1.

Subject matter of linguistic

Linguistics appeared in the middle of 19 th century. Indians were the first who wrote about linguistics. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, or the systematic study of language. This subject tries to answer such questions as: What is linguistics What do all languages have in common etc. Linguistics studies the structure and functioning and historical development of language, is the entire scope of the properties and functions of the language.

2. Compare the differences between Ling. and Traditional School Grammar

Linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of languages -descriptive -spoken Traditional School Grammar traditional grammar is a set of structural rules in a particular language. -prescriptive -written

-It doesnt force language into a linguistic frame work (Latin)

3. How is linguistics interrelated with other disciplines of study?

One subfield of linguistics is grammar. This focuses on the system of rules followed by the users of a language. Grammar includes the study of morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the formation and composition of phrases and sentences from these words), and phonology (sound systems). Phonetics is a related with properties of speech sounds and no speech sounds .The study of language meaning is concerned with how languages employ logical structures and real-world references to convey, process, and assign meaning, as well as to manage and resolve ambiguity. This category includes the study of semantics (how meaning is inferred from words and concepts) and pragmatics (how meaning is inferred from context). Social, cultural, historical and political factors also depend on linguistics. This includes the study of evolutionary linguistics, which investigates into questions related to the origins and growth of languages; historical linguistics, which explores language change; sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures; psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and function of language in the mind ; neurolinguistics which looks at language processing in the brain; language acquisition, on how children or adults acquire language; and discourse analysis, which involves the structure of texts and conversations. Although linguistics is the scientific study of language, a number of other intellectual disciplines are relevant to language and intersect with it. Semiotics, for example, is the general study of 1

signs and symbols both within language and without. Literary theorists study the use of language in literature. Linguistics additionally draws on and informs work from such diverse fields as acoustics, anthropology, biology, computer science, human anatomy, informatics etc.

4. The nature of language

The Nature of Language is an introduction to linguistics, which covers the basic skills of language analysis and problem solving in phonetics, phonology, morphology and syntax. The object of linguistics is language, Ferdinand de Saussure defines language as a system of signs that express ideas. After a long study the scholars made a distinction between three main senses of language Langage human speech as a whole to be made up of two aspects which Ferdinand de Saussure called them: 1. Langue- is the language system 2. Parole- is the act of speaking

5. How is social nature of language revealed?

6. Identify and explain the functions of language

K. Buhler identified 6 functions of language: - Expressive- (the mind of speaker or writer/ he uses the utterance to express his feelings/ poetry short stories etc.) - Informative- (the core is outside/official documents, articles, scientific papers) - Vocative- (publicity, notes, instructions persuasive writing, requests)

- Esthetic function- (is connected with stylistic devices/ metaphors, alliteration, assonance, intonation, meter, rhyme) -Phatic ( a friendly contact with the addressee/ nice weather, how are you, you know...) -Metalingual- less concentrated on what is been communicated- meta means outside)

7. Compare the functions of language suggested by J. Lyons and those suggested by G. Yule.
John Lyons identified 2 functions of the language The attitudinal function behavior (to express our state of mind or emotions like: solidarity, confidence, good will, love, hate etc.) The cognitive function- to express our perception believes about state of affairs. Interactional function- how human use language to interact to each other socially and emotionally. Tranzactional function- human use their language ability to communicate, to transfer knowledge from one generation to the next. Gorge Yule

8. Identify and explane the propreties of language

Reflexivity-all creatures communicate in some way. Reflexivity accounts for the fact that we can use language to think and talk about the language itself. Displacement- it allows language users to talk about things events not present in the immediate environment. Displacement allows us to talk about thinks and places (Santa, angels, heaven) whose existence we cannot be sure of. Arbitrariness-there is a natural connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. The connection is quite arbitrary. The aspect between the relationship between linguistic signs and objects in the world is described as arbitrary. Productivity- Humans are continually creating new expressions and new utterances by manipulating their linguistic resources to describe new objects and situations (creativity) essentially mean that the potential number of utterance in any human language is infinite. Cultural transmission- This process whereby a language is passed on from one generation to next and is described as cultural transmission. Discreteness- each sound in a language is treated as distinct, unique (p, B, D) Duality- human language is organized at two levels simultaneously; this property is called duality (double articulation)

9. Are language properties typical only of the human communication system?

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We know that systems of communication are not unique only to human beings. Many animals and even plants communicate with each other. However, human language is unique in being a symbolic communication system that is learned instead of biologically inherited. But language properties are specific only to the Human communication system, because people have reason, they can think, speak, read, learn, write, dance, sing etc. But what we hear or see from animals, birds or plants these are only instincts. Thats way language properties are typical to the human communication system.

10. The origins of language. Compare two of the most known theories.
The origins of language have been the topic of scholarly discussions for several centuries. In spite of this, we dont know for sure an ultimate origin or age. It is an intriguing question, to which we may never have a complete answer. There are many theories about the origins of language. 1. The bow-wow theory. Language began as imitations of natural sounds -- moo, chopchop, crash, clang, buzz, bang, meow... This is more technically referred to as onomatopoeia or echoism. 2. The pooh-pooh theory. Language began with interjections, instinctive emotive cries such as oh! For surprise and ouch! For pain. 3. The yo-he-ho theory. Language began as rhythmic chants, perhaps ultimately from the grunts of heavy work (heave-ho!). The linguist A. S. Diamond suggests that these were perhaps calls for assistance or cooperation accompanied by appropriate gestures. This may relate yo-he-ho to the ding-dong theory, as in such words as cut, break, crush, strike...

11. Speak about the development of writing. Identify all forms of writing known.
One of the most important developments of human kind has been writing, but often people are unaware of how long and complicated this path has been. Some say that writing appeared in Mesopotamia 3000 years ago. They need to invent writing somehow to keep records. First of all appeared 1. PICTOGRAMES and IDEOGRAMES (20000 years ago) Pictogram into- ideograms (a

picture represented an idea) for example 2. CUNEIFORM WRITING

- means daytime.

The term cuneiform writing comes from the fact it is composed of signs that look like small wedges, in Latin: cuneus. Each of the symbol represented one word. Usually, the domestic animals and the agricultural products were represented by conventional signs, while for other objects and wild animals they used drawings that represented their distinctive characteristics. 3. HIEROGLIFIC WRITING The origin of the hieroglyphic writing was nearly contemporary to the cuneiform one. It did not evolve in the cuneiform structure, but it kept a pictographic representation of the signs. Probably, this was due to the fact the Egyptians did not use clay as a support for writing, but papyrus, wood and rock walls such as those of the temples. During its evolution, the hieroglyphic writing was influenced by the Sumerians, The hieroglyphic writing was at the same time phonetic, figurative and symbolic.

4. LOGOGRAFIC SYSTEM
A logogram is a single written character which represents a complete grammatical word. Most Chinese and Japanese characters are classified as logograms. Each character represents a single word (or, more precisely, a morpheme). While most languages do not use wholly logographic writing systems many languages use some logograms. A good example of modern western logograms are the Hindu-Arabic numerals everyone who uses those symbols understands what 1 means whether he or she calls it one, eins, uno, yi, ichi, ehad, ena or jedan. Other western logograms include the ampersand &, used for and, the at sign @, used in many contexts for at, the percent sign % and the many signs representing units of currency ($, , , , and so on.) 5. SYLLABIC SYSTEM (JAPON) A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables, which make up words. A symbol in a syllabary typically represents a consonant sound followed by a vowel sound, or just a vowel alone. In a "true syllabary", there is no systematic graphic similarity between phonetically related characters (though some do have graphic similarity for the vowels). That is, the characters for /ke/, /ka/ and /ko/ have no similarity to indicate their common "k" sound (voiceless velar plosive). Syllabaries are best suited to languages with relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. 6. ALPHABETIC SYSTEM OF WRITING An alphabet is a small set of letters basic written symbols each of which roughly represents or represented historically a phoneme of a spoken language. The word alphabet is derived from alpha and beta, the first two symbols of the Greek alphabet.

12. Compare logographic and syllabic writing systems. Their advantages and disadvantages
LOGOGRAFIC SYSTEM A logogram is a single written character which represents a complete grammatical word. Most Chinese and Japanese characters are classified as logograms. Each character represents a single word (or, more precisely, a morpheme). While most languages do not use wholly logographic writing systems many languages use some logograms. A good example of modern western logograms are the Hindu-Arabic numerals everyone who uses those symbols understands what 1 means whether he or she calls it one, eins, uno, yi, ichi, ehad, ena or jedan. Other western logograms include the ampersand &, used for and, the at sign @, used in many contexts for at, the percent sign % and the many signs representing units of currency ($, , , , and so on.) SYLLABIC SYSTEM (JAPON) A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables, which make up words. A symbol in a syllabary typically represents a consonant sound followed by a vowel sound, or just a vowel alone. In a "true syllabary", there is no systematic graphic similarity between phonetically related characters (though some do have graphic similarity for the vowels). That is, the characters for /ke/, /ka/ and /ko/ have no similarity to indicate their common "k" sound (voiceless velar plosive). Syllabaries are best suited to languages with relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese.

13. What is the basic difference between a natural and conventional sign.
NATURAL SIGN- it is a natural result, it is something created by the nature. All sorts of sights, sounds and smells can be natural signs. They communicate to someone who observes and can interpret but their messages are unintentional the by-products of various events. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS- are the auditory and visual device that people have created to send routine messages to one another. For example: whistle, buzzers, sirens and bells.

14. What is a linguistic sign? What are the components of a linguistic sign?
A linguistic sign is an abstract structure whose instances participate in a linguistic system, or language. The components of the linguistic sign are: -a form component (whose elements are phonological units) -a grammatical component (whose elements are semantic units) -a meaning component (whose elements are semantic units)

Thee formal structure of the sign is determined by the grammar of the language. The information value of the linguistic sign, its meaning is not fixed, but determined by the conventions of the language.