DIGESTIVE SYSTEM INTRODUCTION 1.

Digestion is the process by which food is broken down mechanically and chemically into simpler substances that can be used by the body's cells and converted into high-energy ATP' molecules. 2. The five basic activities of the digestive system are ingestion, peristalsis, digestion, absorption. and defecation. GENERAL ORGANIZATION 1. The digestive tract includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine. large intestine, and anus. 2. The accessory organs of the tract include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. 3. The four coats or tunics of the tract, from the inside out, are the mucosa. submucosa. muscularis, and adventitia or serosa. THE ORAL CAVITY 1. The functions of the oral cavity are taste, mechanical breakdown of food using the teeth. and chemical digestion of carbohydrates using the salivary enzyme amylase. 2. The oral cavity is lined with mucous membrane. The floor of the cavity is formed by the tongue, the roof by the hard and soft palate, and the sides by the cheek. The opening is guarded by the lips. 3. The functions of the tongue are manipulation of the food. taste through some of its papillae and assistance in speech. 4. The three pairs of salivary glands are the parotid (below ears), the submandibular (lower jaw) or the submaxillary, and the sublingual (under the sides of tongue). Saliva lubricates the food, begins the digestion of complex carbohydrates, and controls certain bacteria. 5. A tooth is composed of the crown, the neck or cervix, and the root. The crown of the tooth is the visible part covered with enamel. Neck is where the tooth enters the gumline; Root is embedded in the jaw. Pulp cavity contains nerve & blood supply. Dentin is calcified tissue that surround the pulp cavity Periodontal ligament anchors the tooth into the alveolar socket. THE PHARYNX1. The pharnnx is a common passageway for food and air. It is divided into the nasopharyrix, the oropharyrir, and the laryngopharyrix. 2. Its function is to begin the process of swallowing or deglutition. ThE ESOPHAGUS 1. The function of the esophagus is to secrete mucus and transport food to the stomach through an opening in the diaphragm called the esophageal hiatus. 2. Peristalsis, caused by smooth muscle contractions, pushes the food bolus into the stomach through the lower esophageal sphincter ThE STOMACH 1. The main function of the stomach is to begin the chemical breakdown of proteins through the enzyme pepsin. It also breaks up food mechanically by churning its contents. It absorbs some water, salts, alcohol, and certain drugs like aspirin. 2. The four parts of the stomach are the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus. The pyloric sphincter guards the connection into the small intestine. The empty stomach lining has many folds or rugae that allow the stomach to expand and hold large amounts of food. 3. The gastric glands of the stomach mucosa contain three kinds of secretory cells: (1) the zymogenic or chief cells that secrete pepsinogen; (2) the parietal cells that secrete hydrochloric acid; and (3) the mucous cells that secrete mucus. ThE PANCREAS 1. The pancreas has a dual function. Its acini produce digestive enzymes that get carried by the pancreatic duct to the duodenum of the small intestine. Its pancreatic islets secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon into the blood to control blood sugar levels. 2. The pancreas is divided into the head, body and tail. ThE LIVER 1. The liver is the largest organ of the body. It is divided into a right and a left lobe. The functional units of the liver are called lobules. 2. The functions of the liver are so numerous and important that we cannot live without it. It produces heparin, prothrombin, and thrombin. Its Kupffer's cells phagocytose bacteria and worn-out blood cells. It stores excess carbohydrates as glycogen. It stores copper. iron. and vitamins A, D, E, and K. It stores or transforms poisons into less harmful substances. It produces bile salts that ernulsify or break down fats. 3. The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver lobules. The bile enters the duodenum of the small intestine through the common bile duct.

ThE SMALL INTESTlNE 1. The main function of the small intestine is the completion of absorption of the digested food.

It is divided into three portions: the duodenum (10 inches), the jejunum (8 feet), and the ileum (12 feet). The ileocecal valve connects the small intestine with the large intestine. 2. In addition to its length, the walls of the small intestine are thrown into folds called plicae that are covered with millions of villi. Nutrients are absorbed through the villi. Each villus has an epithelial cell covering whose free edge is covered with microscopic folds called microvilli to further increase the absorptive capabilities of the villus. Each villus contains an arteriole, venule, capillary network, and a lacteal that picks up fats. 3. The intestinal glands or crypts of lieberkuhn secrete the intestinal digestive enzymes. Brunner's glands secrete an alkaline mucus. 4. Chyme is the name of the digested contents of the small intestine. THE LARGE INTESTINE 1. The functions of the large intestine are the reabsorption of water; the manufacture and absorption of certain vitamins. and the formation and expulsion of the feces. 2. The four regions of the large intestine are the cecum, colon, rectum, and anus. 3. The colon is divided into the ascending colon, transverse colon, and descending colon. It has pouches or haustrae 4. The rectum terminates at the anus. The anus is controlled by an internal sphincter of smooth muscle and an external sphincter of skeletal 5. The three mechanical movements that occur in the large intestine are haustral churning (haustra fill & contract moving contents from haustra to haustra), peristalsis (contractions moving contents along colon) at the rate of 3 to 12 contractions per minute, and mass peristalsis (strong peristaltic waves forces contents into sigmoid colon & rectum) triggered by distention of the stomach. 6. Distention of the rectal walls initiates the defecation reflex.