead, the generative CAPP system synthesizes the design of the optimum process sequence, based on an analysis of part geometry, material, and other factors which would influence manufacturing decisions. In the ideal generative process planning package, any part design could be presented to the system for creation of the optimal plan. In practice, current generative-type systems are far from universal in their applicability. They tend to fall short of a truly generative capability, and they are developed for a somewhat limited range of manufacturing processes. Benefits of CAPP Whether it is a retrieval system or a generative system, computer-aided process planning offers a number of potential advantages over manually oriented process planning. 1. Process rationalization. Computer-automated preparation of operation routings is more likely to be consistent, logical, and optimal than its manual counterpart. The process plans will be consistent because the same computer software is being used by all planners. We avoid the tendency for drastically different process plans from different planners. The process plans tend to be more logical and optimal because the company has presumably incorporated the experience and judgment of its best manufacturing people into the process planning computer software. 2. Increased productivity of process planners. With computer-aided process planning, there is reduced clerical effort, fewer errors are made, and the planners have immediate access to the process planning data base. These benefits translate into higher productivity of the process planners. One system was reported to increase productivity by 600% in the process planning function. 3. Reduced turnaround time. Working with the CAPP system, the process planner is able to prepare a route sheet for a new part in less time compared to manual preparation. This leads to an overall reduction in manufacturing lead time. 4. Improved legibility. The computer-prepared document is neater and easier to read than manually written route sheets. CAPP systems employ standard text, which facilitates interpretation of the process plan in the factory. 5. Incorporation of other application programs. The process planning system can be designed to operate in conjunction with other software packages to automate many of the time-consuming manufacturing support functions. We discuss two of these related planning functions, machinability data systems and computerized work standards, in the following sections. Future development of CAPP Generative or dynamic CAPP is the main focus of development, the ability to automatically generate production plans for new products, or dynamicly update production plans on the basis of resource availability. Generative CAPP will probably use iterative methods, where simple production plans are applied to automatic CAD/CAM development to refine the initial production plan. Traditional CAPP methods that optimise plans in a linear manner have not been able to satisfy the need for flexible planning, so new dynamic systems will explore all possible combinations of production processes, and then generate plans according to available machining resources. For example, K.S. Lee et al. states that "By considering the multi-selection tasks simultaneously, a specially designed genetic algorithm searches through the entire solution space to identify the optimal plan".

According to Author Kenneth Crow

INTRODUCTION Process planning translates design information into the process steps and instructions to efficiently and effectively manufacture products. As the design process is supported by many computer-aided tools, computer-aided process planning (CAPP) has evolved to simplify and improve process planning and achieve more effective use of manufacturing resources. PROCESS PLANNING Process planning encompasses the activities and functions to prepare a detailed set of plans and instructions to produce a part. The planning begins with engineering drawings, specifications, parts or material lists and a forecast of demand. The results of the planning are: Routings which specify operations, operation sequences, work centers, standards, tooling and fixtures.This routing becomes a major input to the manufacturing resource planning system to define operations for production activity control purposes and define required resources for capacity requirements planning purposes. Process plans which typically provide more detailed,step-by-step work instructions including dimensions related to individual operations, machining parameters, set-up instructions, and quality assurance checkpoints. Fabrication and assembly drawings to support manufacture (as opposed to engineering drawings to define the part). Manual process planning is based on a manufacturing engineer's experience and knowledge of production facilities,equipment, their capabilities, processes, and tooling. Process planning is very time-consuming and the results vary based on the person doing the planning. COMPUTER-AIDED PROCESS PLANNING Manufacturers have been pursuing an evolutionary path to improve and computerize process planning in the following five stages: Stage I - Manual classification; standardized process plans Stage II - Computer maintained process plans Stage III - Variant CAPP Stage IV - Generative CAPP Stage V - Dynamic, generative CAPP Prior to CAPP, manufacturers attempted to overcome the problems of manual process planning by basic classification of parts into families and developing somewhat standardized process plans for parts families (Stage I). When a new part was introduced, the process plan for that family would be manually retrieved, marked-up and retyped. While this improved productivity, it did not improve the quality of the planning of processes and it did not easily take into account the differences between parts in a family nor improvements in production processes. Computer-aided process planning initially evolved as a means to electronically store a process plan once it was created, retrieve it, modify it for a new part and print the plan (Stage II). Other capabilities of this stage are table-driven cost and standard estimating systems. This initial computer-aided approach evolved into what is now known as "variant" CAPP. However, variant CAPP is based on a Group Technology (GT) coding and classification approach to identify a larger number of part attributes or parameters. These attributes allow the system to select a baseline process plan for the part family and accomplish about ninety percent of the planning work. The planner will add the remaining ten percent of the effort modifying or fine-tuning the process plan. The baseline process plans stored in the computer are manually entered using a super planner concept,that is, developing standardized plans based on the accumulated experience and knowledge of multiple planners and manufacturing engineers (Stage III).

The next stage of evolution is toward generative CAPP (Stage IV). At this stage, process planning decision rules are built into the system. These decision rules will operate based on a part's group technology or features technology coding to produce a process plan that will require minimal manual interaction and modification (e.g., entry of dimensions). While CAPP systems are moving more and more towards being generative, a pure generative system that can produce a complete process plan from part classification and other design data is a goal of the future. This type of purely generative system (in Stage V) will involve the use of artificial intelligence type capabilities to produce process plans as well as be fully integrated in a CIM environment. A further step in this stage is dynamic, generative CAPP which would consider plant and machine capacities, tooling availability, work center and equipment loads, and equipment status (e.g., maintenance downtime) in developing process plans. The process plan developed with a CAPP system at Stage V would vary over time depending on the resources and workload in the factory. For example, if a primary work center for an operation(s) was overloaded, the generative planning process would evaluate work to be released involving that work center,alternate processes and the related routings. The decision rules would result in process plans that would reduce the overloading on the primary work center by using an alternate routing that would have the least cost impact. Since finite scheduling systems are still in their infancy, this additional dimension to production scheduling is still a long way off. Dynamic, generative CAPP also implies the need for online display of the process plan on a workorder oriented basis to insure that the appropriate process plan was provided to the floor. Tight integration with a manufacturing resource planning system is needed to track shop floor status and load data and assess alternate routings vis-a-vis the schedule.Finally, this stage of CAPP would directly feed shop floor equipment controllers or, in a less automated environment,display assembly drawings online in conjunction with process plans. CAPP PLANNING PROCESS The system logic involved in establishing a variant process planning system is relatively straight forward it is one of matching a code with a pre-established process plan maintained in the system. The initial challenge is in developing the GT classification and coding structure for the part families and in manually developing a standard baseline process plan for each part family. The first key to implementing a generative system is the development of decision rules appropriate for the items to be processed. These decision rules are specified using decision trees, computer languages involving logical "if-then" type statements, or artificial intelligence approaches with object-oriented programming. The nature of the parts will affect the complexity of the decision rules for generative planning and ultimately the degree of success in implementing the generative CAPP system.The majority of generative CAPP systems implemented to date have focused on process planning for fabrication of sheet metal parts and less complex machined parts. In addition, there has been significant recent effort with generative process planning for assembly operations, including PCB assembly. A second key to generative process planning is the available data related to the part to drive the planning. Simple forms of generative planning systems may be driven by GT codes. Group technology or features technology (FT) type classification without a numeric code may be used to drive CAPP. This approach would involve a user responding to a series of questions about a part that in essence capture the same information as in a GT or FT code. Eventually when features-oriented data is captured in a CAD system during the design process, this data can directly drive CAPP.

CAD/CAM INTEGRATION AND CAPP FEATURES A frequently overlooked step in the integration of CAD/CAM is the process planning that must occur. CAD systems generate graphically oriented data and may go so far as graphically identifying metal, etc. to be removed during processing. In order to produce such things as NC instructions for CAM equipment, basic decisions regarding equipment to be used,tooling and operation sequence need to be made. This is the function of CAPP. Without some element of CAPP, there would not be such a thing as CAD/CAM integration. Thus CAD/CAM systems that generate tool paths and NC programs include limited CAPP capabilities or imply a certain approach to processing. CAD systems also provide graphically-oriented data to CAPP systems to use to produce assembly drawings, etc. Further,this graphically-oriented data can then be provided to manufacturing in the form of hardcopy drawings or work instruction displays. This type of system uses work instruction displays at factory workstations to display process plans graphically and guide employees through assembly step by step. The assembly is shown on the screen and as a employee steps through the assembly process with a footswitch, the components to be inserted or assembled are shown on the CRT graphically along with text instructions and warnings for each step. If NC machining processes are involved, CAPP software exists which will select tools, feeds, and speeds, and prepares NC programs. CAPP BENEFITS Significant benefits can result from the implementation of CAPP. In a detailed survey of twenty-two large and small companies using generative-type CAPP systems, the following estimated cost savings were achieved: 58% reduction in process planning effort 10% saving in direct labor 4% saving in material 10% saving in scrap 12% saving in tooling 6% reduction in work-in-process In addition, there are intangible benefits as follows: Reduced process planning and production lead time; faster response to engineering changes Greater process plan consistency; access to up-to-date information in a central database Improved cost estimating procedures and fewer calculation errors More complete and detailed process plans Improved production scheduling and capacity utilization Improved ability to introduce new manufacturing technology and rapidly update process plans to utilize the improved technology Material requirements planning (MRP) Material requirements planning (MRP) is a production planning and inventory control system used to manage manufacturing processes. Most MRP systems are software-based, while it is possible to conduct MRP by hand as well. An MRP system is intended to simultaneously meet three objectives: Ensure materials are available for production and products are available for delivery to customers. Maintain the lowest possible material and product levels in store Plan manufacturing activities, delivery schedules and purchasing activities.

Material requirements planning System

Functions of MRP The basic functions of an MRP system include: inventory control, bill of material processing, and elementary scheduling. MRP helps organizations to maintain low inventory levels. It is used to plan manufacturing, purchasing and delivering activities. "Manufacturing organizations, whatever their products, face the same daily practical problem - that customers want products to be available in a shorter time than it takes to make them. This means that some level of planning is required." Companies need to control the types and quantities of materials they purchase, plan which products are to be produced and in what quantities and ensure that they are able to meet current and future customer demand, all at the lowest possible cost. Making a bad decision in any of these areas will make the company lose money. A few examples are given below: If a company purchases insufficient quantities of an item used in manufacturing (or the wrong item) it may be unable to meet contract obligations to supply products on time.

If a company purchases excessive quantities of an item, money is wasted - the excess quantity ties up cash while it remains as stock and may never even be used at all. Beginning production of an order at the wrong time can cause customer deadlines to be missed.

MRP is a tool to deal with these problems. It provides answers for several questions:

What items are required? How many are required? When are they required?

MRP can be applied both to items that are purchased from outside suppliers and to sub-assemblies, produced internally, that are components of more complex items. The data that must be considered include: The end item (or items) being created. This is sometimes called Independent Demand, or Level "0" on BOM (Bill of materials). How much is required at a time. When the quantities are required to meet demand. Shelf life of stored materials. Inventory status records. Records of net materials available for use already in stock (on hand) and materials on order from suppliers. Bills of materials. Details of the materials, components and sub-assemblies required to make each product. Planning Data. This includes all the restraints and directions to produce the end items. This includes such items as: Routings, Labor and Machine Standards, Quality and Testing Standards, Pull/Work Cell and Push commands, Lot sizing techniques (i.e. Fixed Lot Size, Lot-For-Lot, Economic Order Quantity), Scrap Percentages, and other inputs.

Outputs There are two outputs and a variety of messages/reports: Output 1 is the "Recommended Production Schedule" which lays out a detailed schedule of the required minimum start and completion dates, with quantities, for each step of the Routing and Bill Of Material required to satisfy the demand from the Master Production Schedule (MPS). Output 2 is the "Recommended Purchasing Schedule". This lays out both the dates that the purchased items should be received into the facility AND the dates that the Purchase orders, or Blanket Order Release should occur to match the production schedules.

Messages and Reports: Purchase orders. An order to a supplier to provide materials. Reschedule notices. These recommend cancelling, increasing, delaying or speeding up existing orders.

UNIT 2 CAD Application

CAD in Textile Industry CAD or Computer-aided design has brought a revolution in the Textile Industry. The time consuming and cumbersome process of textile designing has been made easier by CAD. Now thoughtful and innovative designs are available to the textile designers and textile manufacturers at the click of a mouse. Lets see what all benefits are provided by this technical tool. CAD- What is it? When the products in pre-manufacturing stage are designed with the help of computer-based tools, it is termed as CAD or Computer-aided design. Sometimes the acronyms such as CADD or CAID are also used which stand for "Computer-aided design and drafting" and Computer-aided Industrial Design respectively. These terms are mostly used in the sectors related to the manufacturing of engineering goods. As far as textile industry is related, CAD is generally used for interpreting computerized designing. It includes both, software and sometimes special-purpose hardware. Application of CAD The textile designs are the original works of the designers. CAD helps them to visualize and see their imaginative design in final form without producing any sample swatch. Sometimes, The customers too provide ideas for designing according to their particular requirement. These are in the form of painted artwork or fabric samples and sometimes film negatives. The textile designers, with the help of CAD, convert them into workable designs. For this to be done, the sample is scanned with the help of either scanners or digital cameras and then they are edited to obtain the final design. Textile Softwares The usefulness of CAD has driven the market to produce specific softwares for different aspects of textile and apparel manufacturing. If there are softwares for designing footwear, caps and bags, there are pattern making software too for fashion industry. There are solutions for sewn goods industry as well as systems for the design of jacquard woven fabrics. The garment pattern designs are even available in home, expert, and professional versions. Precision cutting systems, cutting and plotting systems, pattern design, grading and marker making- you name it and there is a software for every textile related workthis is IT revolution in textile industry. Advantages of CAD This easy to operate designing system- CAD, has many advantages. The expense and time is reduced in a considerable manner when compared to the laborious manual work of designing. Designing can be done from anywhere as the customers are able to control the process from remote locations as well. The data can be easily stored, transmitted, and transported through computer files. Digital swatches can be saved on floppy disks, zip disks, CD-ROM or hard drive thus saving space. Moreover they can be easily organized for fast and easy retrieval. The designs can be easily customized and personalized as corrections and editing can be done at any time without significant delays or cost increases. The designers don't need to produce swatches all the time as they can now see how a particular fabric or garment looks in different colors and shapes on computer screen itself. With all its benefits, care too has to be taken before going for any CAD software. The softwares which are supported by the available hardwares should only be purchased or the hardware should be upgraded to comply with the new software. Training too has to be given to the people who are going to operate

the system so that maximum benefit may be taken from it. With careful selection and trained professionals, the textile industry can enjoy the benefits of the IT revolution right at their door.

Product analysis and evaluation Designers and manufacturers use product analysis to help them develop ideas for new or improved products and to analyse the work of other designers. Quality assurance is a system of checks and inspections to ensure high standards throughout design and manufacture. Analysing products Analysing a textile product involves asking three questions. 1. Is it fit for purpose? 2. Does it meet the needs of the target market? 3. How well is it designed and made? Designers will consider these questions when analysing both their own designs and the work of other designers. Answering the three questions above will normally involve an evaluation of the following criteria: The product's design specification, based on the requirements of the target market and the manufacturing facilities available. Does the product measure up to it? The product's target market. What are their needs? The product's performance: ie, how suitable it is for its end use and what are its aftercare requirements? The quality of the fibres, fabrics and manufacture: eg, how adequate are the stitchings, fastenings and seam allowance? The product's aesthetic appeal or stylistic qualities. The product's price. Does it give value for money? Any safety or moral issues. Does the product conform to safety regulations? What is its impact on the environment?

Designers often start by looking at the work of other designers and analysing the choices they have made. They consider how successfully the product meets these criteria and what could be changed to improve it. In order to analyse a textile product you will often need to sketch the front and back views, work out and sketch the pattern pieces and work out the order of assembly of the pattern pieces. Designers and manufacturers evaluate on an ongoing basis during design development and while manufacturing. It is essential to compare your developing work against the design specification and to make and record judgements, improvements and users' views.

Quality of design and manufacture Among the most important design evaluation criteria are those of quality of design and quality of manufacture. These are not the same thing. Quality of design criteria How attractive is a product to its target market? How well chosen are its materials and components? How easy is the product to manufacture and maintain?

Quality of manufacture This has a more specific meaning. Well-made textile products (ones with a high quality of manufacture) will: use materials that are suitable for the end use match the product specifications meet performance requirements be manufactured with safe production methods be made within budget limits sell at an attractive price be safe for the environment

Example Compare the two examples of a well made and a badly made garment:

Quality assurance Quality assurance (QA) is a system of checks designed to ensure that products are free of faults. A quality assurance system involves regular quality control inspections that test and monitor the quality, accuracy and fitness for purpose of the product, from the design stage through to manufacture. Critical control points Quality control checks take place at critical control points (CCPs) in a product's manufacture. The following are typical CCPs in textiles manufacture. Raw materials Raw materials are tested to make sure they are the correct width, colour, weight and fibre content. Depending on the product end use, the fabric may be tested for strength, durability, crease resistance, stretch, shrinkage or water repellency. Prototype The prototype is a mock-up of the product used to trial a design or pattern, see how materials and components behave, try out an assembly process, work out costs and test fitness for purpose in everyday use. Production During production there will be checks for stitch and seam strength. Seam allowances - the amount of material between the edge of the fabric and the seam - are tested to check they meet the tolerance stated in the manufacturing specification. Final product This is inspected for size and fit, and to see if the 'look' of the product meets the specification. Computer-aided design The term computer-aided (CAD) design includes all the computer applications and hardware devices that can be used to aid digital design. CAD speeds up the design process by making it quick and easy to test and modify ideas before production starts. This reduces mistakes and cuts costs. Uses of CAD in textiles design include: Wire-frame modelling, surface modelling or solid modelling can be used to texture map or simulate virtual products in 3D, from which clients can choose one to be sampled in fabric. This saves the time and cost of sampling a large selection of real products. Graphics applications enable ease the production and storage of accurate working drawings and lay plans. Colourways can be accurately modelled at the design stage. Material quantities and costs can be easily calculated. Computer networks improve communication between designers, clients and manufacturers thus speeding up the design-feedback loop.