Selecting the Right FlowmeterPart 1

By Corte Swearingen Reprinted from the July 1999 edition of Chemical Engineering magazine ("Choosing the Best Flowmeter") Table 1: A Comparison of Flowmeter Options Variable-Area Flowmeters Table 2: The Effect of Pressure Deviations on a Variable-Area Flowmeter Mass Flowmeters Coriolis Flowmeters Differential-Pressure Meters Turbine Meters Oval-Gear Flowmeters References With the many flowmeters available today, choosing the most appropriate one for a given application can be difficult. This article discusses six popular flowmeter technologies, in terms of the major advantages and disadvantages of each type, describes some unique designs, and gives several application examples. Dozens of flowmeter technologies are available. This article covers six flowmeter designsvariable-area, mass, Coriolis, differential-pressure, turbine, and oval-gear. Table 1 compares the various technologies.

Table 1 A Comparison of Flowmeter Options

Gas VariableDifferentialCoriolis massarea Pressure flow yes yes yes (special calibration) yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no no

Attribute Clean gases Clean Liquids Viscous Liquids Corrosive Liquids Accuracy,

Turbine yes yes

Oval Gear yes

yes yes, >10 (special centistokes calibration) (cst) yes yes

0.051.5% 2-4% full 0.15% 2-3% full- 0.25-1% of 0.1-0.5% full scale of scale reading of reading scale reading 1% fullscale 0.1% of reading 0.1% of reading

0.050.5% Repeatability, 0.25% full 0.10% full scale of scale reading 500 Max pressure, 900 and 200 and up and psi up up Max temp., F 250 and up250 and 150 up and

100 122

5,000 and 4,000 and up up 300 and up 175 and up

up Pressure drop medium Turndown ratio Average cost* 10:1 $200-600 low low medium 20:1 medium 10:1 $6001,000 medium 25:1 $6001,200 100:1 50:1

$2,500- $600$500-800 5,000 1,000

Figure 1 The plastic or glass tube of the variablearea flowmeter lets the user visually inspect the float, whose position in the tapered tub is proportional to the volumetric flowrate. *Cost values can vary quite a bit depending on process temperature and pressures, accuracy required, and approvals needed.

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Variable-Area Flowmeters
Design overview: The variable-area flowmeter (Figure 1) is one of the oldest technologies available and arguably the most well-known. It is constructed of a tapered tube (usually plastic or glass) and a metal or glass float. The volumetric flowrate through the tapered tube is proportional to the displacement of the float. Fluid moving through the tube form bottom to top causes a pressure drop across the float, which produces an upward force that causes the float to move up the tube. As this happens, the cross-sectional area between the tube walls and the float (the annulus) increases (hence the term variablearea). Because the variable-area flowmeter relies on gravity, it must be installed vertically (with the flowtube perpendicular to the floor). Some variable-area meters overcome this slight inconvenience by spring loading the float

withing the tube (Figure 2). Such a design can simplify installation and add operator flexibility, especially when the meter must be installed in a tight physical space and a vertical installation is not possible. Two types of variable-area flowmeters are generally available: directreading and correlated. The direct-reading meter allows the user to read the liquid or gas flowrate in engineering units (i.e., gal/min and L/min) printed directly on the tube, by aligning the top of the float with the tick mark on the flowtube. The advantage of a direct-reading flowmeter is that the flowrate is literally read directly off the flowtube. Correlated meters, on the other hand, have a unitless scale (typically tick marks from 0 to 65, or 0 to 150), and come with a separate data sheet that correlates the scale reading on the flowtube to the flowrate in a particular engineering unit. The correlation sheets usually give 25 or so data points along the scale of the flowtube, allowing the user to determine the actual flowrate in gal/min, L/min, or whatever engineering unit is needed. The advantage of the correlated meter is that the same flowmeter can be used for various gases and liquids (whose flow is represented by different units) by selecting the appropriate correlation sheets, where additional direct-reading meters would be required for different fluid applications.

Figure 2 This variable-area meter with a spring-loaded float can be installed at any angle. This accommodation is not available for traditional variable-area flowmeters, whose operation relies on gravity.

Similarly, if pressure or temperature parameters change for a given application, the user would simply use a different correlation sheet to reflect these new parameters. By comparison, for a direct-reading meter, a change in operating parameters will compromise the meter's accuracy, forcing it to be returned to the factory for recalibration. In general, the average accuracy of a variable-area flowmeter is 2-4% of fullscale flow. Advantages: The major advantage of the variable-area flowmeter is its relative low cost and ease of installation. Because of its simplicity of design, the variable-area meter is virtually maintenance-free and, hence, tends to have a long operating life.

Another advantage is its flexibility in handling a wide range of chemicals. Today, all-Teflon meters are available to resist corrosive damage by aggressive chemicals. The advantage of a Teflon flowmeter with a built-in valve is that you can not only monitor the fluid flowrate, but you can control it, as well, by opening and closing the valve. If the application requires an all-Teflon meter, chances are the fluid is pretty corrosive, and many users would like the option of controlling the flowrate by simply turning a valve that is built into the flowmeter itself. Disadvantages: One potential disadvantage of a variable-area flowmeter occurs when the fluid temperature and pressure deviate from the calibration temperature and pressure. Because temperature and pressure variations will cause a gas to expand and contract, thereby changing density and viscosity, the calibration of a particular variable-area flowmeter will no longer be valid as these conditions fluctuate. Manufacturers typically calibrate their gas flowmeters to a standard temperature and pressure (usually 70F with the flowmeter outlet open to the atmosphere, i.e., with no backpressure). During operation, the flowmeter accuracy can quickly degrade once the temperatures and pressures start fluctuating from the standard calibration temperature and pressure. Meters used for water tend to show less variability, since water viscosity and density changes very little with normal temperature and pressure fluctuations. While there is a way to correlate the flow from actual operating conditions back to the calibration conditions, the conventional formulas used are very simplified, and don't take into account the effect of viscosity, which can cause large errors.

Table 2 The Effect of Pressure Deviations on a Variable-Area Flowmeter

Maximum flowrate, L/min 2.23 1.65 1.30 2.26 2.28 2.32 4.82 4.82 4.82 4.86 4.89 4.95 Fluid temperature, Outlet pressure, F psi Fluid type: Air 70 70 70 90 110 150 Fluid type: water 70 70 70 90 110 150 0 15 35 0 0 0 0 15 35 0 0 0

As Table 2 shows, the effect of pressure deviations can be quite significant. This table was created using data from a variable-area flowmeter that was calibrated for air at 70F and with the outlet of the flowmeter vented to the open atmosphere (i.e. , 0 psi of outlet pressure). The flowmeter was calibrated to read a maximum of 2.23 L/min at this temperature and pressure. When the outlet pressure increases as all other parameters remain constant, the flowrate drops off. This pressure change affects the viscosity and density of the gas and will cause the actual flowrate to deviate from the theoretical, calibrated flowrate. This relationship is extremely important to be aware of, and underscores the difficulty in measuring gas flow. Also note that even though gas flowrate changes with a change in gas temperature (with all other parameters remaining constant), this effect is much less significant with air than with other gases. Table 2 shows this same variation with a meter calibrated for water at 9 psi venting pressure and a temperature of 70F. Here, one can assume water to be incompressible. As shown, there is no direct effect on water flow with
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Gilmont Unshielded Variable Area Flowmeters Gilmont Shielded Variable Area Flowmeters Gilmont Shielded Variable Area Flowmeters without Valve a change in back-pressure. The temp-erature change is not that significant either. But, for various fluids, a change in temperature could change the viscosity enough to degrade the accuracy below acceptable limits. The bottom line is that the user must be aware of any variation between calibration conditions and operating conditions for gas flows, and must correct the reading according to the manufacturer's recommendations. Some users have the manufacturer calibrate the meter to existing conditions, but this presumes that operating conditions will remain the samewhich they rarely do. The effect of viscosity changes is another potential disadvantage of the variable-area meter when measuring liquids. When a viscous liquid makes its way through a variable-area flowmeter, drag layers of fluid will build up on the float. this will cause a slower-moving viscous liquid to yield the same buoyant force as a faster-moving fluid of lower viscosity. The larger the viscosity, the higher the error. The general rule of thumb is as follows unless the meter has been specifically calibrated for a higher-viscosity

liquid, only water-like liquids should be run through a variable-area flowmeter. Sometimes, for liquids that are slightly thicker than water, a manufacturersupplied correction factor can be used without the need to recalibrate the whole meter. As always, check with the manufacturer if you plan on deviating from its calibration fluid and calibration conditions. For a moredetailed discussion of the proper correction equations to apply to variablearea flowmeters in both water and gas service when they deviate from standard conditions, consult Refs. 9 and 10. Applications: Variable-area flowmeters are well suited for a wide variety of liquid and gas applications, including the following:

Measuring water and gas flow in plants or labs Monitoring chemical lines Purging instrument air lines (i.e., lines that use a valved meter) Monitoring filtration loading Monitoring flow in material-blending applications (i.e., lines that use a valved meter) Monitoring hydraulic oils (although this may require special calibration) Monitor makeup water for food & beverage plants Go to Top

Mass Flowmeters

Design Overview:Mass flowmeters are one of the most popular gas-measurement technologies in use today (Figure 3). Most thermal mass flowmeters for gases are based on the following design principles, which are shown in Figure 4. a gas stream moves into the flowmeter chamber and is immediately split into two distinct flow paths. Most of the gas will go through a bypass tube, but a fraction of it goes through a special capillary sensor tube, which contains two temperature coils.

Figure 3 Because the mass flowmeter measures mass flow rather than volumetric flow, this popular device is relatively undaunted by fluctuations in line pressures and temperatures, especially compared with a variable-area flowmeter. The unit shown provides an integral digital display, as well as a built-in control valve.

Heat flux is introduced at two sections of the capillary tube by means of these two wound coils. When gas flows through the device, it carries heat from the coils upstream to the coils downstream. The resulting temperature differerential creates a proportional resistance change in the sensor windings. Special circuits, known as Wheatstone bridges, are used to monitor the instantaneous resistance of each of the sensor windings. The resistance change, created by the temperature differential, is amplified and calibrated to give a digital readout of the flow. As shown in Figure 3, the mass flowmeter is available with a built-in valve for flow-control applications. This allows for external control and the programming of a setpoint for a critical flowpoint. Most mass flowmeters also have an analog or digital output signal to record the flowrate. The average mass flowmeter has an accuracy of 1.5-2% of fullscale flow.

Advantages: The main advantage of a mass flowmeter for gas streams is its ability (within limitations) to "ignore" fluctuating and changing line temperatures and pressures. As mentioned above for variablearea flowmeters, fluctuating temperatures and pressures will cause gas density to change, yielding significant flow errors. Because of the inherent design of the mass flowmeter, this problem is much less significant than that found in variable-area flowmeters. Mass flowmeters measure the mass or molecular flow, as opposed to the volumetric flow. One can think of the mass flowrate as the volumetric flowrate normalized to a specific temperature and pressure.

Figure 4 Inside a mass flowmeter, the gas is split. Most goes through a bypass tube, while a fration goes through a sensor tube containing two temperature coils. Heat flux is introduced at two sections of the sensor tube by means of two wound coils. As gas flows through the device, it carries heat from the upstream, to the downstream, coils. The temperature differential, generates a proportional change in the resistance of the sensor windings. Special circuits monitor the resistance change, which is proportional to mass flow, and calibrate it to give a digital readout of the flow.

A more intuitive way to understand mass versus volumetric measurement is to imagine a gas-filled ballon. Although the volume of the balloon may be altered by squeezing it (changing the gas pressure), or by taking the balloon into a hot or cold environment (changing the gas temperature), the mass of the gas contained inside the balloon remains constant. So it is with mass flow as opposed to volumetric flow. A variable-area flowmeter measures volumetric flow. The flowrate on the flowtube reflects the volume of gas passing from the inlet to the outlet. This volume can change when gas temperatures and pressures change. Because a mass flowmeter is measuring the actual mass of gas passing form inlet to outlet, there is very little dependence on fluctuating temperatures and pressures. If you were piping an expensive gas, you would certainly want to keep track of the amount of gas used based on mass, not volumetric, flow. Makers of mass flowmeters measure their products' ability to withstand changing pressures and temperatures by giving More Details or Order Online: coefficients that state the deviation of accuracy per degree or psi change. For example, typical Aluminum Thermal Gas coefficient values are 0.10% error per degree C, Mass Flowmeters and 0.02% error per psi. This means that each degree or psi change away from the meter's 316SS Thermal Gas calibration conditions will degrade the accuracy Mass Flowmeters by these coefficient amounts. So, although there is a dependence on pressure and temperature for a mass meter, its is very small, if not negligible. This is the biggest advantage of a mass flowmeter. Another is that there are no moving parts to wear out.

Disadvantages: Aside from the fact that the gas going through the mass flowmeter should be dry and free from particulate matter, there are no major disadvantage to the mass flow technology. Mass flowmeters must be calibrated for a given gas or gas blend. Applications: Applications for mass flowmeters are diverse, but here are some typical uses:

Monitoring and controlling air flow during gas chromatography Monitoring CO2 for food packaging Gas delivery and control for fermenters and bioreactors Leak testing Hydrogen flow monitoring (e.g., in the utility industry) Control of methane or argon to gas burners Blending of air into dairy products Regulating CO2 injected into bottles during beverage production Nitrogen delivery and control for tank blanketing Go to Top

Coriolis Flowmeters
Design Overview: The Coriolis flowmeter is named for the Coriolis effect, an inertial force discovered by 19th-century mathematician GustaveGaspard Coriolis. as a result of the Coriolis force, the acceleration of any body moving at a constant speed with respect to the Earth's surface will be deflected to the right (clockwise) in the northern hemisphere, and to the left (counter-clockwise) in the southern hemisphere. The basic design of the Coriolis meter makes use of this Coriolis force by subjecting a set of curved measuring tubes to rotary oscillations about an axis. This oscillation is normally driven by two electromagnetic coils, which also physically couple the two curved measuring tubes. As a particular fluid flows through the tubes, it will move through points of high rotational velocity, to points of lower rotational velocity.

Upon approaching the tube plane in which the rotational axis is located, the rotational motion of the fluid element is decelerated at a uniform rate, until it finally reaches zero in the plane of the rotational axis. As the fluid element flows away form the rotational axis plane, toward points with higher rotational velocity, it is uniformly accelerated to increasingly higher rotational velocities. This produces a force (the Coriolis force) that causes a twisting motion withing the sensor tubes (Figure 5a).

Figure 5a (left). In a coriolis flowmeter, the Coriolis force FCor, pushes out toward the z-axis as the fluid moves up through the tube. this force develops as the tube rotates at a rate of W around the x-axis, and causes the tube to distort out of the x-y plane Figure 5b (right). As an example of a single-tube Coriolis flowmeter, this figure shows the fluid forces that generate the twisting motion of the flow tube

If v is the velocity of the fluid in the measuring tube, m/s, w the instantaneous angular speed of rotation, radians/s, and m the mass of liquid in the tube section, kg, then the following applies to the Coriolis force, kg(m/s) (Note that if the flow is low, you may be using different units to represent smaller forces): FCor = -2m(w x v) The design of the Coriolis flowmeter takes advantage of this force in the following manner. First, the electromagnetic drivers initiate a vibration or oscillation in the sensor tube. This oscillation occurs even when there is no fluid moving in the meter. The amplitude and frequency of this oscillation varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, but in general, the amplitude is about 3 millimeters, and the frequency is roughly 75-100 cycles/s. As the fluid element passes through the sensor tubes, the Coriolis forces come into play. The Coriolis forces cause a twisting, or distortion, in the measuring tube, which causes a vibrational phase difference between the two tubes. Some designs use only one sensor tube (figure 5b). In this case, the distortion caused by the Coriolis force in the tube is compared to the tube at "no flow" conditions. In both cases, however, a correlation to the mass flowrate is achieved, because the measured phase difference or distortion is directly proportional to the mass flowrate of the fluid. Meanwhile, temperature-compensation techniques nullify the temperature dependence of the tube oscillations, creating a high-accuracy correlation to mass flow. Advantages: The biggest advantage of the Coriolis design is that it measures mass flow instead of volumetric flow. Because mass is unaffected by changes in pressure, temperature, viscosity and density, reasonable fluctuations of these parameters in the fluid line have no affect on the accuracy of the meter, which can approach 0.05% of mass flow.

Coriolis meters can also determine fluid density by comparing the resonant frequency of the fluid being measured with that of water. Knowing density, the software can then convert mass to volume or percent solids. Since there are no obstructions in the fluid path, Coriolis meters have inherently low pressure drop for low-viscosity liquids. Turndown ratios (the ratio of maximum to minimum flow) of 100:1 are not uncommon. In addition, the lifetime and reliability of the Coriolis meter are high as the flow path is free of moving parts and seals. And, if installed properly, vertically installed Coriolis meters are self draining, so they will not hold fluid when the line is down. A variety of wetted parts, communications outputs and connections are available. Disadvantages: Because of their high accuracy and reliability, Corilois meters tend to be relatively expensive. This is not necessarily a disadvantage, however, if one looks at the relatively low cost of installation and ownership over time (Table 1). Because of their accuracy, Coriolis meters can help increase operating efficiency and save on production costs. The main limitation of the Coriolis meter is that pressure drop can become large as fluid viscosity increases. For viscous products, check with the manufacturer to make sure the pressure drop at you max flowrate is acceptable and within your design parameters. Applications: Coriolis flowmeters are suitable for:

General-purpose gas or liquid flow Custody transfer Monitoring concentration and solids content Blending ingredients and additives Conducting a primary check on secondary flowmeters Metering natural-gas consumption Monitoring such fluids as syrups, oils, suspensions and pharmaceuticals Go to Top

Differential-Pressure Meters
Design overview: While many different types of differential-pressure flowmeters are available, this discussion will focus on one type. The technology discussed here involves the measurement of a pressure differential across a stack of laminar flow plates (Figure 6). During operation, a pressuredrop is created as fluid enters through the meter's inlet. The fluid is forced to form thin laminar streams, which flow in parallel paths between the internal plates separated by spacers.

The pressure differential created by the fluid drag is measured by a differentialpressure sensor connected to the top of the cavity plate. The differential pressure from one end of the laminar flow plates to the other end is linear and proportional to the flowrate of the liquid or gas.

Figure 6 Using a differential-pressure flowmeter, a pressure drop is created as fluid enters the inlet. The fluid is forced to form thin laminar streams, which flow in along parallel plates. The pressure differential created by fluid drag from one end of the laminar flow plates to the other is linear and proportional to the flowrate of the liquid or the gas.

What makes this technology unique is the linear relationship between differential pressure, viscosity and flow, which is given by the following equation Q = K[P1-P2)/n2] where (units vary per approach): Q = Volumetric flowrate P1 = Static pressure at the inlet P2 = Static pressure at the outlet n = Viscosity of the fluid K = Constant factor determined by the geometry of the restriction This direct relationship between pressure, viscosity and flow allows the meter to switch easily among different gases without recalibration. This is normally accomplished by programming in the various gas viscosities and allowing the user to dial in the appropriate gas, via a set of switches. Variances in temperature and pressure, which often cause errors in variable-area flowmeters, can be easily handled by adding a pressure sensor (separate form the differential-pressure sensor in the basic design) and a temperature sensor to the design, to constantly monitor fluctuations in stream pressure and temperature, and correct the flow readings to standard pressure and temperature (77F and 1 atm). This is critical for gas flowmeters, which are very sensitive to these parameters. Typical accuracy for the design is 2-3% fullscale. Advantages: As with mass flowmeters, the differential-pressure meter has no moving parts to wear out. And, unlike with mass flowmeters, users of differential-pressure meters can measure different gases, such as air,

hydrogen, ethane, methane, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, helium, oxygen, argon, propane and neon, by setting a switch on the unit, without the need for recalibration. For control applications, these meters are available with a built-in proportioning valve for onboard or remote control of the flowrate. With a wide variety of flow ranges and models for both gases and liquids, the differential-pressure meter is one of the most versatile designs currently on the market. Disadvantages: These meters are generally reserved for use with clean gases and liquids. particulates with diameters >20 to 30 micrometers could get caught between the plates. Applications: Viable applications include the following:

Chemical applications (ratio, metering, and additive control) Pharmaceutical applications (liquid injection and batching) Research and development, and laboratory applications (gas blending, injection and aeration) Food and beverage applications (CO2 measurements, air drying, and process control) Go to Top

Turbine Meters
Design Overview: Many designs exist for turbine flowmeters, but most are a variation on the same theme. As fluid flows through the meter, a turbine rotates at a speed that is proportional to the flowrate (Figure 7). Signal generators, usually located within the rotor itself, provide magnetic pulses that are electronically sensed through a pickup coil (the yellow pickup coil shown in Figure 7) and calibrated to read flow units. In some designs, an integral display may show both the flowrate and the total flow since powerup. Turbine meters are available for both gas and liquid flow.

Because of the rotating blades in a turbine meter, the output signal will be a sine wave voltage (V) of the form: V=KwsinNwt where: K = The amplitude of one sine wave w = The rotational velocity of the blades N = The number of blades that pass the pickup in one full rotation t = Time
Figure 7 This cutaway view of a turbine flowmeter shows the turbines and signal generators used to produce voltage pulses that are proportional to the flowrate.

Because the output signal is proportional to the rotational velocity of the turbineswhich, in turn, is proportional to the liquid flowthe signal is easily scaled and calibrated to read flowrate and flow totalization. Turbine flow sensors generally have accuracies in the range of 0.25-1% fullscale. Advantages: The main advantages of the turbine meter are its high accuracy (0.25% accuracy or better is not unusual) and repeatability, fast response rate (down to a few milliseconds), high pressure and temperature capabilities (i.e., up to 5,000 psi and 800F with high-temperature pick coils), and compact rugged construction. Some manufacturer's have taken turbine meter design to the next level by incorporating advanced electronics that perform temperature compensation, signal conditioning and linearization, all within a few milliseconds. This advanced technology will allow the meter to automatically compensate for viscosity and density effects. Disadvantage: The disadvantage of the turbine meter is that is relatively expensive and has Turbine Meters with rotating parts that could clog from larger 4-20 mA Output suspended solids in the liquid stream. And, most turbine meters need a straight section of pipe Turbine Meters with upstream from the flowmeter in order to reduce Battery-Powered turbulent flow. This may make installation a Display challenge in small areas. However, some newer turbine meters reduce or eliminate the amount of straight pipe required upstream, by incorporating flow straighteners into the body of the unit.
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Another disadvantage in some designs is a loss of linearity at the low-flow end. Low-velocity performance and calibration can be affected by the natural change in bearing friction over time. However, today's selflubricated retainers, low-drag fluid bearings, and jeweled-pivot bearings all help to reduce the friction points, thereby allowing for greater accuracy and repeatability in lower-flow applications. Applications: Turbine flowmeters can be found in a wide variety of industries and applications:

Rotometer replacement

Pilot plants Research and development facilities Cooling water monitoring Inventory control Test stands Water consumption Makeup water Go to Top

Oval-Gear Flowmeters
Design Overview: The design of the oval-gear flowmeter is relatively simple: oval-shaped, gear-toothed rotors rotate within a chamber of specified geometry (Figure 8). As these rotors turn, they sweep out and trap a very precise volume of fluid between the outer oval shape of the gears and the inner chamber walls, with none of the fluid actually passing trough the gear teeth. Normally, magnets are embedded in the rotors, which then can actuate a reed switch or provide a pulse output via a specialized, designated sensor (such as a Hall Effect sensor). Each pulse or switch closure then represents a precise increment of liquid volume that

Figure 8 During operarion, each gear rotation in the oval-gear meter traps a pocket of fluid between the gear and the outer chamber walls. A designated sensor counts the pockets of fluids passing from inlet to outlet, and correlates this value to a flowrate.

passes through the meter. The result is a high accuracy (usually 0.5 percent of reading) and resolution, and almost negligible effects for varying fluid viscosity, density and temperature. When sizing an oval-gear flowmeter, keep in mind that the higher the fluid viscosity, the more pressure will be required to "push" the fluid into the flowmeter and around the gears. Essentially, the pressure drop is the only limiting factor when the application requires the metering of highly viscous liquids. The general rule is that as long as the fluid will flow, and as long as there is enough system pressure, the oval-gear meter will be able to measure the flow. In applications where the lowest possible pressure drop is required, some manufacturers can replace the standard rotors with specially cut, high-viscosity rotors. The manufacturer will be able to provide a graph of flowrate versus pressure drop for various viscosities.

The oval-gear flowmeter works best when there is a little backpressure in the line; a throttling valve on the meter outlet usually works just fine. The oval-gear meter is not suitable for gases, including steam and multi-phase fluids. Advantages: The advantage of the oval-gear More Details or Order Online: flowmeter is the it is, withing certain limits, largely independent of the fluid viscosity (users Oval Gear Flowmeters should just remain aware that higher pressures with Integral Display will be required to push higher-viscosity fluids through the meter). This opens up a whole range of applications, including the metering of oils, syrups and fuels. Ease of installation is another advantage of th oval design. Because no straight pipe runs or flow conditioning is required, these meters can be installed in tight areas, allowing for more flexibility in application design. Disadvantage: Oval-gear meters are generally not recommended for water or water-like fluids, because the increased risk of fluid slippage between the gears and chamber walls. Fluid slippage will cause a slight degradation in accuracy, with low-viscosity fluids being more prone to degradation. As viscosity increases, the wall slippage quickly becomes minimal, and the best accuracy is realized. Since the oval-gear meter is really designed for higherviscosity fluids, it can be argued that running water through them is not a viable application anyway. Applications: Oval meters are best suited for the following applications:

Measurement of net fuel use in boilers and engines Verification of proper bearing-lubricant delivery in hydraulic applications Monitoring of paper-finishing chemicals Monitoring the flow of wax finishes Monitoring syrup injection in main beverage lines Monitoring and batching volumes of thick candy coating Monitoring and automating the dispensing of cooking oils

The specifications for the six flowmeter designs discussed above will vary widely from manufacturer to manufacturer, and the performance values provided represent an average. When selecting a flowmeter for a given attribute, the engineer should consider additional attributesincluding velocity-profile deviations, the effect of non-homogeneous or pulsating flow, and cavitation, all of which will affect flowmeter choice, installation and operation. While beyond the scope of this article, a thorough discussion of these parameters can be found in Ref. 5. Go to Top

References

1. Cole-Parmer Instrument Co., 1999-2000 catalog, Vernon Hills, IL, 1999 2. Hammond, Michael, "Is a Turbine Flowmeter Right for Your Application?," Flow Control, Vol. IV, No. 4, 1998, Witter Publishing Corp., N.J. 3. Patrick, D., and Fardo, S., "Industrial Process Control Systems," Delmar Publishers, N.Y., 1997 4. Parr, E. A., "Industrial Control Handbook," 2nd ed., ButterworthHeinemann, England, 1995 5. Miller, R. W., "Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook," 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1983 6. Reif, David, "Matching the Flowmeter to the Job," Flow Control, Vol. III, No. 5, 1997, Witter Publishing Corp., N.J. 7. Swearingen, C., "New Differential Pressure Flow Controllers Offer Exciting Benefits," 1997, European Process Engineer, Volume 7, No. 1, Setform Ltd, England. 8. Swearingen, C., "High Viscosity Flowmeters: Solution to a Sticky Problem," Flow Control, Vol. IV, No. 5, 1998, Witter Publishing Corp., N.J. 9. Gilmont, R., and Roccanova, B. "Low-flow rotameter coefficient," Instruments and Control systems, Vol. 39, p. 89, 1966. 10. Gilmont, R., and Wechsler, L., "Rotameter correlation," Measurements and Control, February 1992, p. 124.

Selecting the Right FlowmeterPart 2

Use pros and cons to select from these unique flowmeter technologies!
By Corte Swearingen Reprinted from the January 2001 edition of Chemical Engineering magazine The Bubble Flowmeter The Doppler Flowmeter The Transit-Time Flowmeter The Vortex Flowmeter The Magnetic Flowmeter Final Words Table 1: A Comparison of Flowmeter Parameters References In this article, five flow-measurement technologies are summarized: bubble, Doppler, transit-time, vortex, and magnetic. After reviewing the basic design parameters and highlighting the pros and cons associated with each flowmeter type, process applications for each technology will be discussed. The information is then summarized at the end of this article in a table (Table 1: A Comparison of Flowmeter Parameters), which compares the various attributes of these five technologies, such as accuracy, maximum pressures and temperatures, and average costs. The intention of this article is not to recommend a flowmeter for every possible application, but rather to provide the basic knowledge needed to make an informed flowmeter selection among these types for a given application.

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The Bubble Flowmeter

The bubble flowmeter is not as well known as other types. This is unfortunate, since the bubble meter offers some features not found in more-expensive and more-intricate designs. Design Overview: Historically, the bubble meter has found its niche in the field of gas-chromatography analysis where it is used to measure column, detector, and carrier-gas flowrates. Today, however, the bubble meter is available in a larger variety of flow ranges for both liquids and gases, which greatly increases the number of potential applications. Although there are manual bubble meters that require timing of the bubble

Figure 1 In a liquid-bubble meter, the speed of the meniscus created by the air gap is measured within the optical sensor block. The elapsed time for the meniscus to pass between the lower and upper sensor block is proportional to the volumetric flowrate.

movement with a stopwatch and referencing from a printed flowrate chart, this discussion focuses on the more-sophisticated electronic flowmeters that give a digital readout without operator involvement. There are two general designs to a bubble meter; the designs are distinctly different for gases and for liquids. The bubble meter design for liquids makes use of a timed measurement of a meniscus rising between two optical sensors (Figure 1). In order to understand how this technology is able to measure the volumetric flowrate, one may follow the fluid path inside the flowmeter from the beginning to the end. First, fluid enters the inlet and moves up inside the glass tube, past the sensor block and around the tube toward the outlet. As this happens, the

solenoid valve is timed to periodically open and close, thereby sucking a small amount of air into the tube. This creates separate columns of liquid that move upward inside the tube, and toward the optical-sensor block. The meniscus that is formed by these columns of fluid against the glass capillary-tube walls is measured by the optical sensors. Since the meniscus travels at the same rate as the column of fluid, measuring the rate of meniscus-travel gives a direct correlation to the liquid flow.

Figure 2 The gas-bubble meter works very similarly to the liquid-bubble meter, but instead of a liquid meniscus, a bubble is created in the flow stream, and it is the speed of the bubble that is timed between the sensor blocks.

Two infrared sensors located within the sensor block time the rise rate of the meniscus, and this volume-over-time measurement is then converted to a flowrate and displayed on a digital readout. As the fluid moves around the top of the tube, air is vented at the top while the liquid continues around and exits at the overflow tube. The process then repeats itself as the solenoid valve opens to create another air gap. By comparison, the bubble design for gas flow works a little differently although the same basic concept remains (Figure 2). For the gas bubble flowmeters, a soapy solution is used to fill the lower reservoir of the glass flow tube. The gas flow source is then connected to a point above the bubble-solution reservoir and gas travels around to the glass flow tube. At this point, the rubber bulb is either manually squeezed or a clamp is used to continuously generate bubbles that travel at the same speed as the gas. When the bubble passes the lower optical sensor within the sensor block, an internal timer is automatically started, and when the bubble passes the upper optical sensor, the timer is stopped. The total elapsed time is correlated to a gas flowrate and displayed on a digital readout. The small amount of liquid soap left over from the process collects in the flow trap (partially shown in the back of the unit) for disposal.

Advantages: The major advantage of the bubble meter for gases is that it is not affected by the gas composition. By contrast, most electronic meters must be calibrated for a specific gas or gas mixture. The traditional gas mass flowmeter is a good example of this. A mass flowmeter calibrated for air will not work on other gases or gas mixtures without factory recalibration. When the gas is changed, the calibration must be updated. This is not the case with a bubble flowmeter. Whether one is measuring ordinary gases such as N2, O2, H2, CO2, and Ar, or measuring a unique gas mixture, one bubble meter can do it all. This versatility helps to lower equipment costs and can save recalibration time. Admittedly, it should be kept in mind that some gases may have a chemical reaction with he water used to make the bubble solution; the user should be careful when specifying bubble flowmeters for such compounds. Another useful advantage of the bubble design is that the calibration does not drift over time. The main electrical parts of the system are the optical sensors for detecting the presence or absence of a bubble or meniscus layer. These noncontact sensors do not wear out or experience a drift in accuracy. The glass tube is fixed in diameter and will not change with time. Although we recommend returning the unit periodically for calibration service, don't be surprised if it is still well within the specified accuracy range. In the gas-chromatography market, bubble meters can be qualified as a primary flow standard. Each unit can be individually calibrated to a U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (Gaithersburg, MD.; nist.gov) registered burette. Traditionally only available for very low flowrates, bubble flowmeters are now available for expanded flowrate-ranges. While gas flows ranging from 0.1 to 25 L/min can be accurately measured, liquid bubble meters don't have quite the range as the gas versions and are available in sizes ranging from roughly 1 ml/min to 30 ml/min. Disadvantages: In order to make an inline measurement with a bubble flowmeter, one needs to make a break in the line where the flow reading is desired, then make measurement and finally restore the line to its original condition. Bubble meters are therefore adequate for "end-of-line" readings, but are not well suited for continuous, in-line monitoring. In some applications, the use of a bubble solution could be a minor inconvenience, since it needs to be cleaned up after the measurement. Applications: Bubble meters are most appropriately applied in laboratory and low flow research applications. Their use in more industrial applications is extremely limited. Some of the popular applications for a bubble flowmeter include:

Supercritical fluid extraction Chromatography column, detector, and carrier-gas measurement Monitoring post detector flow volumes in HPLC systems

Calibration and flow verification for variable area and electronic flowmeters Accurate flow measurement of gas mixtures without recalibration Accurate flow measurement of changing gas concentrations Calibration of air sampling pumps General purpose gas flow verification Go to Top

The Doppler Flowmeter

Anyone that has heard the pitch of a train whistle change as the train passes has experienced the Doppler effect, named after the 19th century Austrian scientist Christian Doppler. This effect can be used to measure the flow in a pipe. Design Overview: The Doppler effect is the frequency shift that occurs when a sound source (transmitter) is in relative motion with a receiver of that sound source. In the case of a Doppler flowmeter, we have two sensors mounted or strapped on the outside of a pipe. One of the sensors is the transmitter, and transmits a high frequency (ultrasonic) signal into the pipe. This signal is reflected off particulate matter or entrained gas bubbles in the fluid. The reflected signal is then picked up by the receiving signal and the

Figure 3 This illustration shows the Doppler signal penetrating the pipe and then reflecting off the particulates in the stream. The signal phase shift is measured and correlated to a flow velocity.

frequency difference between the transmitted and reflected signals is measured and correlated into an instantaneous flowrate or flow total (Figure 3). The frequency is subject to two velocity changes; one upstream and the other downstream. Traveling upstream, the velocity of the wave is given as (Vs - V cos) where Vs equals the velocity of sound in the fluid, V equals the average fluid velocity and equals the angle of the ultrasonic beam to the fluid flow. Similarly, the downstream velocity is given as (Vs + V cos). The Doppler relationship between the reflected and transmitted frequencies can now be expressed as: fr = ft[(Vs+V cos)/(Vs - V cos)]

Here, fr is the received frequency and ft is the transmitted frequency. To further simplify this equation, one can assume that the velocity of the fluid in the pipe is much lower than the velocity of sound in the pipe; that is, V << Vs. With this assumption, one can write: fr = ft[(Vs + V cos)/Vs + (V cos)]/Vs Which reduces further to fr = ft[1 + (2V cos)/Vs] The frequency shift is given by f = fr-ft so that f = [2(ft) cos/Vs]V Because (2ft cos/Vs) is a constant, one can write the final equation as f = kV where k = 2(ft) cos/Vs This indicates that the fluid velocity in the pipe is directly proportional to the change in frequency between the transmitted and reflected ultrasonic signals. With knowledge of the pipe size, the electronics of the flowmeter will correlate the fluid velocity into a flowrate in the engineering unit of choice. Software corrections may have to be made for Vs, since the sound velocity through the medium will change with pressure and temperature fluctuations. There are ultrasonic designs on the market that use a series of pulsed signals, as opposed to a continuous ultrasonic beam. The main advantage of the pulsed technology is that it can measure the vertical velocity profile within the pipe. Fluid flow will be faster along the middle of the pipe than along the pipe walls and the pulse-design allows one to obtain a better image the flow profile within the pipe. Another sensor design that minimizes external noise uses dual-frequency Doppler technology to send two independent signals into the pipe at different frequencies. Since both signals are subject to the same Doppler shift, but the noise signals are random, the signals can be combined to calculate a flow velocity while subtracting out the noise. Ultrasonic sensors can be used with a wide variety of pipe materials, but some will not allow the signal to pass through. Although pipe material recommendations will vary depending on the sensor design, you should not expect to have any problems with carbon steel, stainless steel, PVC, and copper. However, pipes made of concrete, fiberglass, iron, and plastic pipes with liners, could pose transmission problems. One should check with the particular manufacturer to ensure that the pipe material is suitable. Some

Doppler designs utilize a section of pipe with built-in transducers that make direct contact with the fluid. This design, although no longer non-invasive, eliminates the problem of incompatible pipe materials. The accuracy of the ultrasonic Doppler meter is typically around 2% of full scale. Minimum concentration and particulate size required is roughly 25 PPM at 30 microns. Since some meters may require slightly larger concentrations, it is a good idea to check with the manufacturer. The vast majority of Doppler meters are used for liquids (roughly 88%) while the rest are used for gas (11%) and steam (1%) applications. Advantages: The main advantage of the Doppler ultrasonic meter is its non-intrusive design. An acoustic-coupling compound is used on the surface of the pipe and the sensors are simply held in place to take a measurement or, for a more permanent installation, they are strapped around the pipe. Some manufacturers offer a special clamp-on probe which allows connection to smaller pipe sizes (down to 1/4-in. diameter). Other advantages include:

Easy installation and removalno process downtime during installation No moving parts to wear out Zero pressure drop No process contamination Works well with dirty or corrosive fluids Works with pipe sizes ranging from 1/2" to 200" No leakage potential Meters are available that work with laminar, turbulent, or transitional flow characteristics Battery powered units are available for remote or field applications Sensors are available for pulsating flows Advanced software and datalogging features available Insensitive to liquid temperature, viscosity, density or pressure variations

Disadvantages: Every flowmeter has its disadvantages and the Doppler design is no exception. The main disadvantage to the technology is the fact that the liquid stream must have particulates, bubbles, or other types of solids in order to reflect the ultrasonic signal. This means that the Doppler meter is not a good choice for DI water or very clean fluids. Although strides have been made with the Doppler technology so that it can work with smaller particulate sizes and smaller concentrations, one still needs to have some particulates present (one design avoids this problem by placing a 90-deg. elbow a few pipe diameters upstream of the flow sensor, and sensing the turbulent swirls created by the elbow). A good rule of thumb is to have a bare minimum of 25 PPM at roughly 30 microns in order for the ultrasonic signal to be reflected efficiently. Some flowmeter designs may require a little more than this, so it is advisable to check the specifications of the meter one is considering. Note that if the solids content is too high (around 50% and higher by weight), the ultrasonic signal may attenuate beyond the limits of

measurability. This possibility should also be checked with the manufacturer, referring to one's specific application. Another disadvantage is that the accuracy can depend on particle-size distribution and concentration and also on any relative velocity that may exist between the particulates and the fluid. If there are not enough particulates available, the repeatability will also degrade. Finally, the only other potential problem of this technology is that it can have trouble operating at very low flow velocities. If you suspect this may be a problem for an application, the low-end velocity that may be obtained with a particular sensor design should be checked with the manufacturer. Applications: Doppler meters, being non-instrusive, have a wide variety of applications in the water, waste water, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC),HVAC, petroleum and general process markets. Below is a list of viable applications:

Influent and effluent water flow Clarifier monitoring Digester feed control Waste water Potable water Cooling water Makeup water Hot and chilled water Custody transfer Water injection Crude-oil flow Mining slurries Acids Caustics Liquefied gases Go to Top

The Transit-Time Flowmeter

Design Overview: Like its Doppler cousin, transit-time meters utilize an ultrasonic pulse that is projected into and across the pipe. The design works on a slightly different principle, however. The basic premise of the transittime meter is to measure the time difference (or frequency shift) between the time of flight down-stream and the time of flight up-stream. This frequency shift can then be correlated into a fluid flowrate through the pipe. To help explain one type of transit-time design, Figure 4a shows two transducers attached to a pipe.

In this figure, V is the average fluid velocity, Z is the distance from the upstream transducer to the downstream transducer, and q is the angle between the ultrasonicbeam line and the horizontal fluid flow. The time it takes for the ultrasonic signal to go from the upstream transducer to the downstream transducer can be written as tdown = Z/(Vs + V cos)

Figure 4a This diagram of a transit-time flowmeter shows the downstream signal being projected between the two transit-time sensors.

where Vs is the velocity of sound through the liquid. The upstream time can be written as (Figure 4b): tup = Z/(Vs - V cos) Because the upstream and downstream frequencies can be generated in proportion to their respective transit-times, we can say the following: fdown = 1/tdown and fup = 1/tup where fdown and fup represent the downstream and upstream frequencies respectively. The change in frequency can then be given as f = fdown - fup = 1/tdown - 1/tup By substitution, one obtains f = (Vs + V cos)/Z - (Vs - V cos)/Z = (2 cos/Z)V Since (2 cos/Z) is just a constant, one can write the final equation as f = kV with k = 2 cos/Z

This, then, is the basic relationship used to determine flow velocity from the measured frequency shift. The flow rate can then be calculated using a Reynoldsnumber correction for velocity profile and by programming in the internal pipe diameter. The Reynolds-number correction takes Figure 4b into account the behavior of the fluid as being laminar, transitional This diagram shows the upstream signal projection. The frequency difference or turbulent. These calculations are between the upstream and downstream made electronically and the times is proportional to the flow velocity. flowrate or flow total can then be displayed in the engineering units of choice. Interestingly enough in this instrument, the frequency shift is measured independently of V s. This is an advantage, since corrections will not have to be made for the variance of V s because of line-pressure and temperature fluctuations. Most transit-time applications involve liquids, but designs are available to handle gases, as well. In light of the single path design discussed above, note that a single ultrasonic pulse will average the velocity profile across the transit path, and not across the pipe cross-section, where better accuracy would be obtained. Some flowmeters on the market send several ultrasonic pulses on separate paths in order to average this velocity profile; these meters tend to have better accuracy than their single-pulse counterparts. Transit-time flowmeters generally exhibit accuracies of around 1% of the measured velocity. Pipe-material recommendations are the same as those given for Doppler flowmeters. Advantages: As pointed out, the main advantage of the transit-time meter is that it works non-invasively with ultrapure fluids. This allows the user to maintain the integrity of the fluid while still measuring the flow. Some of the other advantages are listed below.

Easy installationtransducer set clamps onto pipe No moving parts to wear out Zero pressure drop Can detect zero flow No process contamination Works well with clean and ultrapure fluids Works with pipe sizes ranging from 1" to 200" No leakage potential Meters available that work with laminar, turbulent, or transitional flow characteristics Battery powered units available for remote or field applications Sensors available for pulsating flows Advanced software and datalogging features available Insensitive to liquid temperature, viscosity, density or pressure variations

Disadvantages: Transit-time flowmeter performance can suffer from pipewall interference, and accuracy and repeatability problems can result if there are any air spaces between the fluid and the pipe wall. Concrete, fiberglass and pipes lined with plastic can attenuate the signal enough to make the flowmeter unusable. Because these factors can vary from one design to the next, it is advisable to check with the manufacturer to ensure that the pipe material is appropriate. As mentioned before, the transit-time meters will not operate on dirty, bubbly, or particulate-laden fluids. Sometimes, the purity of a fluid may fluctuate so as to affect the accuracy of the flow measurement. For such cases, there are hybrid meters on the market that will access the fluid conditions within the pipe and automatically chose Doppler or transit-time operations where appropriate. These units are especially useful if the unit is to be used in a wide variety of different applications which may range from dirty to clean fluids. Applications: Transit-time meters have wide applicability for flow measurement of clean or ultrapure streams. Some of these applications are listed below.

Clean water flowrate in water treatment plants Hot or cold water in power plants, airports, universities, shopping malls, hospitals and other commercial buildings Pure and ultra-pure fluids in semiconductor, pharmaceutical, and the food & beverage industries Acids and liquefied gases in the chemical industry Light to medium crude oils in the petroleum refining industry Water distribution systems used in agriculture and irrigation Cryogenic liquids Gas-stack flow measurement in power plant scrubbers Go to Top

The Vortex Flowmeter

Design Overview: At 11 a.m. on November 7th, 1940 the Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge in the state of Washington collapsed from windinduced vibrations. The torsional motion of the bridge shortly before its collapse is an indication of the power of vortex shedding. The prevailing theory on the collapse of the bridge is that the oscillations were caused by the shedding of turbulent vortices in a periodic manner. Experimental observations have in fact shown that broad flat obstacles (also referred to as bluff bodies) produce periodic swirling vortices which generate high and low pressure regions directly behind the bluff body. The rate at which these vortices shed is given by the following equation: f = SV/L where, f = the frequency of the vortices

L = the characteristic length of the bluff body V = the velocity of the flow over the bluff body S = Strouhal Number and is a constant for a given body shape In the case of the Tacoma bridge, a wind speed of approximately 40 mph caused the formation of vortices around the 8-ft.-deep, steel plate girders of the bridge. This established vortices which were shed, according to the above equation, at approximately 1 Hz. As the structural oscillations constructively reinforced, the bridge began oscillating, building up amplitude, until it could no longer hold itself together. Another less tragic example of the vortex principle can be seen in the waving motion of a flag. The flag pole, acting as a bluff body, creates swirling vortices behind it that give the flag its "flapping" quality in strong winds. A practical application of vortex production can be found in the design of the vortex flowmeter. In this design, a bluff body or bodies is placed within the fluid stream. Just behind the bluff body, a pressure transducer, thermistor, or ultrasonic sensor picks up the high and low pressure and velocity fluctuations as the vortices Figure 5 move past the sensor (Figure 5). These As fluid moves around the baffles, fluctuations are linear, directly vortices form and move proportional to the flowrate and downstream. The frequency of the independent of fluid density, pressure, vortices is directly proportional to temperature and viscosity (within certain the flowrate. limits). As given explicitly in the above equation, the frequency of the vortices is directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid. Vortex meters are very flexible and the technology can be used for liquid, gas and steam measurements. This, along with the fact that they have no moving parts, makes them a very popular choice. Accuracies are typically in the 1% range. Generally speaking, in-line vortex meters are available in line sizes ranging from 1/2 to 16". Insertion vortex meters that are installed in the top or sides of a pipe can be used for even larger pipe sizes. This makes them versatile in a wide variety of applications (Figure 6). One final remark concerns the Reynolds number limitations for these flowmeters. For vortex meters, vortices will not be shed under a Reynolds number of approximately 2000. From roughly 2000 to 10,000, vortices will be shed but the resulting fluctuations are non-linear in this range. Typically, a minimum Reynolds number of 10,000 is required in order get optimum performance from the vortex flowmeter. This number can vary from one design to another, so it is advisable to check with the manufacturer.

Advantages: The advantages of a vortex meter are many. They are summarized below:

Figure 6 This photo shows a typical vortex meter. It may be installed horizontally or vertically in the pipe.

No moving parts to wear No routine maintenance required Can be used for liquids, gases, and steam Stable long term accuracy and repeatability Lower cost of installation than traditional orifice-type meters Available in a wide variety of temperature ranges from -300F to roughly 800F Bar-like bluff design allows particulates to pass through without getting clogged Available for a wide variety of pipe sizes Available in a wide variety of communication protocols

Disadvantages: There are only a couple of things to watch out for when considering a vortex meter. First, they are not a good choice for very low fluid velocities, and therefore cannot be recommended below about 0.3 ft/sec. At this low flowrate, the vortices are not strong enough to be picked up accurately. In addition to the above, be aware that a minimum length of straight-run pipe is required upstream and downstream of the meter for the accurate creation of vortices within the flowmeter. Ten pipe diameters before and after the point of installation are typically recommended, but the minimum length could be greater if there are elbows or valves nearby. This is only a disadvantage if the installation area does not allow for this straight run of pipe. Applications: Vortex meters have become extremely popular in recent years and are used in a variety of applications and industries. Below is a summary of some of the main uses of a vortex meter.

Custody transfer of natural gas metering Flow of liquid suspensions Higher viscosity fluids Cryogenic fluids Steam measurement General water applications

Chilled and hot water Water/glycol mixtures Condensate measurement Potable water Ultrapure & de-ionized water Acids Solvents

Vortex meters are also used widely in the oil, gas, petrochemical, and pulp & paper industries. Go to Top

The Magnetic Flowmeter

Figure 7 This illustration shows the principle of the manetic flowmeter. As magnetic flux is produced upward along the Y-axis, a voltage develops across the meter electrodes as conductive fluid moves through the pipe. The voltage signal is directly proportional to the fluid velocity.

Design Overview: The basic design principle of the magnetic flowmeter (Figure 7) is derived from Faraday's law of induction, which states that the voltage generated in a closed circuit is directly proportional to the amount of magnetic flux that intersects the circuit at right angles. In this design, magnets are positioned above and below the pipe to produce a magnetic flux (B) along the Y-axis. Because of the movement of conductive fluid, at right angles to this magnetic field and at a velocity V along the Z-axis, a potential is induced into the flow stream. The instantaneous voltage produced between the electrodes is proportional to the fluid flow through the pipe. For this design, one can rewrite Faraday's Law as follows: E = kBdV where, E = the induced voltage between the sensing electrodes k = a constant

B = the magnetic flux density d = the distance between electrodes (equivalent to the pipe diameter) V = the velocity of the fluid Linear flow through a pipe can be expressed as the volumetric flowrate Q, divided by the cross-sectional area of the pipe A; therefore one can write V = Q/A = 4Q/d2 Substituting this into the Faraday equation gives E = (4k/d)BQ This can be solved for the volumetric flow rate Q, and leads to Q = (d/4k)E/B This final equation shows that the volumetric flowrate Q is directly proportional to the induced voltage, E, between the electrodes. There are two main methods of producing the magnetic flux density, B, across the pipe; alternating-current (a.c.) excitation, or pulsed, directcurrent (d.c.) excitation. In order to avoid past polarization problems encountered in a d.c.-excitation design, some magmeters use an a.c. excitation voltage. In this design, an a.c. voltage is used to create the magnetic field which, in turn, produces a varying-voltage signal across the electrodes. This is not a problem since the amplitude of the voltage, E, will still be proportional to the fluid velocity. However, the development of some induction voltages across both the transformer coils and the electrodes is undesirable. For induction voltages that are 90 degrees out of phase with the signal voltage (called quadrature voltages), a phase-sensitive filtering circuit eliminates the unwanted voltage. Induction voltages that are in phase with the signal voltage can be eliminated with special zeroing procedures but this usually requires the fluid flow in the pipe to be fully stopped before zeroing; this may not be feasible in some applications. Response time is quicker with a.c. excitation than with d.c. pulse-type units. This can be an advantage if the process flow changes quickly or contains hard particulate matter, like sludge, pulp-and-paper stock, mining slurries and polymers. Hard particulates impinging on the electrodes can generate signals that can be mistaken for noise as opposed to the actual flow signal. The 60-HZ sampling of the AC design will work very well in distinguishing between noise and actual flow signals in these types of applications. Outside of these more specialized cases however, the d.c.-pulse design is more widely used since it eliminates many of the above-mentioned inductionvoltages altogether.

In pulsed-d.c. excitation, the electromagnet coils are energized in short pulses or bursts. The electrode voltage is then measured before and after the d.c. excitation and the voltage difference is proportional to the flowrate. The advantage of the d.c. pulse design is that it eliminates the induction voltages described above, as well as the need to re-zero the meter at no

Figure 8 This photo shows a typical magnetic flowmeter, which can be installed horizontally or vertically in the pipe.

flow conditions. Normally, the d.c. excitation is pulsed around 10 to 15 Hz. Some companies, in an effort to provide the advantages of the a.c. design, have increased the d.c. pulsing to 100 Hz. While this certainly allows the meter to handle more difficult flows, it may increase the amount of heat generated in the coils and can affect the lifetime of the instrument. Some new designs claim to minimize this heating effect. As a final mention, it is worth noting that some magmeter designs have solved the problem of coating-type fluids leaving a non-conductive deposit on the meter electrodes. By embedding metal sheets in the magmeter lining, the electrodes no longer come in direct contact with the fluid, and the measured parameter becomes capacitance instead of voltage. Advantages: The magmeter offers some very nice advantages. They are summarized below:

Obstructionless flow Virtually no pressure drop Insensitivity to viscosity, specific gravity, temperature and pressure (within certain limitations) Will work with laminar, turbulent, and transitional flows Can respond well to fast changing flows (for high-frequency d.c. pulse and a.c.excitation designs only) Good accuracy (0.5 to 1%) No moving parts Can handle slurries and heavy particulates Lining protectors available for harsh, chemically corrosive, and abrasive fluids

Inline and insertion designs available to handle pipe sizes from approximately 1/10" to 96" Available in a wide variety of communication protocols

Disadvantages: The only main disadvantage of the magmeter is that the fluid needs to be conductive. Therefore, liquids such as hydrocarbons and de-ionized water are not viable applications. The minimum required conductivity is normally in the range of 1-5 microSiemans/cm (mS/cm) but will vary from design to design. One manufacturer claims a minimum conductivity of 0.008 mS/cm while another recommends 20 mS/cm. Again, it is advisable to check with particular manufacturer's requirements. The only other item to point out is that because this technology utilizes magnetic and electric fields, the pipe must normally be grounded. There are special grounding procedures that need to be followed for conductive piping; and for plastic pipes, special grounding rings must be used. Although this is technically not a disadvantage, it does add another step to the installation process and failure to properly ground the pipe can result in fluctuating flow signals. Finally, it is not recommended to use graphite gaskets when installing a magmeter since the graphite could cause an electrically conductive layer to build up on the inside wall of the meter, causing erroneous signals. In the same spirit, it almost goes without saying that installation in an area containing stray electromagnetic or electrostatic fields is not recommended. Applications: The magmeter can handle a wide variety of applications. Some of them are listed below:

Water A variety of industrial effluents Paper pulp Mining slurries Brine Sludge Liquid food products Detergents Sewage Corrosive acids Solid bearing fluids Electrolytes Process chemicals

Problem liquids include petroleum products, crude oil, deionized water, and vegetable/animal fats. Go to Top

Final Words

A word of caution: The technologies discussed within this article represent an overview of what is available on the market and the values in Table 1 are average values. While there are hundreds of different designs available, the purpose of this article is to give the reader enough knowledge to narrow down their application to one or two flowmeter technologies. For specific issues or additional design-parameters that should be considered, the manufacturers should be apprached. Go to Top

Table 1: A Comparison of Flowmeter Parameters

Attribute Gases Steam Liquids Viscous liquids2 Corrosive liquids Typical Accuracy Typical Repeatability Max pressure, psi Max temp., F Max pressure drop, psi Typical turndown ratio8 Average cost10 Bubble Yes No Yes Yes Not recommended 2%3 1%3 Vent6 212 negligible 300 to 1 $600 Doppler Yes1 Yes1 Yes Yes Yes 2%4 0.5%4 N/A7 N/A7 TransitVortex Magnetic Time Yes1 Yes1 Yes Yes Yes 0.5%4 0.2%4 N/A7 N/A7 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 0.751.5%5 0.2%5 300 to 400 400 to 500 15 to 20 20 to 1 No No Yes Yes Yes 0.5-1%5 0.2%5 600-800 250-300 negligible 20 to 1

negligible negligible 50 to 1 N/A9

$2,000 to $5,000 to $800 to $2,000 to $5,000 $8,000 $2,000 $3,000

1. While specialized Doppler and transit-time meters will work for gases and steam, they represent a small percentage of all Doppler and transit-time applications. 2. Upper viscosity limit will vary per manufacturer. 3. % of full-scale. 4. % of velocity. 5. % of flowrate. 6. Outlet must be vented to atmosphere 7. Non-contact device. 8. The turndown ratio is the ratio of maximum flow to minimum flow, also known as rangeability. 9. Transit-time technology can measure down to zero flow.

10.

Cost values vary depending on process temperature and pressure, accuracy required and approvals needed. Go to Top

References
1. Cole-Parmer Instrument Co., 2001-2002 catalog, Vernon Hills, Ill., 2000 2. Parr, E. A., "Industrial Control Handbook," 2nd ed., ButterworthHeinemann, England, 1995 3. Bernard, Ing C. J., "Handbook of Fluid Flowmetering," 1st ed., Trade & Technical Press Limited, England, 1988 4. Patrick, D., and Fardo, S., "Industrial Process Control Systems," Delmar Publishers, N.Y., 1997 5. Miller, R.W., "Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook," 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1996 6. Swearingen, C., Choosing the Best Flowmeter, Chemical Engineering, July 1999, McGraw-Hill, N.Y., p. 62 7. Vidrio, D., Ten Tips to Maximize Your Magmeter Application, Flow Control, January 2000, Witter Publishing Corp., N.J., p. 31 8. Lynnworth, L., Ultrasonic Flow Measurement, at Ordinary Temperatures, Using Wetted and Clamp-On Transducers, Flow Control, February 2000, Whitter Publishing Corp., N.J., p. 28 9. Espina, P., Ultrasonic Clamp-On Flowmeters: Have They Finally Arrived?, Flow Control, January 1997, Whitter Publishing Corp., N.J., p. 13 10. Silverberg, P., High-Accuracy Flowmeters Flood the Market, Chemical Engineering, July 1998, McGraw-Hill, N.Y., p. 39 11. Koughan, J., The Collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, Evaluation of Competing Theories of its Demise, and the Effects of the Disaster of Succeeding Bridge Designs, Undergraduate Engineering Review, The Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, August 1996

Flowmeter FAQs
Differential Pressure Flowmeters
1. How does a differential pressure flowmeter work? 2. Do I need a filter? 3. Can a differential pressure flowmeter handle turbulent flow? 4. My gas is not at STP/ or changeswill this work? 5. What are the advantages of using a differential pressure flowmeter?

6. What are the limitations of using a differential pressure flowmeter? Doppler Flowmeters
1. How does a doppler flowmeter work? 2. Can I use a doppler flowmeter with particulates? 3. Some flowmeters measure in velocity (ft./sec). How can I convert the readings to volume/time? 4. What if my fluid is not water? 5. Will pipe insulation/thickness affect my reading? 6. Must a doppler flowmeter be permanently installed? 7. Does a doppler flowmeter require a minimum upstream straight pipe length? 8. What are the advantages of using a doppler flowmeter?

9. What are the limitations of using a doppler flowmeter? Mass Flowmeters

1. How does a mass flowmeter work? 2. Can a mass flowmeter give a total accumulation of gas? 3. Can I calibrate a mass flowmeter for my own gas mixture? 4. Do I need a filter? 5. What are the advantages of using a mass flowmeter?

6. What are the limitations of using a mass flowmeter? Paddle-Wheel Flowmeters

1. How does a paddle-wheel flowmeter work? 2. What if my liquid is foamy or turbulent? 3. How long of a straight section of pipe do I need? 4. What do I need for a paddle-wheel system? 5. My meter reads in GPMthe flow sensors are in ft/sec. How do I know which one is appropriate for my flow? 6. What do I need to know about my system when ordering?

7. What are the advantages of using a paddle-wheel flowmeter?

8. What are the limitations of using a paddle-wheel flowmeter? Turbine Flowmeters

1. How does a turbine flowmeter work? 2. Can I use a turbine flowmeter with small particles? 3. Do I need a minimum straight distance before the sensor? 4. What if I have air in my liquid? 5. What are the advantages of using a turbine flowmeter?

6. What are the limitations of using a turbine flowmeter? Variable Area Flowmeters/Rotameters
1. How does a rotameter work? 2. Where do I take the reading? 3. What is the difference between correlated and direct reading rotameters? 4. What if I use a gas or liquid other than water or air? What if I use distilled water? 5. Can I use a rotameter in a vacuum application or with back pressure? 6. Can I use one flowmeter to measure different flow rates? 7. What are the differences between a 150-mm vs. a 65-mm flowmeter? 8. Must a rotameter be mounted vertically? 9. Which float do I have? 10. What are the advantages of using a variable area flowmeter?

11. What are the limitations of using a variable area flowmeter? Differential Pressure Flowmeters 1. How do ColeParmer's differential pressure flowmeter work?
A pressure drop is created as water or gas enters through the meter's inlet. The fluid is forced to form thin laminar streams that flow in parallel paths between internal plates separated or capillary tubes. The pressure differential created by the fluid drag is measured by a

differential pressure sensor connected to the top plate. The differential pressure from one end of the laminar flow plates to the other end is linear and proportional to the flow rate of the liquid or gas. Go to Top

2. Do I need a filter?
A 50-m filter is recommended to prevent impurities from clogging the laminar element. Go to Top

3. Can a differential pressure flowmeter handle turbulent flow?

Yes; though meters are unidirectional a straight run of tubing or pipe is not required. Go to Top

4. My gas is not at STP/ or changeswill this work?

Some non-thermal mass flowmeter versions are available for fluctuating stream temperature or pressure. These meters will automatically correct to STP. Go to Top

5. What are the advantages of a using a differential flowmeter?

can handle low flow gases and liquids has an output signal for totalizing switch selectable for different gases Go to Top

6. What are the limitations of using a differential flowmeter?

for use with clean liquids only maximum liquid viscosity of 5 cps Go to Top

Doppler Flowmeters 1. How does a doppler flowmeter work?

A high frequency signal is projected through the wall of the pipe and into the liquid. The signal is reflected off impurities in the liquid such as air bubbles or particles, and sent back to the receiver. The frequency difference between the transmitted and received signal is directly proportional to the fluid's flow velocity. Go to Top

2. Can I use a doppler flowmeter with particulates?

Yes. In order to use a doppler flowmeter, the liquid must have particulates or bubbles. Most require a minimum size of 25 ppm or 30 m; check with each doppler flowmeter for specific particle size requirements. Go to Top

3. Some flowmeters measure in velocity (ft/sec). How can I convert the readings to volume/time?
GPM= 2.45 * (ID in inches) * (VELOCITY in ft/sec) GPM= gallons per minute ID = inside diameter of the pipe in inches. This formula is for waterit does not consider viscosity, temperature, or pressure. However, temperature, viscosity, and pressure will not effect a doppler flow reading. Go to Top

4. What if my fluid is not water?

The speed of sound through water is approximately 1470 ft/sec. Most instruments are calibrated for that rate. Other fluids may be used, but your instrument should then be recalibrated. Go to Top

5. Will pipe insulation/thickness affect my reading?

Yes. Insulation should be removed before mounting the sensor. Go to Top

6. Must a doppler flowmeter be permanently installed?

No. Because doppler flowmeters measure flow externally, most can be easily removed and moved from site to site. Go to Top

7. Does a doppler flowmeter require a minimum upstream straight pipe length?

Yes. Doppler flowmeters require ten pipe diameters from any valve, tee, bend, etc. Doppler flowmeters also require a full pipe flow. Go to Top

8. What are the advantages of using a doppler flowmeter?

non-invasive good for slurries, aerated liquids portable Go to Top

9. What are the limitations of using a doppler flowmeter?

not suitable for clean liquids requires straight upstream piping Go to Top

Mass Flowmeters 1. How does a mass flowmeter work?

A volume of gas has a known mass at standard conditions. As pressure and temperature are applied, the volume will change, but the mass remains constant. Mass flowmeters measure flow based on the molecular mass of the gas; this measurement is independent of temperature and pressure. One technique to measure mass flow is to send a part of the flow through a sensor tube. In the tube, the gas is heated in a coil and then measured downstream. The temperature differential is directly related to the mass flow. Go to Top

2. Can a mass flowmeter give a total accumulation of gas?

Yes, most mass flowmeters have outputs of either 0-5 VDC or 4-20 mA. To monitor total accumulation, connect a totalizer/monitor with a matching input ( 0-5 VDC or 4-20 mA). Go to Top

3. Can I calibrate a mass flowmeter for my own gas mixture?

This is possible as long as the mixture is not too complicated. Contact our applications Department for pricing and availability of gas mixture calibrations. Go to Top

4. Do I need a filter?
Mass flowmeters require clean gases; generally any particles larger than 50 m require a filter upstream of the meter. Check each meter for specific requirements. Go to Top

5. What are the advantages of using a mass flowmeter?

measure mass directly can handle applications whose stream temperature and line pressures fluctuate. Go to Top

6. What are the limitations of using a mass flowmeter?

calibrated to a specific gas type Go to Top

Paddle-Wheel Flowmeters 1. How does a paddle-wheel flowmeter work?

Magnets are installed on each paddle of the sensor, which is inserted into the liquid. As the paddle turns, an electrical frequency output proportional to the flow velocity is generated. Go to Top

2. What if my liquid is foamy or turbulent?

Because these sensors use laminar flow characteristics, foamy or turbulent liquids will not be read accurately. The sensors must also be installed in a full flowing, straight section of pipe. Go to Top

3. How long of a straight section of pipe do I need?

For systems with no bends or restrictions, allow a minimum of 15 pipe diameters upstream and 5 pipe diameters downstream. Go to Top

4. What do I need for a paddle-wheel system?

a. flow sensor b. pipe fitting c. meter or controller to read the signals from the sensor and indicate them in GPM or LPM Go to Top

5. My meter reads in GPMthe flow sensors are in ft/sec. How do I know which one is appropriate for my flow?
To convert from velocity to flow, use: GPM= ft/sec x (ID)2 x 2.45 GPM= gallons per minute ID = inside diameter of the pipe This formula is for waterit does not consider viscosity, temperature, or pressure. Go to Top

6. What do I need to know about my system when ordering?

In order to correctly calibrate your flowmeter, we need to know: a. Type of fluid b. Expected flow rate c. Max. fluid temp and system pressure d. % suspended particles by volume e. Pipe size (ID), material, and wall thickness (schedule) Go to Top

7. What are the advantages of using a paddle-wheel flowmeter?

good repeatability low pressure drop easy maintenance Go to Top

8. What are the limitations of using a paddle-wheel flowmeter?

minimum upstream/downstream piping requirements full pipe require.

Go to Top

Turbine Flowmeters 1. How does a turbine flowmeter work?

As liquid or gas flows through the turbine, it turns an impeller blade that is sensed by infrared beams, photo-electric sensors, or magnets. An electrical pulse is then generated and converted to a frequency output proportional to the flow rate. Go to Top

2. Can I use a turbine flowmeter with small particles?

No. Turbine flowmeters are best used with clean, low-viscosity liquids. Go to Top

3. Do I need a minimum straight distance before the sensor?

To maintain an even cross-sectional flow, it is recommended that there be a straight pipe length of at least 10x the meter's inner diameter upstream and at least 5x the meter's inner diameter downstream of the sensor. Check each flowmeter for specific requirements. Go to Top

4. What if I have air in my liquid?

Some turbine flowmeters can be used with air. However, if there are air bubbles or vapor pockets in the liquid, the reading will be inaccurate. There should be a laminar (stable) flow through the cross-section of the pipe. Go to Top

5. What are the advantages of using a turbine flowmeter?

good accuracy with liquids easy to install and maintain signal output for totalizing low flow rates available Go to Top

6. What are the limitations of using a turbine flowmeter?

sensitive to viscosity changes straight pipe line required clean liquids and gases only Go to Top

Variable Area Flowmeters/Rotameters 1. How does a rotameter work?

Rotameters, or variable area flowmeters, operate on the principle that the variation in area of flow stream required to produce a constant pressure differential is proportional to the flow rate. The flowing fluid enters the bottom of the meter, passes upward through a metering tube, and around the float, exiting at the top. The flow rate is read by noting the position of the float against the calibrated scale etched on the glass Go to Top

2. Where do I take the reading?

With the Cole-Parmer flowmeters, the reading is taken at the center of the float. It is recommended that the float be at eye level to minimize reading errors. Go to Top

3. What is the difference between correlated and direct reading rotameters?

A direct reading flowmeter indicates the flow rate on its scale in specific engineering units (e.g. ml/min or scfh). Direct reading scales are designed for a specific gas or liquid at a given temperature and pressure. While it is more convenient than a correlated flowmeter, a direct reading flowmeter is less accurate and limited in its applications. A correlated flowmeter is scaled along either a 65mm or a 150mm length, from which a reading is taken. The reading is then compared to a correlation table for a specific gas or liquid. This will give the actual flow in engineering units. One correlated flowmeter can be used with a variety of fluids or gases. Go to Top

4. What if I use a gas or liquid other than water or air? What if I use distilled water?
If you have a correlated flowmeter, give us the tube number and type of float, and we can fax you a correlation chart for the gases advertised in our catalog. We have a limited number of unadvertised gas correlations as well.

For distilled water, use the correlation chart for water. Go to Top

5. Can I use a rotameter in a vacuum application or with back pressure?

Yes, but if you have a valve, it must be placed at the outlet (top of the flowmeter). This is done by inverting the tube inside the frame, and then turning over the frame. At this position, the tube should read correctly from the original perspective and the valve should be at the outlet, or top of the flowmeter. This allows for proper control of the vacuum. Go to Top

6. Can I use one flowmeter to measure different flow rates?

Yes. If a correlated flow tube is used, different flow rates can be attained by using different floats, i.e. carboloy, stainless steel, glass, or sapphire. Go to Top

7. What are the differences between a 150-mm vs. a 65mm flowmeter?

A 150-mm flowmeter has a 150 mm scale length and is graduated accordingly. It provides better resolution than the more economical 65-mm flowmeter. Go to Top

8. Must a rotameter be mounted vertically?

Generally, rotameters must be mounted vertically, because the float must center itself in the fluid stream. At high flow rates, the float assumes a position towards the tip of the metering tube and at low flow rates positions itself lower in the tube. Some of our rotameters have spring loaded floats and therefore may be mounted in any orientation. Go to Top

19. Which float do I have?

Glass floats are black, while the sapphire floats are red. Carboloy and stainless steal floats both look metallic, but the stainless steal floats are magnetic.

Go to Top

10. What are the advantages of using a variable area flowmeter?

inexpensive somewhat self-cleaning no power required available in different materials for chemical compatibility Go to Top

11. What are the limitations of using a variable area flowmeter?

no output for data transmission sensitive to differing gas types and changes in temperature and pressure

How Volumetric Flowmeters Work

A pressure drop is created as water or gas enters through the meter's inlet. The fluid is forced to form thin laminar streams that flow in parallel paths between internal plates separated by spacers. The pressure differential

created by the fluid drag is measured by a differential pressure sensor connected to the top cavity plate. The differential pressure from one end of the laminar flow plates to the other end is linear and proportional to the flow rate of the water or gas.

Volumetric Flow Rates vs Mass Flow Rates

At standard conditions (1 atm, 25C), volumetric and mass flow rates are nearly identical. However, rates differ dramatically with temperature and pressure changes. For example, if volumetric flow was used to fill balloons with 250 mL of helium, but the incoming line ran near a cycling furnaceintermittently heating the incoming heliumthe balloons would initially be the same size, but would then be different sizes once they reached an equilibrium temperature. If a mass flow reading was used, the balloons would initially be different sizes, but would be the same size upon reaching an equilibrium temperature. For applications at standard temperature and with no back pressure on the meter outlet, select a volumetric meter. For fluctuating pressures and/or temperatures, select a compensated mass meter.

Velocity-Profile Deviations Influence Flowmeter Performance

Selecting the right flowmeter for the liquid
By Corte Swearingen Reprinted from Chemical Processing magazine Newtonian Velocity Profiles Non-Newtonian Fluids Flowmeter Performance and Flow Profile Distortions Assessing Pipe Flow Conditions Flow Conditioners Conclusion and Recommendations References Close your eyes and imagine a world in which all fluids flowing down pipes are perfectly homogeneous, having no disturbances or eddies in the flow stream. A world in which pipes always contain fully developed turbulent flow and pipe bends and obstructions are non-existent. Sounds silly right? But these are the hypothetical conditions upon which flowmeter accuracies are based. If deviations from these conditions exist,

accuracy and/or repeatability will degrade. This article will discuss the first of four major influence quantities that affect flowmeter accuracy and performance: velocity-profile deviations, non-homogenous flow, pulsating flow, and cavitation. With this background, we will then look at how these influence quantities factor into flowmeter performance and what can be done to minimize their effect. Imagine a horizontal pipe a few feet in front of you at about eye level. If a vertical cut were made through the center of the pipe to remove the front half of the pipe, it would be easy to see how "nicely behaved" fluid flow

Figure 1: Zero Liquid Viscosity In the hypothetical situation shown here, the liquid viscosity is zero, and the velocity profile is a straight line. The vertical sheet of fluid moves forward at velocity V.

develops. The cross-sectional view shown in Figure 1 illustrates a hypothetical situation in which the fluid has zero viscosity. In this example, the velocity gradient is constant and equal across the entire cross-section. That is, the fluid velocity at the pipe walls is equal to the fluid velocity at the pipe center and at all points in-between. However, every liquid has some measure of viscosity; therefore, the velocity profile becomes distorted from this "ideal case scenario." Go to Top

Newtonian Velocity Profiles

Examples of Newtonian fluids include water, milk, sugar solutions and mineral oils. Distortions can occur for homogeneous Newtonian fluids for a number of reasons. The viscosity of a Newtonian fluid is dependent only on temperature, but not on shear rate and time. The flow of a Newtonian fluid will exhibit a "sticking" effect on the walls of the pipe. In fact, the boundary conditions placed on the stationary pipe wall demand that the fluid in direct contact with the pipe walls have zero velocity (or at least that is what is assumed in the calculations within this article). It is this boundary condition that distorts a Newtonian fluid's velocity profile. If the velocity vector at the pipe wall is zero, the maximum velocity occurring in the pipe can be worked out mathematically.

Consider a pipe of radius "R" that contains a smaller cylindrical element of liquid of radius "r." See Figure 2.

Figure 2: Sample Newtonian Fluid Velocity Profile For steady flow in a pipe of radius "R" containing a smaller cylindrical element of liquid radius "r," a shear force develops equal and opposite to the cylindrical water element pressure.

Assuming the cylindrical element of fluid is moving uniformly through the pipe, at constant velocity, the shearing force on the pipe wall is equal to the pressure force of the liquid moving through. The shear force, which is directly proportional to the velocity gradient, is given by: = (dv/dy) where: is the shear force or shear pressure. dv/dy is the velocity gradient (where y is the distance from the pipe wall). is the constant of proportionality, also referred to as the dynamic viscosity. Because the fluid pressure can be simply given as the pressure differential through the pipe times the cross-sectional fluid area, and because the fluid pressure force is equal to the oppositely directed shear force on the pipe wall, the equation can be written: Shear Wall Force = (2r)L = 2rL(dv/dy) = PA = Pr2 = Fluid Pressure where: r is the radius of the cylindrical fluid element. L is the length of the cylindrical fluid element. P is the pressure differential through the pipe. A is the cross-sectional area of the fluid element Solving for , we get = Pr/2L It is more convenient in this example to give the shear force as a function of the pipe center instead of the pipe wall. This is easily accomplished easily by rewriting the shear force as: = -(dv/dr) = (dv/dy)

Equating these two expressions for the shear stress gives us the following relationship: Pr/2L = -(dv/dr) Solving for the velocity gradient yields: dv/dr = -Pr/2L By integrating this expression across the pipe to radius R, the velocity (V) as a function of the radius r can be determined. V = P/4L(R2 - r2) Now it can be seen mathematically that the maximum velocity in the pipe occurs at the center of the pipe, or when r = 0. Actually, these two facts that the velocity at the pipe wall is zero and the maximum velocity occurs at the pipe centerare the boundary conditions used to determine the constant of proportionality for the above integration.

Figure 3: Laminar Flow Profile for Newtonian Fluid The velocity is zero at the pipe wall and increases parabolically with flow, reaching its maximum at the pipe's center.

This equation is in the form of a parabola. Graphing it gives the velocity profile shown in Figure 3. This profile develops at certain velocities for Newtonian fluids and is called laminar flow. Laminar flow is characterized by fluid movement in layers or streamlines with very little mixing occurring between those layers. The fluid layers are restrained from mixing by the viscous forces within the liquid. Laminar flow is very well behaved and predictable. However, as the velocity of the fluid increases within the pipe, inertial forces start to overcome the viscous forces, and small eddies and fluid oscillations will form, causing the fluid layers to start mixing. For a while, the fluid might shift to being somewhat laminar, but the eddies keep working to mix the fluid layers. This partial mixing of the streamlined layers is known as transitional flow. Transitional flow is not really laminar flow but it is not fully turbulent flow either. In fact, the fluid may exhibit laminar flow at some pipe radii and turbulent flow at other radii. If a dye stream were to be injected into the pipe, it would waver and mix slightly as it moves down the pipe. The

velocity profile for transitional flow is difficult to predict because it changes with time, being laminar-like in some instances and turbulent-like in others. As the velocity of the fluid within the pipe increases further, fully turbulent flow develops. Turbulent flow is characterized by the laminar flow streams completely breaking up and mixing together as the flow moves down the pipe. Although the average flow still moves down the pipe, there will be small flow velocities in the radial r direction as well. As eddies form in the fluid stream, they will break down randomly into smaller eddies, swirls and vortices, leading to increased shear within the liquid. Is there any way to predict when each of these regimeslaminar, transitional and turbulent flowwill dominate the fluid flow? The answer, of course, is yes. The Reynolds number helps determine what type of flow can be expected. Named after the fluid dynamics research of Osborne Reynolds, the Reynolds number is simply the ratio of momentum to viscous forces. It takes into account the fluid density, viscosity, and pipeline velocity. If the viscous forces are large (low Reynolds number), the viscous effects of the fluid will dampen out any tendency of streamline mixing. For large inertial forces, there will not be enough viscous damping for laminar flow to continue, and the flow will become transitional or turbulent. The equation for the Reynolds number is: R = vD/ where: v is the average velocity. D is the pipe diameter. is the density. is the dynamic viscosity. Using SI units, it becomes apparent that the Reynolds number is dimensionless. The units of vD are (meters/sec) x (meters) x (kg/meters3), and the units of are (kg/meters x sec). The rule of thumb is that the flow will be laminar below an R of 2,000. Between an R of 2,000 and 4,000, the flow is transitional; above 4,000, the flow is turbulent. In actuality, there are no distinct breaks between laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows. For example, depending on the fluid, fully developed transitional flow might not occur until R equals roughly 7,000. So, what is the velocity profile for turbulent flow? This is a difficult question as the profile is not a fixed geometry. It changes with the wall roughness and Reynolds number. The velocity equation for homogeneous Newtonian flow in the turbulent regime (see Figure 4) is: Vr = Vav[1 + 1.44f + 2.15f log10(1-r/R)] where: Vr is the velocity at radius r. Vav is the average flow velocity. R is the radius of the pipe. f is the friction factor.

The friction factor is difficult to calculate because turbulent flow is unpredictable, but a lot of experimental data exist on this subject. The friction factor comes into play when the pipe wall is not smooth. For a rough

Figure 4: Turbulent Flow Profile for a Newtonian Fluid The velocity is zero at the pipe wall, but the face velocity is straighter and squared up.

pipe interior, the fluid closer to the walls is held back because of the additional shear. This, in turn, causes the velocity profile to become flatter and blunter in front. One widely used method of determining the friction factor is the Moody diagram. Moody-diagram-related references are included in the bibliography. The velocity equation shows that the maximum flow will occur at r = 0, just like it did for laminar flow. At r = 0, the equation becomes: Vmax = Vav (1 + 1.43f) Figure 4 shows that the face velocity is more uniform and squared up. As the velocity of the fluid continues to increases, the face velocity will continue to straighten up until all particles are moving at the same velocity (except at the pipe walls, where the flow will remain at zero). This hypothetical situation, where the face velocity is completely flat, is known as infinite Reynolds number profile, or plug flow. Go to Top

Non-Newtonian Fluids
How does the velocity profile change when the ratio of shear stress to shear strain is no longer constant? Before attempting to answer this question, it is helpful to outline the different types of non-Newtonian fluids. Class I: time-independent non-Newtonian fluids. These fluids have a viscosity at a given shear stress that does not vary with time. Class 1 nonNewtonian fluids include pseudoplastic, dilatant and plastic fluids. Pseudoplastic fluids, also known as shear-thinning fluids, decrease in viscosity as the shear rate increases. Examples include paints, shampoos and water suspensions of clay.

Dilatant fluids, also known as shear-thickening fluids, increase in viscosity as the shear rate increases. Examples include corn starch in water, titanium dioxide, and wet sand. Plastic fluids, also called Bingham or plug-flow fluids, behave as a solid until a critical shear ratecalled the yield valueis reached. At the yield value, the fluid will start to flow. As the shear rate continues to increase, the fluid then might exhibit Newtonian, dilatent or pseudoplastic characteristics. Examples include tomato paste, toothpaste, hand cream, chocolate, mayonnaise, and grease. Class II: time-dependent non-Newtonian fluids. These fluids have a viscosity at a given shear stress that will vary with time. They include thixotropic and rheopectic fluids. Thixotropic fluids, also known as time-thinning fluids, experience a decrease in viscosity over time while the rate of shear is constant. Examples include yogurt and paint. Rheopectic fluids, also called time-thickening fluids, exhibit an increase in viscosity over time as the shear remains constant. Rheopectic fluids are pretty rare. Examples include gypsum paste and printers ink. What makes the flow of nonNewtonian fluids so interesting is the required boundary condition of zero flow at the pipe walls. This boundary condition imparts a varying shear rate into the fluid as the fluid velocity changes. And because a nonNewtonian fluid exhibits changing viscosity with changing shear rates, the fluid can react in a wide variety of ways. Like Newtonian fluids, non-Newtonian fluids have laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow patterns. For time-independent nonNewtonian fluids, the fluid viscosity does not change with time, assuming a nonchanging shear rate. As the fluid moves down the pipe, the velocity distribution between the fluid layers varies and changes with the varying shear that results from the zero velocity boundary condition at the walls of the pipe. Another important condition is the apparent viscosity of the liquid. Because the fluid viscosity changes with the shear rate, the apparent viscositythe viscosity at a particular rate of shearmust be used to calculate the flow profile instead of the dynamic or absolute viscosity discussed for Newtonian fluids. This makes the velocity profile impossible to predict completely and correctly.

However, the velocity profile still has some inherent symmetry. For the laminar flow region, the velocity profile is calculated as a deviation or departure from the laminar Newtonian profile. Figure 5 lays the typical velocity profiles of pseudoplastic, dilatant, and plastic liquids over the profile of a Newtonian liquid, revealing the distortions that can occur for time-independent nonNewtonian laminar flows.

Figure 5: Time-Independent NonNewtonian Laminar Flow Profiles Shown are profiles of pseudoplastic, dilatant and plastic liquids over the profile of a Newtonian liquid.

The face profile for a plastic fluid is very flat. The entire flat face is known as the plug diameter and can vary greatly, depending on the type of plastic fluid moving down the pipe, as well as on the upstream pressure. Remember, plastic fluids will behave as a solid until shear stress reaches the critical yield value. They then will start flowing. NonNewtonian fluids can be characterized by a Reynolds number whereby they will move from laminar to transitional to turbulent flows. This Reynolds number, however, is calculated differently for pseudoplastic, dilatant, and plastic fluids. For fully developed turbulent flow, flow profiles are similar enough to Newtonian fluids that the Newtonian Reynolds number equation can be used if apparent viscosity is substituted for dynamic viscosity. Thixotropic fluids can experience some interesting effects, depending on whether the shear increases, decreases, or stays constant. A thixotropic fluid that increases in shear rate up to a constant value, dwelling at that value for a time before dropping back down to zero shear, can experience a decrease in apparent viscosity during the dwell time. When the shear rate is brought back down to zero, a yield value can be reached that will mimic the effects of a plastic fluid. The flow profile will go from parabolic shaped to plug-flow shaped. Of course, this type of pipeline scenario is extremely rare. Because rheopectic fluids increase in apparent viscosity with time at constant shear, they are sometimes known as negative thixotropic fluids. Rheopectic fluids will exhibit the same type hysteresis curve as thixotropic fluids, but generally return to the same initial viscosity once the rate of shear drops to zero. Like thixotropic fluids, rheopectic fluids moving through a pipe are normally in the laminar regime and will typically exhibit the normal-to-slightly distorted parabolic curves already discussed, assuming that the flow has had enough time to fully develop through a straight section of pipe. An excellent and much deeper discussion of flow prfiles and how they develop in pipe flow can be found in the Flow Measurement and Engineering Handbook, written by Richard Miller (Cole-Parmer #00545-08). Go to Top

Flowmeter Performance and Flow Profile Distortions

In each case discussed previously, the flow is through a long, straight section of piping, and the velocity profile had time to develop and stabilize as it moved down the pipe. This stabilization and development of the velocity profile is known as fully developed flow. Although it is great for doing fluid dynamics calculations, in the real world, pipes undergo bends, turns, reductions, and enlargements as they twist their way through a typical plant. What happens to these velocity profiles under some of these conditions, and how do the velocity profiles affect flowmeter placement and flowmeter performance? In general, because the flow profile is smooth and flat over most of the pipe diameter, turbulent flow is preferred for a flowmeter over laminar and transitional flows. It's much easier to calibrate and check the repeatability of a flowmeter using a fully developed turbulent flow profile than it is using the parabolic flow profile of laminar flow or the unstable flow profile of transitional flow. This is not mean laminar flow is bad for flowmeters. In fact, stable laminar flow is fairly easy to measure accurately, providing the appropriate technology is used. The first step in choosing a particular flow technology is to find out its acceptable Reynolds number range and then to calculate the Reynolds extremes of the application. A minimum Reynolds number is calculated by using the minimum expected fluid flow and density and the maximum expected viscosity. A maximum Reynolds number is calculated using the maximum expected fluid flow and density and the minimum expected viscosity. Another way to assess the conditions of a flow application is through use of Doppler or transit-time flow technologies. Paddle-Wheel Flowmeters: These use a small rotor usually having four blades embedded with magnets. The paddle is inserted into the pipe at a fixed depth; the rate at which it turns is proportional to the flowrate. One of the advantages of the paddle-wheel meter is it will work with a large range of pipe sizes. Typically, the paddle-wheel sensor can be installed in plastic or metal pipes from 1/2 inch (in.) up to 36 in. or larger. The paddlewheel itself is only an inch or so in diameter, so if it is installed in a large pipe, it would have problems measuring laminar flow (see Figure 6).

Adjustable insertion depth sensors are available to allow exact positioning of the paddle-wheel within the pipe, but they have limited value with laminar flow and assume that the ratio between the measured velocity and the average fluid velocity is stable, which is not always the case. If an insertion sensor must be used in a laminar flow application, plant operators should try to find the point where the fluid velocity is related to the average velocity on a one-to-one basis. This point will be roughly one-eighth of the pipe diameter from the inside pipe wall, and should Reynolds number.

Figure 6: Paddle-Wheel Flowmeter Installation Example Although they can be used in stable laminar flow applications to read maximum or average flow, paddle-wheel flowmeters are more accurate when used with fully developed turbulent flow.

be fairly independent of the

For smaller pipe sizes of a few inches or so, this is a lesser problem, and center-line insertion might be the best option. For a 20-inch pipe however, the flow profile gradient can be too sharp to allow accurate or consistent measurement by correlating a specific velocity within the pipe to an average pipe velocity. Similarly, for transitional flow, because the flow profile is unstable, the paddle-wheel design does not offer accurate or repeatable results. Because turbulent flow profile is blunted, flat and stableassuming it has had time to fully stabilize while flowing down the pipeit is the best profile when using a paddle-wheel sensor. In fact, manufacturers will calibrate their paddle sensors to fully developed turbulent flow within their flow calibration loop; therefore, paddle-wheel manufacturers have very specific upstream and downstream straight piping requirements. Venturi-Cone Differential Pressure Flowmeters: These flowmeters offer quite a design contrast to paddle-wheel flowmeters. Developed in the early 1980's, the Venturi-cone, or V-cone for short, uses a cone positioned in the pipe's center. The cone geometry and placement force the fluid to move around the cone, generating a pressure drop across the length of the cone.

Figure 7: Venturi-Cone Flowmeter Installation Example In this installation, the suspended cone reshapes the approaching flow profile upstream.

See Figure 7. This pressure drop is proportional to the flow velocity within the pipe. The cone is always suspended at the pipe center, so for laminar flow, the maximum fluid flow is driven into the "point" of the cone. This effectively forces the high-velocity portion of the laminar flow stream to mix with the lower velocity layers, causing the upstream flow profile to mix and flatten into a more well-developed turbulent pattern.

The V-cone's ability to flatten irregular flow profiles is quite strong and even allows the V-cone meter to be installed fairly close to pipe elbows and bends, something usually avoided with other flow technologies. The meter acts as its own flow conditioner, shaping irregular or laminar flow profiles into more stable turbulent-like flow profiles. This allows the technology to be used over a wide range of Reynolds number. Turbine Flowmeters: These flowmeters use a rotating turbine placed directly in the fluid path. Although designs vary, a pulsing signal usually is generated as the turbine blades pass a magnetic pickup coil. The frequency of the pulses is proportional to the fluid velocity in the pipe. For laminar and transitional flow patterns (i.e., having low Reynolds numbers), the number of pulses per unit volume, the K-factor, can vary, causing a loss of accuracy and repeatability. For this reason, turbine meters are best used in turbulent flow conditions. Many turbine manufacturers that build flow straighteners directly into the body of the flowmeter to minimize any upstream swirls generated by pipe bends, which also can degrade accuracy and repeatability. Insertion turbine meters, like the paddle-wheel sensors, will measure the velocity at only a particular point within the pipe. Therefore, they are better suited to fully developed turbulent flow. Magnetic Flowmeters: These flowmeters measure the average flow over the pipe diameter and show very little performance change in going from laminar to transitional to fully turbulent flow. Insertion mag meters will measure the flow within a localized point around the sensor. In both designs, however, swirling eddies or vortices that occur in pipe bends and turns can pose problems. Also, because velocity profile distortions can occur in several fluid planes simultaneously, velocity averaging for full-bore magnetic flowmeters has its limitations. For this reason, manufacturers usually recommend five pipe diameters of straight run pipe upstream and two pipe diameters downstream to stabilize any variations in the flow profile. Gear Flowmeters: These flowmeters work by forcing specific volumes of fluid between two coupled gears. The fluid normally is trapped between the gear and the inner flowmeter housing. After the number of fluid pockets passing through in a particular time period is determined, the flow can be calculated. See Figure 8. This positive-displacement flowmeter has an accuracy that is independent of the Reynolds Figure 8: Gear Flowmeter number. It typically works best With each gear rotation, a pocket of when there is a little back-pressure precisely measured fluid is formed, held downstream. This can be achieved tightly against the chamber wall, then released. by the use of a control valve downstream, throttled just enough to allow a slight back-pressure. The back-pressure, in turn, helps ensure that the fluid pockets within the flow cavity are full throughout meter operation.

Because the flowmeter is grabbing specific volumes of fluid and moving them from the inlet to the outlet, the meter is not affected by the Reynolds number. The flow can be laminar, transitional, or turbulent and still work well with gear design. One caution, however: Because thin, water-like fluids have the ability to slip past the gears, accuracy will not be as high as it is when the fluid is thicker. A general rule of thumb is not to use gear meters for liquids under 5 centipoise. Go to Top

Assessing Pipe Flow Conditions

Elbows, reducers, chemical injection ports, filters, screens and valves also can cause radial, tangential and axial swirling effects within the pipe. In combination, these changes can rapidly distort the velocity profile, degrading the flowmeter's accuracy and repeatability. This is one reason why manufacturers give straight-length upstream and downstream piping requirements for installation. It is important to gain an understanding of the conditions of a pipe's flow to select a flowmeter that will be acceptable for worst-case conditions. If the fluid conditions within a pipe are unkown or the actual flow profile in certain piping sections needs to be studied, a special type of non-contact ultrasonic flowmeter can be of great benefit. Known as pulsed-Doppler flowmeters, the devices work by allowing true velocity measurements to be made at multiple points along the pipe diameter. This can help assess the flow profile in larger pipes, but because the pulses are typically a few centimeters long, they are of little help in smaller pipes. Also, the fluid within the pipe must contain either particulate matter or bubbles for the Doppler signal to reflect properly. An insertion meter also can be used to help determine the flow profile in a pipe. It measures the point velocity at several transverse locations within the pipe. Although the meter does a pretty good job in determining the velocity profile, any change in the flow conditions can alter the flow profile itself. Once some information on the flow profile has been gleaned, meter selection and installation will be improved. If profiling the flow within the pipe is not practical or not desired, the flow must be stable enough to get the maximum accuracy possible with the flow technology being used. This can be accomplished through strict adherence to the manufacturer's recommended upstream and downstream piping requirements. If these straight-length requirements are not practical in the plant, flow conditioners and straighteners could be used. Go to Top

Flow Conditioners

A stable flow profile can be compromised quickly if any pipe bends, reducers, valves, strainers, or a variety of other velocity-profile killers exist. See Figure 9.

Figure 9: Common FlowProfile Distortion Culprits Pipe elbows, reducers, and a variety of other velocityprofile killers quickly can compromise a stable flow profile.

In addition, it is not always possible to adhere strictly to the manufacturer's recommended straight-piping requirements because many plants have minimized production spaces to effect cost-efficiency. Normal upstream piping requirements after a 90 degree elbow can range from 15 to 25 pipe diameters. For two 90 degree elbows in different planes, the straight piping run before the flowmeter can rise to 50 or more pipe diameters. Through flow straightener use, these straight-piping runs can be it can be decreased by a factor of four or more. Downstream piping runs are normally far less than upstream requirements and are in the range of 5 to 10 pipe diameters. A properly installed flow conditioner will isolate the liquid flow disturbances from the flowmeter while minimizing the pressure drop across the conditioner. A good flow conditioner will remove swirls from the fluid stream and allow the profile velocity to come up to fully turbulent flowor at least a stable acceptable geometryquickly. The popular honeycomb/tube flow conditioners are great at eliminating swirl, but their small size makes them prone to becoming clogged. In general, as the efficiency of a flow conditioner correcting flow profile distortions goes up, so does the corresponding pressure drop. Remember, although flow conditioners can reduce the amount of straight piping required significantly, they should not be used to cut corners. The manufacturer's requirements for straight piping before and after the flow conditioner should be followed. Go to Top

Conclusion and Recommendations

In many cases, the fluid flow through a pipe will be fast enough to be in the turbulent regime. Allowing the required straight piping runs will eliminate swirls and vortices and will allow the velocity profile to be stable and well blunted. This is the perfect condition for flow measurement. But, as discussed previously, many factors can alter this ideal condition. Here are some items to keep in mind as you assess the conditions within your pipe: Pipe Assessment: How old is the pipe in which the meter will be installed? If the pipe is old, what is the inside surface condition? If the pipe has a rough interior or scale or coating buildup, the flow profile will be distorted and the accuracy of the meter could be degraded. If the velocity profile is in question, you can use a pulse-Doppler meter or an adjustable insertion meter to measure the velocity at different pipe depths. This will allow you to see if there is a stable correlation between the measured point velocity and the average velocity flowing through the pipe. The expected minimum and maximum Reynolds numbers should be calculated. The manufacturer should provide the recommended Reynolds number range for its flowmeter design. A minimum Reynolds number is calculated by using the minimum expected fluid flow and density while using the maximum expected viscosity. A maximum Reynolds number is calculated using the maximum expected fluid flow and density while using the minimum expected viscosity Accuracy and Repeatability: What accuracy and repeatability are needed? Is repeatability more important? If so, the plant will have more leeway in selecting a less-expensive flow technology such as an insertion meter. In general, a full bore in-line meter is more accurate than an insertion meter, especially in situations in which velocity profile distortions are present. However, for larger pipes, an insertion meter is less expensive, and the lower accuracy may still be sufficient for the application at hand. Remember, in some applications, it is repeatability that is the critical factor, not necessarily accuracy. Both insertion meters and full-bore meters can provide excellent repeatability. If necessary, in-line flow conditioners should be used for liquid swirling and/or flow profile instability that occurs after pipe bends; otherwise, the manufacturers recommended upstream and downstream piping requirements should be followed strictly. If it is possible, plants should pick a point in the piping system that ensures major disturbances are at least five pipe diameters downstream instead of upstream. For example, a valve should be placed downstream of the flowmeter instead of upstream whenever possible. The same is true for pipe bends, expanders or reducers. Positioning Within the Pipe: For insertion meters, it is important for plants to find out whether the manufacturer recommends center-line positioning or an off-center installation where the velocity point corresponds

to the average velocity. Positioning for best accuracy will change, based on the Reynolds number. In some cases, more than one insertion sensor can be used at different depths to provide a more complete picture. Sensor arrays that stretch across a large pipe are available for just this purpose. Remember, even if the flow profile isn't completely stable, it is possible with a little work and patienceto use an insertion meter in a large pipe and attain very stable repeatability and an indication of the average pipe flow. Go to Top

References
1. Cole-Parmer Instrument Company, 2001-2002 catalog, Vernon Hills, Il, 2000 2. Patrick, D., and Fardo, S., "Industrial Process Control Systems," Delmar Publishers, N.Y., 1997 3. Parr, E. A., "Industrial Control Handbook," 2nd ed., ButterworthHeinemann, England, 1995 4. Miller, R.W., "Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook", 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1996 5. Moft, R., "Applied Fluid Mechanics", 5th ed., Prentice Hall, N.J., 2000 6. Benard, I., "Handbook of Fluid Flowmetering", 1st ed., The Trade & Technical Press Limited, England, 1988. 7. Reif, D., "Matching the flowmeter to the job," Flow Control, Vol. III, No. 5, 1997, Witter Publishing Corp., N.J. 8. Swearingen, C., "Choosing the Best flowmeter," Chemical Engineering, July 1999, Chemical Week Publishing, N.Y. 9. Swearingen, C., "Choosing the Right Flowmeter," Chemical Engineering, January 2001, Chemical Week Publishing, N.Y. 10. Hammond, M., Is a turbine flowmeter right for your application?, Flow Control, Vol. IV, No. 4, 1998, Witter Publishing Corp., N.J. 11. Espina, P., "Ultrasonic clamp-on flowmeters: Have they finally arrived?," Flow Control, January 1997, Witter Publishing Corp., N.J. 12. Edelhauser, M., "A comparison of continuous wave Doppler vs. pulsed Doppler profiling Technology," Flow Control, February, 1999, Witter Publishing Corp., N.J. 13. Johnson, D., "Fitting the instrument into the process," Flow Control, April, 1999, Witter Publishing Corp., N.J. 14. Silverberg, P., "Honey, I shrunk the Flowmeter!," Chemical Engineering, January 1997, Chemical Week Publishing, N.Y. 15. Ginesi, D. and Grege, G., "Flowmeters: A performance review," Chemical Engineering, June 1987, Chemical Week Publishing, N.Y. 16. Feener, D., "Applying Flow Conditioning," Control Engineering, February, 1999, Cahners, MA 17. Kosla, L., and Mutsakis, M., "New in-pipe flow conditioner cuts fluid problems," Chemical Engineering, September, 1992, Chemical Week Publishing, N.Y. 18. Boyes, W., "How to choose an insertion flowmeter," Flow Control, February 2000, Witter Publishing Corp., N.J.

Installing Your Paddle-Wheel Flow Sensor

For best results, allow a straight run of pipe before and after the sensor after any bends, valves, or flow restrictions. Stated accuracy is not guaranteed unless the Signet installation fittings are used. The installation fitting ensures proper paddle depth and orientation.

In horizontal pipe runs with no air pockets or sediments present, mount the sensor/fitting in the 12 o'clock or 6 o'clock position. If sediment or air pockets are present, tilt the sensor/fitting at a maximum angle of 45 to avoid these obstacles. Vertical runs require upward flow. Pipes must be full.

Flowmeter Applications
Example of a chemical proportioning system using +GF+ Signet Flow Systems

Chemical proportioning system allows for an accurate volumetric ratio to be maintained between the process liquid volume and the chemical injection volume. Real applications include injection or introduction of: vitamins into farm animal drinking water sodium hypochlorite disinfectant into water fertilizer into irrigation water

bio-engineered organisms into liquids for manufacturing products such as man-made snow, soaps for large laundries, defoaming chemicals, and insecticides.

High Viscosity Flowmeters: Solution to a Sticky Problem

by Corte Swearingen Reprinted from the May 1998 edition of FlowControl Magazine Definition of Viscosity Kinematic vs Dynamic Viscosity Newtonian vs Non-Newtonian Fluids Temperature Effects What's the Problem with Viscosity? The Oval Gear Flowmeter Summary Appendix A: Fluid Examples Suitable for Oval Gear Flowmeters Appendix B: Oval Gear Flowmeter Application Examples by Industry When a flowmeter application involves the use of high viscosity liquid, the end-user must be very careful in choosing an appropriate meter. Using a flowmeter calibrated for water can cause very large errors when that same flowmeter is used for higher viscosity liquids. The first half of this article will define some of the basic terms relating to viscosity, viscous fluids and the reason why viscous liquids can cause large errors in flow measurement. The second half will discuss the oval gear technology as applied to viscous fluids and provide successful application examples and some common fluids that have been used with the oval gear design. For purposes of this article, the terms "liquid" and "fluid" will be used interchangeably. Go to Top

Definition of Viscosity

Because of space considerations, we will limit our discussion to the very basics. First, lets define viscosity (more correctly, absolute or dynamic viscosity) first in a rigorous manner and then in a more intuitive style. Viscosity (n) is defined as the ratio of shear stress (t) to shear rate (y) (Figure 1). If we were able to isolate a cubic volume of fluid (right), we could visually see the shear stress as the relative force (F) between the upper and lower faces of the cube per unit area (A). The rate of shear is Figure 1 then defined as the relative velocity (V) between the upper and lower faces divided by the length between them (L). The units of shear stress is given as dynes per square centimeter. For shear rate, the units are s-1. This gives the viscosity in (dyne sec)/cm 2 or centipoise. An over-simplified but more intuitive grasp of viscosity can simply be stated as the measure of internal friction that arises whenever a liquid flows. Essentially, the tickier the liquid and the more it resists the tendency to flow, the higher its viscosity. Go to Top

Kinematic vs Dynamic Viscosity

Another concept to understand is the relationship between dynamic viscosity (as given in the above definition) and kinematic viscosity. Kinematic viscosity is defined as the dynamic viscosity divided by the density of the fluid. Because density is an intrinsic property in itself, it can be argued that kinematic viscosity is not a precise measure of internal fluid friction. However, kinematic viscosity is the preferred unit when the shear stress and shear rate of the fluid is influenced by the density. An example of this is the measurement of viscosity using gravity techniques such as a cup with a small orifice in the bottom. With this type of measurement device, a specific volume of fluid passes through the orifice and the time it takes for the volume of fluid to pass through the orifice is proportional to the fluid viscosity. However, it also depends on the density of the fluid since the more dense the fluid, the faster it will flow through the orifice. The property being measured in this example is then the kinematic viscosity and not the dynamic viscosity. Kinematic viscosity is given in units of centistokes while the dynamic viscosity is given in centipoise and the conversion from dynamic to kinematic is given by dividing the dynamic viscosity by the fluid density in g/cm3. Since some manufacturers spec out viscosity in centipoise and others in centistokes, it is somewhat important to know the difference between the two and to be able to convert from one to the other. Go to Top

Figure 2

Newtonian vs Non-Newtonian Fluids

Let's now briefly cover a few more concepts regarding Newtonian and nonNewtonian fluids. A Newtonian fluid is one in which the viscosity does not depend on the shear rateno matter what shear is applied, the viscosity stays the same. In many applications, however, this is not the case and, as the fluid is sheared at greater rates, the viscosity will change. These types of liquids are known as non-Newtonian and there are many classifications (Figure 2). A dilatent fluid will increase its viscosity with increasing shear rate (such as a cornstarch/water mixture) while a pseudoplastic fluid will decrease its viscosity with increasing shear rate (such as most paints). Another classification of non-Newtonian liquids is what is called a plastic fluid. A plastic fluid will behave as a solid until a critical shear rate is reached (called the yield value). At the yield value, the fluid will start to flow and as the shear rate continues to increase, the fluid may then exhibit Newtonian, dilatent or pseudoplastic characteristics. As everyone will attest, ketchup is a good example of a plastic fluid as it is difficult to pour unless the appropriate rate of shear is appliedin this case, a simple shaking of

Figure 3

the bottle. To be complete,there are two additional classes of non-Newtonian fluids which deserve mention (Figure 3). The first category is called thixotropic and occurs when a fluid experiences a decrease in viscosity over time while the rate of shear is constant. The other type of fluid, known as rheopectic is just the opposite. It exhibits an increase of viscosity over time as the shear remains constant. Obviously, it is very important to fully identify the

characteristics of the fluid. Trying to pump a dilatent fluid could have disastrous consequences to the application. Go to Top

Temperature Effects
Typically, viscosity is inversely related to temperature with some fluids showing as much as a 10- to 12-percent change in viscosity per degree Celsius. If the fluid temperature is expected to change, it should be understood what effect this will have on the fluid viscosity and the application. Viscosity-compensated flowmeters are insensitive to a wide variety of viscosities (and densities) but they do have limits. Make sure to plan for worst case conditions and follow the manufacturer's guidelines and specifications when selecting a flowmeter technology. Go to Top

Figure 4

What's the Problem with Viscosity?

Why does viscosity pose a problem in flowmeter applications? To answer this, let's consider a direct-reading variable area flowmeter that is calibrated for water. With the variable area design, the float moves up a vertical tube as the flow rate increases. At constant flow, the float is in equilibrium between the upward force of the fluid and the downward force of gravity. Imagine the water rushing past the float (Figure 4). The water easily moves around the cross-sectional perimeter of the float with virtually no fluid sticking to the float. As the fluid viscosity increases however, fluid starts sticking to the float, building layer upon layer of fluid drag zones, each with a different relative velocity (Figure 5). This effect will cause a slow moving viscous liquid to yield the same buoyant force as a fast moving low viscosity liquid. This effect can be quite large, as one U.S. food processor found out. This particular company wanted to measure the flow of canned milk in their lines. Even though the viscosity was only 15 centipoise, the variable area flowmeter, which was calibrated for water, read two times too high. At higher viscosities, this effect is even more pronounced. Another manufacturer of metal stamping equipment was using a variable area meter to read a water soluble oil/water mixture at 60 centipoise. In this example, the customer's meter read six times too high.

In order to make a flowmeter insensitive to viscosity, the key is to use a flow technology that relies on some static property of the fluid, like conductivity, incompressibility or heat capacity. One technology, the oval gear flowmeter, uses the property of incompressibility. While all fluids can be compressed to some extent, Figure 5 the effects are so negligible as to not affect the intrinsic accuracy of the oval gear flowmeter. Go to Top

The Oval Gear Flowmeter

The design of the oval gear flowmeter is relatively simple; oval shaped gear-toothed rotors rotate within a chamber of specified geometry. As these rotors turn, they sweep out and trap a very precise volume of fluid between the outer oval shape of the gears and the inner chamber walls with none of the fluid actually passing through the gear teeth (Figure 6). Normally, magnets are embedded in the rotors which then can actuate a reed switch or provide a pulse output via a Hall Effect sensor. Each pulse or switch closure then represents a precise increment of liquid volume that passes through the meter. The result is a high degree of accuracy (.5 percent of reading) and resolution and almost negligible effects for varying fluid viscosity, density and temperature. The accuracy of the oval gear flowmeter depends on the viscosityand the higher the viscosity, the better the accuracy. The reason for this has to do with fluid slippage between the gears and chamber walls. Fluid slippage will cause a slight degradation Figure 6 in accuracy with low viscosity fluids being more prone. As the viscosity increases, the wall slippage quickly becomes minimal and the best accuracy is realized. Even with water-like fluids, the accuracy is generally very good, but check with the manufacture if there is a concern. Most manufacturers should be able to give you accuracy ratings for both water-like liquids and higher viscosity fluids (usually above 5 or 10 cp).

Installation of oval gear meters is simple since most designs allow for either horizontal or vertical mounting. Because no straight pipe runs or flow condition is required, the meters can be installed in tight areas, allowing for more flexibility in application design. The oval gear design works best when there is a little back pressure in the line, a throttling valve on the meter outlet usually works just fine. Regarding process connections, NPT threads are popular but many manufacturers offer ANSI flange connections for larger pipe sizes and specialized connections such as 3A Tri-Clover fittings for sanitary applications. If your fluid is dilatent, plastic or rheopectic and you want to use an oval gear flowmeter, please check with the manufacturer first. You may need to send them a sample for testing before the appropriate flowmeter can be matched to the application. Newtonian, pseudoplastic and thixotropic fluids pose no problem with an oval gear design as long as maximum viscosity limits are acknowledged. The fluids used in oval gear flowmeters should be liquids only. The oval gear meter is not suitable for gases, steam or multiphase fluids. When sizing an oval gear flowmeter to your application, keep in mind that the higher the viscosity of your fluid, the more pressure will be required in order to "push" the fluid into the flowmeter and around the gears. Essentially, the pressure drop is the only limiting factor when the application requires the metering of extremely high viscosity liquids. For example, it will require much more pressure to push through molasses than glycerine. The general rule is as long as the fluid will flow and as long as there is enough pressure, the oval gear meter will be able to measure the flow. In applications where the lowest possible pressure drop is required, some manufacturers can substitute specially cut high viscosity rotors for the standard rotors. The manufacturer will be able to provide you with a graph of flow rate versus pressure drop for various viscosities. Go to Top

Summary
Although this article has focused on viscosity, it is important to note that other parameters will affect the choice of flowmeter in an application. Viscosity, density, pressure and fluid purity must also be considered, as must other factors such as vibration, rangeability and required response time. The oval gear flowmeter, although representing a popular choice, is just one design out of many positive displacement technologies that can handle high viscosity flows. Because of its relatively low cost, forgiveness of fluid density and viscosity, and ease of installation, the oval gear flowmeter is appropriate for consideration when reviewing your application needs. Go to Top

Appendix A

Fluid Examples Suitable for Oval Gear Flowmeters Although not exhaustive, the following list represents the range of fluids that can be used with the oval gear flowmeter. 1. Measurements of sugar solutions, syrups, oils, sauces, beverages, honey, molasses, milk products, juices, chocolate and coatings in the food industry. 2. Alcohols, syrups, glycerines and coatings in the pharmaceutical industry 3. Shampoos, gels, perfumes and creams in the cosmetics industry 4. Fuels, lubricants and petro derivatives in the oil and gas industries 5. Chemicals, fluoride and acids in the water and wastewater industry. 6. Wax finishes, perfumes, dyes and acids in the pulp and paper industries 7. Solvents and inks in the printing industry 8. Transmission fluid and hydraulic oil in the automotive industry 9. Dyes, bleach and chemicals in the textile industry 10. Oils, gasoline and kerosene in the petroleum industry 11. Solvent and latex based paints Go to Top

Appendix B
Oval Gear Flowmeter Application Examples by Industry

Chemical Oval gear meters have been successfully used for measuring flow rate and flow total (volume) of chemicals in batching applications. Using a batch controller along with an oval gear flowmeter, preset volumes of chemicals can be automatically dispensed. Measurement information can be sent to a computer or PLC for datalogging.

Energy Another application of the oval gear flowmeter is the measurement of net fuel usage in boilers and engines. By placing one oval gear meter in the supply line and one on the return line, the total net fuel usage is determined.

Hydraulic In bearing lubrication, the oval gear flowmeter can be used to insure sufficient delivery of lubricant and, through the use of a controller, provide a means of automatically shutting down the machinery in case of low flow or no flow conditions.

Pulp and Paper

Oval gear meters can be used with paper finishing chemicals to insure proper rate of delivery and to keep track of the volumes dispensed. The monitoring of wax finishes, perfumes and sizing chemicals that are sprayed onto the paper are all viable applications.

Food and Beverage Oval gear meters have advantages in the food and beverage industry. They are used to monitor syrup injections in main beverage lines, monitor and batch volumes of candy coatings, and the accurate and automated dispensing of cooking oils. For food and beverage applications, 3A sanitary fittings are offered by some manufacturers.